Racial Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms Among African-American Men: The Mediating and Moderating Roles of Masculine Self-Reliance and John Henryism

Mental Health and Black Male Graduate Students

The purpose of this study was to understand how masculinity and race impact mental health among Black male graduate students. A qualitative study using in-depth interviews recruited Black male graduate students enrolled at a private university in the southern United States. Data were collected over zoom and recorded. Interviews were transcribed and the data were analyzed for similar themes. Twenty-nine Black male graduate students 23 to 51 were recruited. Participants reported the three main elements that impacted their mental health were (1) expectations, (2) pressure, and (3) being strong. These findings suggest that colleges need to develop programming to help Black men learn how to handle racial discrimination in positive ways. Additionally, findings also highlight the need for culturally relevant mental health services that let Black men know seeking help is ok and is what men do.

Racial and gender differences in discrimination and psychological distress among young adults

Racial and gender differences in the effects of discrimination on health are well-established. The evidence has derived largely from studies of older adults, with less attention paid to younger adults. The current study takes an intersectional approach to address this gap. Using nationally representative, longitudinal data from the 2017 and 2019 Panel Study of Income Dynamics Transitioning to Adulthood Supplement (PSID-TAS), we assess the effects of everyday discrimination on psychological distress among Black and White young adults aged 18-28 (n = 3894). We examine cumulative discrimination and individual items of the cumulative measure based on the Everyday Discrimination Scale. The analysis reveals that perceived discrimination is positively associated with psychological distress for each race-gender group. However, the magnitude of the association varied by group and dimension of discrimination. Black men and women reported more frequent experiences of each type of discrimination than their White counterparts. The positive association between discrimination and distress, however, was lower for Black men and women relative to White men- suggesting that White men may be more sensitive to and/or less resilient against the effects of perceived discrimination. In contrast, associations for White women did not differ significantly from those of White men. Our findings demonstrate that the health-harming effects of discrimination on psychological distress begin early in the life course and suggest that resilience-based coping mechanisms found in older samples of Black adults may also exist for younger adults.

Experiencing Burnout: John Henryism, Gender Role Conflict, and Anxiety Among Incarcerated Black Men

At the intersection of race and gender, Black men encounter conflicting and often stress-inducing gender norms. Research suggests Black men may utilize John Henryism Active Coping (JHAC), a culturally-relevant strategy to manage stress. However, little is known about how incarcerated Black men cope with gender role conflict (GRC) and resulting psychological distress. To better understand stressors and coping strategies among Black male prisoners, the current study examined the relationships between GRC, anxiety, and JHAC among N = 193 incarcerated Black men nearing community reentry. Hierarchical linear regression results showed length of incarceration, GRC, and anxiety were all negatively associated with JHAC. Full-time employment prior to incarceration was positively associated with JHAC. Moderation analyses indicated anxiety increased the strength of the negative association between GRC and JHAC. Implications highlight incarcerated Black men may benefit from interventions that encourage active coping strategies to manage gender-related stress and anxiety.

PTSD diagnosis and nonmedical use of benzodiazepines among African American incarcerated men: the mitigating effect of John Henry active coping

The current study examined the relationship between PTSD and nonmedical use of benzodiazepines (BZDs) based on level of John Henry Active Coping (JHAC) among African American incarcerated men. Data were derived from the Helping Incarcerated Men (HIM) Study (n = 208). Nonmedical use of BZDs was measured for the 30 days before incarceration. Current PTSD diagnosis and JHAC were determined using DSM-5 criteria and the JHAC Scale. Adjusted logistic regression analyses showed PTSD diagnosis was significantly associated with nonmedical BZD use (p = .011), but that JHAC did not significantly mitigate this relationship. African American incarcerated men may experience an unmet need with regards to mental health treatment.

Combating Chronic Disease with Barbershop Health Interventions: A Review of Current Knowledge and Potential for Big Data

Community-based participatory research (CBPR) using barbershop interventions is an emerging approach to address health disparities and promote health equity. Barbershops serve as trusted community settings for health education, screening services, and referrals. This narrative mini-review provides an overview of the current state of knowledge regarding CBPR employing barbershop interventions and explores the potential for big data involvement to enhance the impact and reach of this approach in combating chronic disease. CBPR using barbershop interventions has shown promising results in reducing blood pressure among Black men and improving diabetes awareness and self-management. By increasing testing rates and promoting preventive behaviors, barbershop interventions have been successful in addressing infectious diseases, including HIV and COVID-19. Barbershops have also played roles in promoting cancer screening and increasing awareness of cancer risks, namely prostate cancer and colorectal cancer. Further, leveraging the trusted relationships between barbers and their clients, mental health promotion and prevention efforts have been successful in barbershops. The potential for big data involvement in barbershop interventions for chronic disease management offers new opportunities for targeted programs, real-time monitoring, and personalized approaches. However, ethical considerations regarding privacy, confidentiality, and data ownership need to be carefully addressed. To maximize the impact of barbershop interventions, challenges such as training and resource provision for barbers, cultural appropriateness of interventions, sustainability, and scalability must be addressed. Further research is needed to evaluate long-term impact, cost-effectiveness, and best practices for implementation. Overall, barbershops have the potential to serve as key partners in addressing chronic health disparities and promoting health equity.

Racial Differences in Feelings of Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic and John Henryism Active Coping in the United States: Results from a National Survey

Objective

To examine whether John Henryism Active Coping (JHAC) is a protective risk factor for distress during the COVID-19 pandemic and whether this association differs by race/ethnicity.

Methods

Data were collected as part of the 2020 National Blair Center Poll. Higher scores on JHAC measured a greater behavioral predisposition to cope actively and persistently with difficult psychosocial stressors and barriers of everyday life.

Results

High JHAC was associated with lower odds for feeling worried and for feeling afraid when thinking about COVID-19. These associations differed across race/ethnicity such that having a greater JHAC behavioral predisposition to coping was inversely associated with feelings of distress when thinking about the COVID-19 pandemic only among Whites and Hispanics, but not among African Americans.

Conclusion

Our findings have important implications as the COVID-19 pandemic continues into 2022 and psychological distress may linger and increase due to unprecedented economic and social impacts.

Racial discrimination in healthcare settings and mental health among a population-based sample of racial and ethnic minoritized adults with COVID-19 in Michigan

The COVID-19 pandemic has worsened existing racial health disparities and racial discrimination in healthcare; however, little is known about how racial discrimination in healthcare settings is related to mental health during the pandemic. Using a population-based probability sample of racial and ethnic minoritized adults with a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in Michigan, we examined how measures of perceived racial discrimination in (1) seeking healthcare for COVID-19 (n = 1,210) and (2) receiving testing/treatment for COVID-19 (n = 1,364) were associated with binary variables of depressive and anxiety symptoms. We conducted a modified Poisson regression analysis with robust standard errors to estimate associations between each measure of racial discrimination and each mental health outcome separately, adjusting for demographic and socio-economic variables, health insurance, and pre-existing physical and psychiatric conditions. 7.3 % and 8.7 % of adults reported racial discrimination in seeking healthcare for COVID-19 and in getting testing/treatment for COVID-19, respectively. Although the overall prevalence of racial discrimination in healthcare settings was low, experiences of racial discrimination were associated with depressive symptoms. Adults who experienced racial discrimination in seeking healthcare had 1.74 times higher prevalence of reporting depressive symptoms (95 % CI:1.21-2.52) than those who did not. Moreover, adults who experienced racial discrimination in getting testing/treatment had 1.86 times higher prevalence of reporting depressive symptoms (95 % CI:1.36-2.53) than those who did not. Neither measure of racial discrimination was associated with anxiety symptoms in the adjusted models. There is a need for promoting anti-racial discrimination policies, educational programs, and awareness efforts in healthcare settings.

Barriers to School-Based Mental Health Resource Utilization Among Black Adolescent Males

Black adolescent males use available mental health services at a disproportionately lower rate compared to males of other racial groups. This study examines barriers to school-based mental health resource (SBMHR) use among Black adolescent males, as a means of addressing reduced usage of available mental health resources and to improve these resources to better support their mental health needs. Secondary data for 165 Black adolescent males were used from a mental health needs assessment of two high schools in southeast Michigan. Logistic regression was employed to examine the predictive power of psychosocial (self-reliance, stigma, trust, and negative previous experience) and access barriers (no transportation, lack of time, lack of insurance, and parental restrictions) on SBMHR use, as well as the relationship between depression and SBMHR use. No access barriers were found to be significantly associated with SBMHR use. However, self-reliance and stigma were statistically significant predictors of SBMHR use. Participants who identified self-reliance in addressing their mental health symptoms were 77% less likely to use available mental health resources in their school. However, participants who reported stigma as a barrier to using SBMHR were nearly four times more likely to use available mental health resources; this suggests potential protective factors in schools that can be built into mental health resources to support Black adolescent males' use of SBMHRs. This study serves as an early step in exploring how SBMHRs can better serve the needs of Black adolescent males. It also speaks to potential protective factors that schools provide for Black adolescent males who have stigmatized views of mental health and mental health services. Future studies would benefit from a nationally representative sample allowing for more generalizable results regarding barriers and facilitators to Black adolescent males' use of school-based mental health resources.

Comparative effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention (M-Body) on depressive symptoms: study protocol of a randomized controlled trial in a Federally Qualified Health Center (FQHC)

BACKGROUND

Mindfulness-based interventions have been shown to improve psychological outcomes including stress, anxiety, and depression in general population studies. However, effectiveness has not been sufficiently examined in racially and ethnically diverse community-based settings. We will evaluate the effectiveness and implementation of a mindfulness-based intervention on depressive symptoms among predominantly Black women at a Federally Qualified Health Center in a metropolitan city.

METHODS

In this 2-armed, stratified, individually randomized group-treated controlled trial, 274 English-speaking participants with depressive symptoms ages 18-65 years old will be randomly assigned to (1) eight weekly, 90-min group sessions of a mindfulness-based intervention (M-Body), or (2) enhanced usual care. Exclusion criteria include suicidal ideation in 30 days prior to enrollment and regular (>4x/week) meditation practice. Study metrics will be assessed at baseline and 2, 4, and 6 months after baseline, through clinical interviews, self-report surveys, and stress biomarker data including blood pressure, heart rate, and stress related biomarkers. The primary study outcome is depressive symptom score after 6 months.

DISCUSSION

If M-Body is found to be an effective intervention for adults with depressive symptoms, this accessible, scalable treatment will widely increase access to mental health treatment in underserved, racial/ethnic minority communities.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03620721. Registered on 8 August 2018.

Vicarious experiences of major discrimination, anxiety symptoms, and mental health care utilization among Black Adults

BACKGROUND

The adverse mental health consequences of discrimination among Black adults, such as anxiety symptoms, are well documented. Prior research establishes anxiety as a risk factor for suboptimal health outcomes among Black adults. Most discrimination and mental health studies, however, have focused on the effects of personal experiences of discrimination. Moreover, of the studies that examine the mental health effects of vicarious exposure to discrimination, few investigate this relationship from a stress and coping perspective beyond the life stages of childhood and adolescence. Thus, the purpose of this study was to assess the effects of vicarious and personal experiences of discrimination on the subjective well-being of Black adults, while observing the potentially moderating effects of utilizing mental health care.

METHODS

A subsample of Black adults (N = 627) between the ages of 22-69 years old were drawn from the Nashville Stress and Health Study and analyzed to assess within-group variation. Multivariate linear regression was employed to examine the association between vicarious experiences of major discrimination and self-reported anxiety symptoms. Additionally, we evaluated the moderating effects of lifetime utilization of mental health services on the relationship between discrimination and symptoms of anxiety.

RESULTS

Findings revealed that vicarious experiences of major discrimination and personal experiences of everyday discrimination were both associated with higher levels of anxiety symptoms among the participants. Additionally, lifetime utilization of mental health care moderated the effects of vicarious and personal experiences of discrimination.

CONCLUSIONS

The secondhand consequences of discrimination must be considered while assessing the racism-related stress experience. Results from this investigation suggest that mental health treatment should be included in programs targeted to reduce the negative effects of discrimination among Black adults. Additionally, culturally-specific strategies should be considered for addressing racism-related adversity.

Coping with online racism: Patterns of online social support seeking and anti-racism advocacy associated with online racism, and correlates of ethnic-racial socialization, perceived health, and alcohol use severity

Given the emerging public health concerns of online racism, we examined potential coping approaches for racial/ethnic minority adults. Using a latent class regression model (N = 407), we examined patterns of online social support seeking and anti-racism advocacy engagements that were associated with online racism among racial/ethnic minority adults. We also examined whether these patterns were associated with ethnic-racial socialization messages (cultural socialization, promotion of mistrust, preparation for racial bias), perceived health, and alcohol use severity. Three distinct latent groups were identified with meaningful group differences: triggered/reactive (alcohol use risk, higher promotion of mistrust), moderate engagement (no risk), disengaged/non-reactive (higher promotion of mistrust, higher cultural socialization, alcohol use risk) groups. Online social support seeking and advocacy engagement may have both benefits and costs in coping with online racism. Those who engage at optimal/balanced levels appear to report better well-being. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Navigating Black Aging: The Biological Consequences of Stress and Depression

OBJECTIVES

Black persons in the United States are more likely to suffer from social inequality. Chronic stress caused by social inequality and racial discrimination results in weathering of the body that causes physiological dysregulation and biological age being higher than chronological age (accelerated aging). Depression has been linked to both racial discrimination and accelerated aging and accelerated aging has been demonstrated to be higher in Black than White persons, on average. However, we know little about accelerated aging across the life course in Black Americans.

METHODS

We used mixed-effects growth models to measure biological age acceleration, measured with cardiometabolic markers, over a 20-year period in Black participants of the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study who were aged 27-42 years at analytic baseline. We included an interaction between depressive symptoms and time to determine whether risk of depression was associated with a faster rate of biological aging.

RESULTS

We found that the rate of biological aging increased over a 20-year span and that those at risk for depression had a faster rate of biological aging than those not at risk. We also found that various social factors were associated with biological age acceleration over time.

DISCUSSION

Given the known association between perceived racial discrimination and depressive symptoms, we provide a novel instance of the long-term effects of social inequality. Specifically, biological age acceleration, a marker of physiological dysregulation, is associated with time among Black persons and more strongly associated among those with depressive symptoms.

An Exploratory Case Study of the Types of Resources Black Boys Use to Support Their Mental Health

Black adolescent boys experience mental health challenges because of their exposure to a greater frequency and severity of psychosocial stressors. This study used a sample of Black boys at a high school in southeastern Michigan as a case study to understand the types of resources Black boys might use to support their mental health. After conducting a rigorous analysis of the study data using a rapid and an accelerated data reduction technique, four themes helped us answer the question: What kinds of mental health support resources are Black boys using? Four themes emerged from our analysis: online resources, community and trusted individuals, self-reliance, and additional needs. This case study is a springboard for further work to tailor a mental health education and support intervention, such as the YBMen Project, for Black boys and for building additional support amid the multiple crises occurring that impact their mental health and safety. Findings have implications for future research, practice, and policy to improve the mental health of Black boys in high school.

Chronic Stress, Coping, and Mental Health Among Older African Americans

OBJECTIVES

African Americans experience relatively low rates of mental disorder despite being disproportionately exposed to psychosocial stressors. Coping is an understudied area that may help explain the mental health resilience among this population.

METHODS

Using data from the National Survey of American Life, I use negative binomial logistic regression to investigate the relationships between stress exposure/appraisal, ten coping responses, and mental health among older African American adults.

RESULTS

Seven of 10 coping responses were predictive of psychological distress. I also found evidence of moderation for six responses. Active coping, instrumental social support, looking for something good in what has happened, and two measures of acceptance were protective against psychological distress associated with high levels of stress. Substance use generally exacerbated the association between stress and psychological distress.

DISCUSSION

Problem-focused coping and acceptance responses were effective coping strategies for older African Americans under high levels of stress exposure/appraisal.

Risk, Protective, and Associated Factors of Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms and Campus Health Services Utilization Among Black Men on a College Campus

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to analyze relationships among social and environmental determinants serving as risk, protective, and important covariate factors for mental health risk and help-seeking among Black men on a college campus.

METHODS

A secondary data analysis was conducted utilizing an ongoing, campus-wide survey at a large, urban, public university. Measures included depressive and anxiety symptoms; campus service utilization; risk factors (e.g., financial status); protective factors (social support/religiosity); and additional covariates (substance use/GPA). Multiple linear regressions were conducted to examine relationships between these factors, symptoms and help-seeking.

RESULTS

Data is included for 681 students. Findings indicated that stressful life events were associated with higher levels of anxiety symptoms (B = 0.39, p < 0.001) and depressive symptoms (B = 0.33, p = 0.013). Cannabis use (B = 1.14, p = .020) was also associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. We found that financial status (B = 0.21, p = 0.041) was positively associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms and endorsement of religiosity was associated with lower levels anxiety (B = - 0.23, p = 0.019) and depressive symptoms (B = - 0.32, p = 0.035). Religiosity predicted lower utilization of campus health services.

CONCLUSIONS

The key findings indicated that Black men's mental health is negatively influenced by stressful live events and cannabis use. As religiosity was associated with lower levels of symptoms and utilization, it may be beneficial to assess this in future work. Further research is needed to address and improve mental health and help-seeking among these men.

Coping Matters: An Examination of Coping among Black Americans During COVID-19

Using a critical race theory framework and a convergent mixed-method design, this study examined the relationship between coping with stress and psychological distress among Black U.S. Americans ( N = 155) during the COVID-19 pandemic in the context of race-based stressors (e.g., anti-Black racism). Path analysis revealed mixed support for hypotheses; avoidant coping was positively related to all measured facets of psychological distress, whereas socially supported coping was associated with none. Self-sufficient coping was negatively associated with only depressive symptoms. Qualitative analysis revealed four salient themes: (a) Race and the COVID-19 Pandemic, (b) Complex Pandemic Related Changes to Life, (c) Emotional Responses to the Pandemic, and (d) Coping with the COVID Pandemic. These themes suggested the pandemic disrupted participants’ ability to engage in, or effectively use, typically adaptive coping strategies and distress was exacerbated by fears for the safety of other Black U.S. Americans. Implications for training, practice, research, and advocacy are discussed.

Working Harder than Others to Prove Yourself: High-Effort Coping as a Buffer between Teacher-Perpetrated Racial Discrimination and Mental Health among Black American Adolescents

High-effort coping (feeling like one must work harder than others to succeed due to anticipated discrimination) is an understudied concept in adolescence. The current study examined among Black American adolescents surveyed in eighth and 11^th grade (N = 630, 49% female) how high-effort coping moderated the relations between teacher-perpetrated racial discrimination and psychological distress across time, and whether the buffering role of high-effort coping varied by adolescent gender and socioeconomic status. Experiencing racial discrimination from teachers in eighth grade was positively related with depressive symptoms, anger, and suicidal ideation in 11^th grade. High-effort coping buffered against teacher discrimination for suicidal ideation among low socioeconomic status youth, as well as for anger among high socioeconomic status youth. Findings underscore the harmful influence of racial discrimination on Black American adolescents' mental health, as well as suggest that among certain subpopulations, high-effort coping may be one psychologically protective resource through which Black American youth retain positive feelings that are undermined by racial discrimination, and thus promote mental well-being.

A Trauma- and Justice, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (JEDI)-Informed Approach to Suicide Prevention in School: Black Boys' Lives Matter

Black boys have been dying by suicide at an increasing rate. Although the reasons for this increase are unknown, suicide in Black boys is likely influenced by multiple, intersecting risk factors, including historical and ongoing trauma. Schools can serve as an important mechanism of support for Black boys; however, without intentional anti-racist frameworks that acknowledge how intersecting identities can exacerbate risk for suicide, schools can overlook opportunities for care and perpetuate a cycle of racism that compromises the mental health of Black youth. By recognizing their own implicit biases, modeling anti-racist practices, listening to and recognizing the strengths and diversity of Black youth, and fostering school-family-community partnerships, school psychologists can help transform the school environment to be a safe and culturally affirming place for Black youth. This paper outlines how school psychologists can apply a trauma- and Justice, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (JEDI)-informed approach to suicide prevention in order to more holistically support Black boys, disrupt patterns of aggressive disciplinary procedures, and improve school-based suicide prevention programs. By applying this lens across a multitiered systems of support (MTSS) framework, school psychologists can help to prevent the deaths of Black boys and begin to prioritize the lives of Black boys.

Endogenous Moderator Models: What They are, What They Aren’t, and Why it Matters

Models that combine moderation and mediation are increasingly common. One such model is that in which one variable causes another variable that, in turn, moderates the relationship between two other variables. There are many recent examples of these Endogenous Moderator Models (EMMs). They bear little superficial resemblance to second-stage moderation models, and they are almost never conceptualized and tested as such. We use path analytic equations to show that this is precisely what EMMs are. Specifically, we use these path analytic equations and a review of recent EMMs in order to show that these models are seldom conceptualized or tested properly and to understand the best ways to handle such models. We then use Monte Carlo simulation to show the consequences of testing these models as they are typically tested rather than as second-stage moderation models. We end with recommendations and provide example datasets and code for SPSS and R.

Strengths despite stress: Social-structural stressors and psychosocial buffers of depressive symptoms among U.S. Black men

We examined the association between social-structural stressors-racial discrimination, incarceration, and unemployment-and depressive symptoms among 578 predominantly low-income urban Black men, ages 18-45. We also examined the extent to which two protective factors-social support and problem-solving coping-moderated the relationship between social-structural stressors and depressive symptoms. Results showed that more everyday racial discrimination and incarceration, but not unemployment, significantly predicted more depressive symptoms. The links between discrimination, incarceration, and depressive symptoms were stronger for men who reported lower levels of problem-solving coping and social support than those with higher levels. Our study suggests that interventions emphasizing protective factors may help Black men cope with some of the deleterious effects of racial discrimination and incarceration. It also underscores a need for structural interventions that reduce racial discrimination and incarceration. Depression among Black men is not simply a biomedical or psychological condition, but also a critical health equity issue. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Denominational and Gender Differences in Hypertension Among African American Christian Young Adults

Hypertension, a major cardiovascular disease risk factor, is disproportionately prevalent among African American young adults. Religion and spirituality (R/S) have been studied for their potential effect on blood pressure (BP) outcomes. Despite their disproportionate hypertension risk and high levels of R/S engagement, limited research explores BP differences among religious African Americans. This study investigates whether denominational affiliation predicts within-group differences in odds of having hypertension among African American Christian young adults. Data from Wave IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) were used to examine hypertension differences between 1932 African American young adults based on self-reported religious denomination. Gender-separated logistic regressions included religious service attendance and coping measures, as well as personal characteristics and health behaviors to adjust for potential effects on BP. The odds of having hypertension were higher for Pentecostal women compared to Baptist and Catholic women. Hypertension odds for women who reported attending services more than once weekly were lower than those who never attended church. For women, frequent use of religious coping predicted higher odds of having hypertension than seldom or never using religious coping. R/S variables did not predict significant differences among men. The health benefits of R/S do not appear to be consistent within African American Christian young adults. Religion may be viewed as a source of BP risk and resilience, especially among African American young women.

Race-Based Stress Reactions and Recovery: Pilot Testing a Racial Trauma Meditation

Twenty-six Black collegians were exposed to a vicarious racial harassment stimulus (VRHS) then randomized into a Black Lives Matter Meditation for Healing Racial Trauma condition or a silence control condition. Heart rate (HR) was recorded throughout the experiment. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted to elicit participants’ appraisal of the VRHS and meditation. Using a Qual:Quan mixed methods experimental design, this pilot study qualitatively categorized how participants (1) described their reactions to the VRHS and (2) appraised the meditation. Participants described three types of race-based stress reactions and reported mostly positive appraisal of the meditation, although some indicated that it would not be a preferred coping strategy. To triangulate the quantitative findings, we found a significant increase in HR during VRHS. The meditation group displayed statistically significant reductions in HR from stimulus to the end of meditation; however, there were no statistically significant differences between the control and meditation groups. Results have implications for understanding and facilitating race-based stress recovery.

The effect of physical activity on the association between perceived racial discrimination and depression in African Americans

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the effect of physical activity (PA) on the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and major depressive disorder (MDD) in African Americans.

METHODS

645 African Americans (mean age 45 years) were interviewed on their perceived racial discrimination, PA, and past 12-month MDD. Participants were categorized into tertiles (lower, middle, upper) of racial discrimination as well as "active" or "inactive" groups based on the US PA guidelines. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for MDD prevalence across discrimination tertiles stratified by PA group after adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

The upper (higher) discrimination group had 2.99 (95% CIs 1.03-8.67) increased odds of MDD compared with the lower group after adjusting for potential confounders. The stratified analysis indicated that the increased odds of MDD in the upper discrimination group were observed only among the inactive group (5.19 [1.08-24.87]) after adjusting for age and sex. The association between discrimination and MDD was not significant among active participants.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include generalizability since participants were predominantly women and recruited solely from Iowa or Georgia; the low number of MDD cases in some groups; and that causation cannot be inferred from this cross-sectional study.

CONCLUSION

Not meeting the PA guidelines may be associated with higher depression among African Americans experiencing higher levels of perceived racial discrimination.

Effectiveness of self-compassion-related interventions for reducing self-criticism: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Self-criticism is the process of negative self-evaluation. High levels are associated with psychopathology and poorer therapeutic outcomes. Self-compassion interventions were developed to explicitly target self-criticism. The aim of this review was to estimate the overall effect of self-compassion-related interventions on self-criticism outcomes and investigate potential moderating variables. A systematic search of the literature identified 20 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that met the inclusion criteria. Nineteen papers, involving 1350 participants, had sufficient data to be included in the meta-analysis. Pre- and post-data points were extracted for the compassion and control groups. Study quality was assessed using an adapted version of the Cochrane Collaboration's risk of bias tool, which concluded that studies were of moderate quality. Meta-analysis findings indicated that self-compassion-related interventions produce a significant, medium reduction in self-criticism in comparison with control groups (Hedges' g = 0.51, 95% CI [0.33-0.69]). Moderator analysis found greater reductions in self-criticism when self-compassion-related interventions were longer and compared with passive controls rather than active. The remaining moderators of forms of self-criticism, sample type, intervention delivery, intervention setting and risk of bias ratings were insignificant. Overall, the review provides promising evidence of the effectiveness of self-compassion-related interventions for reducing self-criticism. However, results are limited by moderate quality studies with high heterogeneity. Directions for future research indicate that more RCTs with active controls, follow-ups, consistent use and reporting of measures and diverse samples are needed.

Sustained remission of child depression despite drift in parent emotion management skills 18 weeks following Parent Child Interaction Therapy: emotion development

Whether effects of psychotherapies for depression are sustained after treatment is an important clinical issue. In older depressed children and adolescents such treatments have been shown to be sustained for several months. Rates of remission ranged from 62-69% at 3 months-1 year in one large scale study. To date there has been no data to inform whether the effects of earlier interventions for depression in the preschool period are sustained. To address this, we used data from a randomized controlled trial of a novel early intervention for depression called "Parent Child Interaction Therapy Emotion Development" (PCIT-ED) that has shown efficacy for depression, parenting stress and parenting practices. Participants and their caregivers were re-assessed 18 weeks after treatment completion. All study procedures were approved by the Washington University School of Medicine Internal Review Board prior to data collection. Study findings demonstrated a high rate of sustained gains in remission from depression, decreased parenting stress and parental depression 18 weeks after completion of a trial of PCIT-ED in a population of young children. Parental response to the child expression of emotion, a key treatment target drifted back towards baseline after 3 months. Relapse rates were 17% and predictors of relapse were the presence of an externalizing disorder, a higher number of co-morbid disorders and poorer guilt reparation and emotion regulation measured at treatment completion. This extends the body of literature demonstrating parent-child interaction therapy (PCIT) to have sustained effects on targeted disruptive symptom profiles to early childhood depression. This relatively low relapse rate after 18 weeks is comparable or better than many empirically proven treatments for depression in older children.

Black American Fathers Employed in Higher-Risk Contexts for Contracting COVID-19: Implications for Individual Wellbeing and Work-Family Spillover

Black Americans remain disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Emerging data suggests that employment in certain occupations (e.g., essential; frontline) may place individuals at higher-risk for contracting COVID-19. The current investigation examined how Black American fathers' COVID-19 perceived work risk was associated with their individual well-being (COVID-19 diagnosis; depressive and anxiety symptoms; sleep disturbance; sleep quality) as well as spillover into family contexts. Participants were 466 Black American fathers (M = 36.63; SD = 11.00) who completed online surveys in June-July 2020. Adjusted binomial logistic and multiple regressions were estimated to examine how fathers' work context was associated with COVID-19 health outcomes, psychological functioning, sleep health, and family stress. Descriptive analyses revealed that 32% of fathers reported a personal diagnosis of COVID-19 and 21% indicated that an immediate family member had been diagnosed. Adjusted binomial logistic regression analyses revealed that fathers working in higher-risk contexts for contracting COVID-19 had a greater odds ratio for both a personal (OR: 1.68, 95% CI: 1.05, 2.68) and an immediate family member diagnosis (OR: 2.58, 95% CI: 1.52, 4.36). Working in a higher-risk context for contracting COVID-19 was associated with poorer psychological functioning, greater sleep disturbance, and higher levels of family discord. Findings suggest that Black fathers working in higher risk contexts may be at risk for COVID-19 exposure and infection. Further, this study indicates that these effects extend to their own well-being, including mental and sleep health as well as increased family stress.

Incorporating Identity Safety into the Laboratory Safety Culture

Chemistry practitioners, particularly in educational settings, often associate building strong safety cultures with compliance or regulatory requirements around laboratory glass-ware, equipment, flammable and incompatible materials, signage, container labels, and safety data sheets. Other fields of science also emphasize biohazardous materials, animal handling, human subject, and ergonomics. However, little attention in the literature has gone toward describing the interpersonal interactions and behaviors affecting the physical and emotional safety and wellbeing of laboratory trainees and personnel from marginalized backgrounds. This work unifies known approaches of building strong safety cultures and principles for preventing identity cues that threaten safety within a laboratory environment. Specifically, this work uses the four principles of chemical safety RAMP model as a conceptual framework for integrating identity safety within the laboratory safety culture.

Everyday Discrimination, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicide Ideation Among African American Men

Suicide has remained a leading cause of death among African American males, yet empirical investigations that focus on the experiences of this group are limited. Therefore, we aim to interrogate the impact of everyday discrimination as a risk factor for depressive symptoms and suicide ideation among African American men. Data were drawn from the African American male subsample of the National Survey of American Life (n = 1,271). Path analysis and tests for indirect effects were used to examine relationships between everyday discrimination, depressive symptoms, and suicide ideation. Three sources of everyday discrimination were examined (any everyday discrimination, race-based everyday discrimination, and other everyday discrimination). Study findings revealed that race-based everyday discrimination was the only type of discrimination that was significantly associated with both increased rates of depressive symptoms and suicide ideation. Further, the indirect effect from race-based everyday discrimination to suicide ideation via depressive symptoms was also statistically significant. Thus, the impact of daily encounters with discrimination extends beyond depressive symptoms and is related to higher rates of suicide ideation. Moreover, experiences with discrimination do not have to be overt to be harmful toward African American men's mental health. Culturally relevant suicide prevention interventions are needed to account for the role of discrimination in the lives of African American men.

Meaning in Life Predicts Decreased Depressive Symptoms and Increased Positive Affect over Time but Does Not Buffer Stress Effects in a National Sample of African-Americans

Few studies have specifically focused on meaning in life in African Americans and many important questions remain, including whether effects of meaning in life are direct or moderated by levels of stress. In a national sample of 909 African Americans, we tested meaning in life as a prospective predictor of changes in depressive symptoms and positive affect over a 2.5-year period. Controlling for demographics and hassles, meaning in life predicted decreased depressive symptoms and increased positive affect across the span of 2.5 years. Moderation effects were not found for hassles, age, or income. Gender moderated the effect of meaning on positive affect such that effects were stronger for women than for men. These results suggest that, for African Americans, meaning in life appears to robustly protect against future depressive symptoms and promote positive affect over time unaffected by amount of stress experienced or most demographic factors.

Understanding the Role of Past Health Care Discrimination in Help-Seeking and Shared Decision-Making for Depression Treatment Preferences

As a part of a larger, mixed-methods research study, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 21 adults with depressive symptoms to understand the role that past health care discrimination plays in shaping help-seeking for depression treatment and receiving preferred treatment modalities. We recruited to achieve heterogeneity of racial/ethnic backgrounds and history of health care discrimination in our participant sample. Participants were Hispanic/Latino (n = 4), non-Hispanic/Latino Black (n = 8), or non-Hispanic/Latino White (n = 9). Twelve reported health care discrimination due to race/ethnicity, language, perceived social class, and/or mental health diagnosis. Health care discrimination exacerbated barriers to initiating and continuing depression treatment among patients from diverse backgrounds or with stigmatized mental health conditions. Treatment preferences emerged as fluid and shaped by shared decisions made within a trustworthy patient-provider relationship. However, patients who had experienced health care discrimination faced greater challenges to forming trusting relationships with providers and thus engaging in shared decision-making processes.

Impostor Phenomenon and Psychological Well-Being: The Moderating Roles of John Henryism and School Racial Composition Among Black College Students

The impostor phenomenon (IP), or erroneous cognitions of intellectual incompetence, is a risk factor for poor psychological adjustment among Black emerging adults. Grounded in Lazarus and Folkman's Stress and Coping Framework, the current study investigated John Henryism's active coping and institutional racial composition as moderators of the association between IP and indicators of psychological well-being among 266 Black students (77% women; M _age = 19.87) attending predominately White institutions (PWIs) and historically Black colleges/universities (HBCUs). Hierarchical moderation regression analyses revealed that IP was associated with decreases in well-being indicators among students attending PWIs and HBCUs. Moreover, students who attended PWIs and reported higher levels of John Henryism (+1 SD) were most vulnerable to increases in social anxiety, particularly at higher levels of IP. Results suggest that the interaction between IP, John Henrysim, and institutional racial composition may negatively influence psychological well-being. We discuss how these findings can be used to inform clinical and educational practices to best support Black college students.

Polysubstance use among frequent marijuana users: an examination of John Henryism Active Coping, psychiatric symptoms, and family social support among African American incarcerated men

Incarcerated African American men who use marijuana are vulnerable to polysubstance use, which is associated with greater risk for negative health and psychosocial outcomes than marijuana use alone. It is imperative to understand risk and protective factors for polysubstance use among this vulnerable population to inform the development of culturally tailored substance use interventions. The current study examined the association between John Henryism Active Coping (JHAC), family social support, psychiatric symptoms, and polysubstance use among African American incarcerated men who frequently use marijuana. Results indicated that higher John Henryism Active Coping (JHAC) is associated with decreased likelihood of engaging in polysubstance use, while psychiatric symptoms are associated with increased likelihood of polysubstance use. Incorporating elements of JHAC into concurrent mental health and substance use treatment may reduce risk for overdose and reincarceration among African American incarcerated men upon release into the community.

Pathways linking adverse environments to emerging adults' substance abuse and depressive symptoms: A prospective analysis of rural African American men

For African American emerging adult men, developmental challenges are evident in their escalating substance abuse and depressive symptoms; this is particularly true for men from low-resource communities. The present study tests a developmental model linking childhood adversity and contemporaneous contextual stressors to increases in emerging adults' substance use and depressive symptoms, indirectly, via increases in defensive/hostile relational schemas and social developmental risk factors (e.g., risky peers and romantic partners, lack of involvement in school or work). We also advance exploratory hypotheses regarding DNA methylation in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) as a moderator of the effects of stress on relational schemas. Hypotheses were tested with three waves of data from 505 rural African American men aged 19-25 years. Adverse childhood experiences predicted exposure to emerging adult contextual stressors. Contextual stressors forecast increases in defensive/hostile relational schemas, which increased social developmental risk factors. Social developmental risk factors proximally predicted increases in substance abuse and depressive symptoms. OXTR DNA methylation moderated the effects of contextual stressors on defensive/hostile relational schemas. Findings suggest that early exposures to stress carry forward to affect the development of social developmental risk factors in emerging adulthood, which place rural African American men at risk for increased substance abuse and depressive symptoms during the emerging adult years.

Adherence to Masculine Norms and Depressive Symptoms in Young Black Men

Recent reports have highlighted disparities in representation of Black men within research, calling for more work to be done with this group. The authors take up this call by exploring whether adherence to masculine norms influences mental health outcomes among young Black men. The sample included survey responses from 18- to 30-year-old Black men (N = 273) enrolled at five colleges and universities in the midwestern United States. Two theoretically relevant subscales from the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (that is, self-reliance and emotional control) were used to measure adherence to masculine norms, and depressive symptoms were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis results indicate that the model fit the data well. Furthermore, self-reliance was associated with higher rates of depressive symptoms (β = .358, p < .001), but emotional control was not (β = .137, p = .099). Study findings suggest that depression treatment interventions should be tailored to incorporate aspects of masculinity that are most salient to young Black men. In addition, social work researchers, clinicians, and service providers are uniquely positioned to contribute to the promotion of mental wellness among this underserved population and should be prepared to attend to young Black men's mental health needs.

An Online Behavioral Health Intervention Promoting Mental Health, Manhood, and Social Support for Young Black Men: The YBMen Project

Conventional definitions of mental health, manhood, and social support create barriers to accessing behavioral health care for Black men ages 18 to 30. Targeted behavioral health interventions sensitive to culture, social norms, and gender that circumvent these barriers are desperately needed to improve access and integrated care for this group. This article reports mixed methods findings from the 2017 iteration of the Young Black Men, Masculinities, and Mental Health (YBMen) project, a social media-based, psychoeducational program that promotes mental health, progressive definitions of manhood, and sustainable social support for Black men. Young Black men (n = 350) across two universities in the Midwest completed baseline surveys on their mental health, definitions of manhood, and social support. Forty of the men participated in the YBMen intervention and at postintervention reported experiencing fewer depressive symptoms on the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9, Z = -2.05, p < .01) and the Gotland Male Depression Scale (GMDS; Z = -1.76, p < .05). There were also changes on the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) for Self-Reliance (Z = -0.34, p = .26) and Heterosexual Self-Presentation (Z = -0.18, p = .59), though these changes were not statistically significant. A qualitative review of postintervention interviews revealed participants' appreciation of the YBMen project and its influence on their mental health, manhood, and social support. Programmatic efforts that support the behavioral health, positive development, and social relationships of Black men translate into positive families, communities, and experiences as they live, learn, love, and work over the life course.

Coping, Discrimination, and Physical Health Conditions Among Predominantly Poor, Urban African Americans: Implications for Community-Level Health Services

African Americans and ethnic minorities experience racial discrimination in a variety of settings. Racial discrimination is a potent stressor that has been linked to psychosocial stress and poor physical health. To cope with discriminatory experiences and daily life event stressors, African Americans frequently use the concept of John Henryism (a high effort coping strategy with prolonged exposure to stress). This cross-sectional analysis explored the relationship between racism/discrimination, John Henryism, and health problems in a predominately African American sample. Data were collected through health care screenings for hypertension, diabetes, and obesity and a self-report survey to assess experiences of discrimination and use of John Henryism. Logistic and linear regression models were used to assess the relationship between the John Henryism score, racism/discrimination score, and health problems among 352 participants. John Henryism was associated with a decrease in systolic blood pressure (b = - 12.50, 95% CI = - 23.05, - 1.95) among men, after adjusting for experiences of racism/discrimination and demographic characteristics. Experiences of racism/discrimination were associated with an increase in systolic blood pressure (b = 11.23, 95% CI = 0.38, 22.09) among men, after adjusting for John Henryism and demographic characteristics. Among women, there was no association found between John Henryism and experiences of racism/discrimination with systolic blood pressure. No association was found between John Henryism and experiences of racism/discrimination with being overweight/obese in women nor men. The study found that John Henryism was positively associated with the health of men, while experiences of racism/discrimination were negatively associated with their health. Limitations of the study are discussed, and recommendations are made to guide future research exploring the concept of John Henryism as a relevant factor between stress, racial discrimination and poor health.

African Americans' Diminished Returns of Parental Education on Adolescents' Depression and Suicide in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

To investigate racial and ethnic differences in the protective effects of parental education and marital status against adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempts in the U.S. As proposed by the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), parental education generates fewer tangible outcomes for non-White compared to White families. Our existing knowledge is very limited regarding diminished returns of parental education and marital status on adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempts. To compare racial groups for the effects of parental education and marital status on adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempt. This cross-sectional study included 7076 non-Hispanic White or African American 8-11 years old adolescents from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variables were parental education and marital status. The main outcomes were depressed mood and suicidal attempts based on parents' reports using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS). Age and gender were the covariates. Race was the moderator. Logistic regression was used to analyze the ABCD data. Overall, parental education was associated with lower odds of depressed mood (OR = 0.81; 95% CI = 0.67-0.99; p = 0.037) and having married parents was associated with lower odds of suicidal attempts (OR = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.28-0.91; p = 0.022). In the pooled sample, we found interaction terms between race with parental education and marital status on the outcomes, suggesting that the protective effect of having married parents against depressed mood (OR = 1.54; 95% CI = 1.00-2.37; p = 0.048) and the protective effect of having married parents against suicidal attempts (OR = 6.62; 95% CI = 2.21-19.86; p =0.001) are weaker for African Americans when compared to Whites. The protective effects of parent education and marital status against depressed mood and suicidal attempts are diminished for African American adolescents compared to White adolescents. There is a need for programs and interventions that equalize not only socioeconomic status (SES) but also the marginal returns of SES for racial minority groups. Such efforts require addressing structural and societal barriers that hinder African American families from translating their SES resources and human capital into tangible outcomes. There is a need for studies that can minimize MDRs for African American families, so that every individual and every family can benefit from their resources regardless of their skin color. To achieve such a goal, we need to help middle-class African American families secure tangible outcomes in the presence of SES resources.

Factor Analysis of the CES-D 12 among a Community Sample of Black Men

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale is one of the most widely used measures for assessing depression in population-based research. Little is known about the varying range of symptomatology expressed by Black men, who report higher chronicity and disability of their depressive symptoms compared to men of other racial and ethnic backgrounds. This study assessed the dimensional structure of the CES-D 12-item scale using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis in a community-based sample of Black men (n = 683). Two latent factors emerged from the scale that best fit the data: interpersonal negative affect (INA) and diminished positive affect (DPA). The item “I felt like everything I did was an effort” was removed from the final measure, resulting in an 11-item scale. The total score for the revised CES-D-11 displayed acceptable internal consistency on both latent factors (Cronbach’s α = 0.83 [INA] and 0.73 [DPA]) and model fit (χ² = 165.58, TLI = 0.967, CFI = 0.974, RMSEA = 0.065). Results differ from CES-D factor analyses in other demographic groups, including studies with other male subpopulations, such that depressed mood and interpersonal problems factors are merged as a unidimensional construct. Findings suggest that the “effort” item from the CES-D 12 should be interpreted with caution among Black men. Future studies should continue to disentangle the divergent pathways in which Black men express depressed mood.

"We Are Our Own Counselor": Resilience, Risk Behaviors, and Mental Health Service Utilization among Young African American Men

Despite risk for trauma, subsequent mental health concerns, and poor health outcomes, young Black/African American men (YBM) are less likely to receive mental health services than other racial/ethnic groups. Despite the growing literature on resilience, there is less information on relationships between resilience, risk behaviors, and use of mental health services. This study sought to examine resilience, trauma-related risk behaviors, and receipt of mental health services among a sample of YBM who experienced trauma. Focus groups and a brief survey were conducted with YBM (N = 55) who had been exposed to at least one traumatic event (e.g., witnessing violence, experienced serious injury or illness) and were recruited from urban community settings (e.g., colleges/universities, barbershops, churches). Participants were an average age of 23 years (SD = 3.9; range 18-30) and experienced an average of 2 to 3 traumatic events (SD = 2.2). Trauma exposure was a significant predictor of risk factors (β = .513, p < .01). However, resilience did not significantly moderate this relationship. Resilience also did not predict receipt of mental health services. Culturally relevant qualitative themes found to be related to resilience included maintaining resilience autonomously, preferred coping methods (e.g., friends, music), and habituating to adversity. This study has potential to inform the development of culturally tailored, relevant interventions to promote engagement in mental health services among YBM who've experienced trauma.

Gender Role Strain and the Precarious Manhood of Sexual Minority Kenyan Men

Examining the impact of precarious manhood on the mental health of sexual minority men living in Kenya, we hypothesized that (a) men who have sex with men exclusively (MSME) and men who have sex with men and women (MSMW) would display differential patterns of conformity to norms of masculinity; (b) these differences would result in distinct patterns of association between masculine conformity and symptoms of psychological distress for MSME and MSMW; and (c) conformity to norms of masculinity would be bidirectionally associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Using data collected from 391 young men who participated in a community-based, cross-sectional study of HIV-related risk and resilience among young sexual minority men in western Kenya, we ran a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to assess differences in conformity to masculine norms and four hierarchical linear regression models to examine the associations between conformity to masculine norms and symptoms of anxiety and depression for MSME and MSMW. MANOVA results revealed no significant differences between MSME and MSMW in overall conformity to masculinity, although MSMW were significantly more likely to conform to the masculine norm of power over women. Regression results revealed that conformity to norms of masculinity was bidirectionally associated with psychological distress and that these patterns of association were distinct for MSME and MSMW. The discussion explores possible explanations for revealed differences between MSME and MSMW using existing research. Clinical implications, limitations, and opportunities for future research are also discussed.

Everyday Racial Discrimination and Hypertension among Midlife African American Women: Disentangling the Role of Active Coping Dispositions versus Active Coping Behaviors

Racial discrimination, a psychosocial stressor, may contribute to disproportionate rates of hypertension among African American women. Coping moderates the effects of psychosocial stress on health. Coping dispositions describe stable personality characteristics, whereas contextual frameworks emphasize flexible coping behaviors in response to specific stressful encounters. Using data from the African American Women's Heart and Health Study-a non-probability cross-section of 208 midlife African American women in Northern California-we estimated the association between everyday racial discrimination (Everyday Discrimination Scale, EDS) and prevalence of hypertension (HTN), and evaluated moderation by coping disposition (John Henryism Active Coping scale, JH) versus context-specific active coping behavior (Active Coping with Racism scale, ACR). There were no main associations between EDS, JH, or ACR on HTN prevalence. There was evidence of statistical interaction between EDS and ACR (p-int = 0.05), but not JH (p-int = 0.90). Among those with high levels of ACR, reporting monthly (prevalence ratio (PR) = 2.35, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.13, 4.87), weekly (PR = 2.15, 95% CI = 1.01, 4.61), or daily (PR = 2.36, 95% CI = 1.14, 4.88) EDS was associated with higher HTN prevalence, versus reporting racial discrimination yearly or less. In contrast, among those with low levels of ACR, reporting more chronic racial discrimination was associated with lower hypertension prevalence, although results were less precise. Findings suggest that ongoing active coping with chronic racial discrimination may contribute to hypertension risk among African American women.

Sex Differences in the Impact of Racial Discrimination on Mental Health Among Black Americans

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Greater racial discrimination is associated with poorer mental health among Black Americans; yet, there remains an incomplete understanding of sex differences in exposure to racial discrimination, and further, of how sex differences in coping with racial discrimination may heighten or diminish risk for poorer mental health.

RECENT FINDINGS

Black men may experience greater exposure to both structural and communal forms of racial discrimination, whereas Black women may face both a wider range of potential sources, as well as encounter greater variability in the subjective experience of racial discrimination. For both Black women and men, racial discrimination may be similarly associated with maladaptive coping strategies (i.e., emotional eating, rumination) that also are linked to poorer mental health; however, emerging findings suggest that mindfulness may partially buffer these deleterious effects. Overall, the recent literature reveals mixed findings with respect to sex differences in the experience and negative mental health impact of racial discrimination. Despite this heterogeneity, evidence documents sex differences in the settings, type, and qualitative experience of racial discrimination among Black Americans. Additionally, growing evidence indicating that racial discrimination is associated with physiological markers of stress reactivity and psychopathology risk further bolsters its characterization as a unique form of chronic stress among Black Americans and other minority groups in the USA.

Hope Springs: Moderating the Link Between Racial Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms for African American Emerging Adults

To better understand the moderating effect of coping mechanisms (distraction and rumination) and internal assets (hope) on the relationship between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms, a sample of 363 African American students (65.3% female; mean age = 20.25 years; SD = 2.39) from two large Midwestern universities were surveyed using self-report measures. Hierarchical multiple regressions were used to explore the relationships among the variables and depressive symptoms. Results indicated that discrimination (B = 0.10, p < .001) and ruminative coping (B = 1.05, p < .001) were positively related to depressive symptoms, while hope was negatively related to depression (B = −0.33, p < .001). Further, the relationship between discrimination and depressive symptoms was moderated by hope (B = 0.01, p = .02). The interaction between discrimination and depressive symptoms suggested that participants who reported low levels of hope also reported more depressive symptoms regardless of level of discrimination, compared with those who reported high hope. For these African American emerging adults, the results bring to light the potential of an internal asset that aids in reduction of depressive symptoms in response to constant, potential harm such as racial discrimination.

The Role of Coping Strategies in Understanding the Effects of Institutional Racism on Mental Health Outcomes for African American Men

The purpose of this study was to examine coping strategies as moderators of the effects of institutional racism on psychological outcomes for a sample of 283 self-identified African American men. We hypothesized that the use of strategies that have been conceptualized as adaptive (e.g., spirituality, problem-oriented coping) would influence the severity of institutional racism on psychological symptoms, such that more frequent use would be associated with less severe symptoms. Furthermore, we hypothesized that more frequent use of avoidant strategies (e.g., substance use, disengagement) would be associated with greater severity of psychological symptoms in relation to exposure to institutional racism. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses were performed to test these hypotheses. Statistically significant main effects revealed that coping strategies that involved more self-reliance were associated with greater severity in mental health symptoms. A statistically significant interaction effect was also revealed, which suggested that greater reliance on spirituality was associated with increased symptoms of interpersonal sensitivity in relation to experiences of institutional racism. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Racial discrimination, John Henryism coping, and behavioral health conditions among predominantly poor, urban African Americans: Implications for community-level opioid problems and mental health services

The current study examined the relationship between John Henryism Active Coping (JHAC), experiences of racial discrimination, and behavioral health outcomes in a community sample of 319 Black adults. Assessments included primary health care screenings as well as self-reported survey questions to assess JHAC, experiences of discrimination, and self-reported behavioral health. Logistic regression models, adjusted for control variables, found a significant relationship between JHAC and having an opioid problem (odds ratio [OR] = 0.95, p = 0.003) and needing mental health services (OR = 0.95, p < 0.001), such that higher levels of coping were associated with lower odds of reporting an opioid problem and needing mental health services. Notably, racial discrimination was not significantly independently associated with behavioral health. Implications for interventions and community programming are discussed.

Depression Fully Mediates the Effect of Multimorbidity on Self-Rated Health for Economically Disadvantaged African American Men but Not Women

Background. Although chronic medical conditions (CMCs), depression, and self-rated health (SRH) are associated, their associations may depend on race, ethnicity, gender, and their intersections. In predominantly White samples, SRH is shown to better reflect the risk of mortality and multimorbidity for men than it is for women, which suggests that poor SRH among women may be caused not only by CMCs, but also by conditions like depression and social relations-a phenomenon known as "the sponge hypothesis." However, little is known about gender differences in the links between multimorbidity, depression, and SRH among African Americans (AAs). Objective. To study whether depression differently mediates the association between multimorbidity and SRH for economically disadvantaged AA men and women. Methods. This survey was conducted in South Los Angeles between 2015 to 2018. A total number of 740 AA older adults (age ≥ 55 years) were enrolled in this study, of which 266 were AA men and 474 were AA women. The independent variable was the number of CMCs. The dependent variable was SRH. Age and socioeconomic status (educational attainment and marital status) were covariates. Depression was the mediator. Gender was the moderator. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the data. Results. In the pooled sample that included both genders, depression partially mediated the effect of multimorbidity on SRH. In gender specific models, depression fully mediated the effects of multimorbidity on SRH for AA men but not AA women. For AA women but not AA men, social isolation was associated with depression. Conclusion. Gender differences exist in the role of depression as an underlying mechanism behind the effect of multimorbidity on the SRH of economically disadvantaged AA older adults. For AA men, depression may be the reason people with multimorbidity report worse SRH. For AA women, depression is only one of the many reasons individuals with multiple CMCs report poor SRH. Prevention of depression may differently influence the SRH of low-income AA men and women with multimorbidity.

Active coping moderates associations among race-related stress, rumination, and depressive symptoms in emerging adult African American women

Cross-sectional and longitudinal research has shown that race-related stress is associated with increased depressive symptoms among racial/ethnic minorities. Rumination has long been considered a maladaptive self-regulatory response to race-related stress, and growing evidence suggests that it may be an important link in the relation between race-related stress and depression. More adaptive forms of self-regulation, such as active coping, may counteract the negative impact of rumination. We examined the influence of rumination on the relation between race-related stress and depressive symptoms in a sample (N = 69) of young adult (mean age = 20 ± 1.5 years) African American women. We also considered the possible moderating effects of John Henryism, a form of persistent and determined goal striving, and vagally mediated heart rate variability, a purported biomarker of coping. Anticipatory race-related stress was indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through rumination: estimate = 0.07, 95% confidence interval [0.01, 0.16]. Both John Henryism and vagally mediated heart rate variability moderated the relationship between race-related stress and rumination; however, only John Henryism reliably influenced the indirect association between race-related stress and depression through rumination. We discuss these findings in the context of growing research examining the interplay between cultural and biological factors in the risk for poorer mental health.

Aspects of Depression Among Socioeconomically Disadvantaged African American Young Adults

The purpose of this phronetic/pragmatic, mixed-methods study was to integrate quantitative data with qualitative data in examining the complex relations among depression, exercise, screen-viewing time, and life plans among 14 socioeconomically disadvantaged African American young adults. Based on the thematic analysis, the two emerging themes were as follows: life priorities (passing the General Educational Development [GED] test, pursuing profession/career, and being dedicated to church/ministry) and challenges in passing GED examination (e.g., difficulties with the GED test, high stress and low confidence, low interest in studying, health issues, and feelings of rejection/isolation). Based on cross tabulation, depression was highly associated with aerobic exercise and screen-viewing time (Cramer's V = .44 and .42, respectively). Participants' life challenges diminished the antidepressant effect of exercise and were linked to depression and excessive screen use. Two active men and a somewhat active woman experienced educational or health-related struggles, heavy screen watching, and severe depression. All three active men experienced educational challenges and severe depression. Two inactive participants reported limited screen use and limited depression, possibly because of their valued life goals (e.g., writing poetry and spiritually helping others). Contrary to the dominant cultural stereotype about African Americans being lazy, the study results show that the participants had highly similar career goals to the majority population yet faced many, significant structural barriers that interfered with their progress and thus sapped their motivation in achieving their life plans. Policy change is needed to reduce social structural barriers and racial systems of oppression in order to decrease poverty and depression.