Membrane vesicles as conveyors of immune responses

Peripheral mitochondrial DNA as a neuroinflammatory biomarker for major depressive disorder

In the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder, chronic stress-related neuroinflammation hinders favorable prognosis and antidepressant response. Mitochondrial DNA may be an inflammatory trigger, after its release from stress-induced dysfunctional central nervous system mitochondria into peripheral circulation. This evidence supports the potential use of peripheral mitochondrial DNA as a neuroinflammatory biomarker for the diagnosis and treatment of major depressive disorder. Herein, we critically review the neuroinflammation theory in major depressive disorder, providing compelling evidence that mitochondrial DNA release acts as a critical biological substrate, and that it constitutes the neuroinflammatory disease pathway. After its release, mitochondrial DNA can be carried in the exosomes and transported to extracellular spaces in the central nervous system and peripheral circulation. Detectable exosomes render encaged mitochondrial DNA relatively stable. This mitochondrial DNA in peripheral circulation can thus be directly detected in clinical practice. These characteristics illustrate the potential for mitochondrial DNA to serve as an innovative clinical biomarker and molecular treatment target for major depressive disorder. This review also highlights the future potential value of clinical applications combining mitochondrial DNA with a panel of other biomarkers, to improve diagnostic precision in major depressive disorder.

Sensitive phenotyping of serum extracellular vesicles on a SERS-microfluidic platform for early-stage clinical diagnosis of ovarian carcinoma

Ovarian carcinoma (OvCa) poses a severe threat to women's health due to its high mortality rate and lack of efficient early diagnosis approach. There is evidence to suggest that nanosized small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) which carrying cell-specific components from OvCa can serve as potential diagnostic biomarkers. Herein, we reported a Surface-enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS)-multichannel microchip for sEVs (S-MMEV) assay to investigate the phenotype changes of sEVs. The microchip composed of seven microchannels, which enabled the parallel detection of multiple biomarkers to improve the detection accuracy. Using SERS probes conjugated with antibodies recognizing different biomarkers including ubiquitous EV biomarkers (i.e., tetraspanins; CD9, CD81) and putative OvCa tumor biomarkers (i.e. EpCAM, CD24, CA125, EGFR), we successfully analyzed the phenotypic changes of sEVs and accurately differentiated OvCa patients from healthy controls, even at early stage (I-II), with high sensitivity, high specificity and an area under the curve value of 0.9467. Additionally, the proposed approach exhibited higher sensitivity than conventional methods, demonstrating the efficiency of precise detection from cell culture and clinical samples. Collectively, the developed EV phenotyping approach S-MMEV could serve as a potential tool to achieve the early clinical diagnosis of OvCa for further precise diagnosis and personal treatment monitoring.

The role of reproductive tract extracellular vesicles on boar sperm function

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are abundant in reproductive tract fluids and serve as important mediators of paracrine communication, influencing the function of gametes. Sperm undergo development in the male reproductive tract and exert their function within the female reproductive tract, engaging in interactions with various types of EVs present throughout the reproductive system. Previous studies have demonstrated that both male and female reproductive tract EVs can impact sperm function by transferring regulatory cargoes to them. Nevertheless, inconsistencies of previous research regarding the effects of EVs on sperm function, coupled with a lack of investigation into the influence of female reproductive tract EVs on sperm fertilization, have left the true role and underlying mechanisms of reproductive tract EVs on sperm function largely unexplored. Given that pigs represent significant economic livestock and serve as an ideal biomedical model for human diseases, this review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the current knowledge regarding reproductive tract EVs and their influence on boar sperm function, while highlighting their potential roles. We anticipate that this review will facilitate future research on reproductive tract EVs and their impact on sperm function, contributing to improved animal reproductive efficiency and advancements in the treatment of male infertility.

Omonijo F, A Ganai N, M. Ibeagha-Awemu E, Mudasir Ahmad S. Immunotherapy in mastitis: state of knowledge, research gaps and way forward

Mastitis is an inflammatory condition that affects dairy cow's mammary glands. Traditional treatment approaches with antibiotics are increasingly leading to challenging scenarios such as antimicrobial resistance. In order to mitigate the unwanted side effects of antibiotics, alternative strategies such as those that harness the host immune system response, also known as immunotherapy, have been implemented. Immunotherapy approaches to treat bovine mastitis aims to enhance the cow's immune response against pathogens by promoting pathogen clearance, and facilitating tissue repair. Various studies have demonstrated the potential of immunotherapy for reducing the incidence, duration and severity of mastitis. Nevertheless, majority of reported therapies are lacking in specificity hampering their broad application to treat mastitis. Meanwhile, advancements in mastitis immunotherapy hold great promise for the dairy industry, with potential to provide effective and sustainable alternatives to traditional antibiotic-based approaches. This review synthesizes immunotherapy strategies, their current understanding and potential future perspectives. The future perspectives should focus on the development of precision immunotherapies tailored to address individual pathogens/group of pathogens, development of combination therapies to address antimicrobial resistance, and the integration of nano- and omics technologies. By addressing research gaps, the field of mastitis immunotherapy can make significant strides in the control, treatment and prevention of mastitis, ultimately benefiting both animal and human health/welfare, and environment health.

Pathogenic mechanisms, diagnostic, and therapeutic potential of microvesicles in diabetes and its complications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), particularly microvesicles (MVs), have gained significant attention for their role as mediators of intercellular communication in both physiological and pathological contexts, including diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the emerging roles of MVs in the pathogenesis of diabetes and associated complications such as nephropathy, retinopathy, cardiomyopathy, and neuropathy. MVs, through their cargo of proteins, lipids, mRNAs, and miRNAs, regulate critical processes like inflammation, oxidative stress, immune responses, and tissue remodeling, all of which contribute to the progression of diabetes and its complications. We examine the molecular mechanisms underlying MVs' involvement in these pathological processes and discuss their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic tools, particularly for drug delivery. Despite promising evidence, challenges remain in isolating and characterizing MVs, understanding their molecular mechanisms, and validating them for clinical use. Advanced techniques such as single-cell RNA sequencing and proteomics are required to gain deeper insights. Improved isolation and purification methods are essential for translating MVs into clinical applications, with potential to develop novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies to improve patient outcomes in diabetes.

Formin-like 1β phosphorylation at S1086 is necessary for secretory polarized traffic of exosomes at the immune synapse in Jurkat T lymphocytes

We analyzed here how formin-like 1 β (FMNL1β), an actin cytoskeleton-regulatory protein, regulates microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) and multivesicular bodies (MVB) polarization and exosome secretion at an immune synapse (IS) model in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. IS formation was associated with transient recruitment of FMNL1β to the IS, which was independent of protein kinase C δ (PKCδ). Simultaneous RNA interference of all FMNL1 isoforms prevented MTOC/MVB polarization and exosome secretion, which were restored by FMNL1βWT expression. However, expression of the non-phosphorylatable mutant FMNL1βS1086A did not restore neither MTOC/MVB polarization nor exosome secretion to control levels, supporting the crucial role of S1086 phosphorylation in MTOC/MVB polarization and exosome secretion. In contrast, the phosphomimetic mutant, FMNL1βS1086D, restored MTOC/MVB polarization and exosome secretion. Conversely, FMNL1βS1086D mutant did not recover the deficient MTOC/MVB polarization occurring in PKCδ-interfered clones, indicating that S1086 FMNL1β phosphorylation alone is not sufficient for MTOC/MVB polarization and exosome secretion. FMNL1 interference inhibited the depletion of F-actin at the central region of the immune synapse (cIS), which is necessary for MTOC/MVB polarization. FMNL1βWT and FMNL1βS1086D, but not FMNL1βS1086A expression, restored F-actin depletion at the cIS. Thus, actin cytoskeleton reorganization at the IS underlies the effects of all these FMNL1β variants on polarized secretory traffic. FMNL1 was found in the IS made by primary T lymphocytes, both in T cell receptor (TCR) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-evoked synapses. Taken together, these results point out a crucial role of S1086 phosphorylation in FMNL1β activation, leading to cortical actin reorganization and subsequent control of MTOC/MVB polarization and exosome secretion.

Shortcomings, limitations and gaps in physiological roles of extracellular vesicles in obesity

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a crucial role in mediating communication between cells across species and kingdoms. The intercellular communication facilitated by EVs through autocrine and paracrine signalling mechanisms is essential for cell survival, maintaining normal metabolic functions and ensuring overall bodily homeostasis and health. Extracellular vesicles are present in various bodily fluids, such as pleural effusions, plasma, breast milk, amniotic fluid, semen and saliva. Additionally, the generation and release of EVs contribute to the removal of cellular waste. Patients with obesity exhibit a higher release and amount of circulating EVs than individuals with normal weight. This increased EV release in obesity might contribute to the inflammatory state characteristic of this metabolic condition, because higher levels of pro-inflammatory molecules are found within their cargo. However, interpreting results related to EV abundance, cargo and biological actions can be complicated by several factors; these include variations in cell sources, a wide age range (from children to the elderly), a mix of females and males, medication use and health status, a range of body weights (from normal weight to morbid obesity) and differences between in vitro assays using cell lines versus primary cultures. This article addresses the shortcomings, limitations and gaps in knowledge, providing a framework for enhancing our understanding of the physiological effects of EVs on obesity.

A comprehensive review of challenges and advances in exosome-based drug delivery systems

Exosomes or so-called natural nanoparticles have recently shown enormous potential for targeted drug delivery systems. Several studies have reported that exosomes as advanced drug delivery platforms offer efficient targeting of chemotherapeutics compared to individual polymeric nanoparticles or liposomes. Taking structural constituents of exosomes, viz., proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, into consideration, exosomes are the most promising carriers as genetic messengers and for treating genetic deficiencies or tumor progression. Unfortunately, very little attention has been paid to the factors like source, scalability, stability, and validation that contribute to the quality attributes of exosome-based drug products. Some studies suggested that exosomes were stable at around -80 °C, which is impractical for storing pharmaceutical products. Currently, no reports on the shelf-life and in vivo stability of exosome formulations are available. Exosomes are quickly cleared from blood circulation, and their in vivo distribution depends on the source. Considering these challenges, further studies are necessary to address major limitations such as poor drug loading, reduced in vivo stability, a need for robust, economical, and scalable production methods, etc., which may unlock the potential of exosomes in clinical applications. A few reports based on hybrid exosomes involving hybridization between different cell/tumor/macrophage-derived exosomes with synthetic liposomes through membrane fusion have shown to overcome some limitations associated with natural or synthetic exosomes. Yet, sufficient evidence is indispensable to prove their stability and clinical efficacy.

Cationized extracellular vesicles for gene delivery

Last decade, extracellular vesicles (EVs) attracted a lot of attention as potent versatile drug delivery vehicles. We reported earlier the development of EV-based delivery systems for therapeutic proteins and small molecule chemotherapeutics. In this work, we first time engineered EVs with multivalent cationic lipids for the delivery of nucleic acids. Stable, small size cationized EVs were loaded with plasmid DNA (pDNA), or mRNA, or siRNA. Nucleic acid loaded EVs were efficiently taken up by target cells as demonstrated by confocal microscopy and delivered their cargo to the nuclei in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells and macrophages. Efficient transfection was achieved by engineered cationized EVs formulations of pDNA- and mRNA in vitro. Furthermore, siRNA loaded into cationized EVs showed significant knockdown of the reporter gene in Luc-expressing cells. Overall, multivalent cationized EVs represent a promising strategy for gene delivery.

Extracellular vesicles reshape the tumor microenvironment to improve cancer immunotherapy: Current knowledge and future prospects

Tumor immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment, but limitations remain, including low response rates and immune complications. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as a new class of therapeutic agents for various diseases. Recent research shows that changes in the amount and composition of EVs can reshape the tumor microenvironment (TME), potentially improving the effectiveness of immunotherapy. This exciting discovery has sparked clinical interest in using EVs to enhance the immune system's response to cancer. In this Review, we delve into the world of EVs, exploring their origins, how they're generated, and their complex interactions within the TME. We also discuss the crucial role EVs play in reshaping the TME during tumor development. Specifically, we examine how their cargo, including molecules like PD-1 and non-coding RNA, influences the behavior of key immune cells within the TME. Additionally, we explore the current applications of EVs in various cancer therapies, the latest advancements in engineering EVs for improved immunotherapy, and the challenges faced in translating this research into clinical practice. By gaining a deeper understanding of how EVs impact the TME, we can potentially uncover new therapeutic vulnerabilities and significantly enhance the effectiveness of existing cancer immunotherapies.

Morphine-induced hyperalgesia impacts small extracellular vesicle miRNA composition and function

Morphine and other synthetic opioids are widely prescribed to treat pain. Prolonged morphine exposure can paradoxically enhance pain sensitivity in humans and nociceptive behavior in rodents. To better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying opioid-induced hyperalgesia, we investigated changes in miRNA composition of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) from the serum of mice after a morphine treatment paradigm that induces hyperalgesia. We observed significant differential expression of 18 miRNAs in sEVs from morphine-treated mice of both sexes compared to controls. Several of these miRNAs were bioinformatically predicted to regulate cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB), a well-characterized transcription factor implicated in pain and drug addiction. We confirmed the binding and repression of Creb mRNA by miR-155 and miR-10a. We tested if serum-derived sEVs from morphine-treated mice could elicit nociceptive behavior in naïve recipient mice. Intrathecal injection of 1 μg sEVs did not significantly impact basal mechanical and thermal threshold in naïve recipient mice. However, prophylactic 1 μg sEV administration in recipient mice resulted in faster resolution of complete Freund's adjuvant-induced mechanical and thermal inflammatory hypersensitivity. Other behaviors assayed following administration of these sEVs were not impacted including sEV conditioned place preference and locomotor sensitization. These results indicate that morphine regulation of serum sEV composition can contribute to analgesia and suggest a potential for sEVs to be a non-opioid therapeutic intervention strategy to treat pain.

Research progress of exosomes in pathogenesis and treatment of preeclampsia

AIM

Preeclampsia (PE) is a critical and severe disease in obstetrics, which seriously affects maternal and neonatal life safety and long-term prognosis. However, the etiology and pathogenesis of PE are complex, and no unified conclusion has been reached. The types and number of exosomes and their transport substances in PE patients changed. The study of exosomes in PE patients helps clarify the etiology, diagnosis, effective treatment, accurate monitoring, and prognosis.

METHOD

The published articles were reviewed.

RESULTS

Exosomes may affect endothelial and vascular production and function, participate in maternal-fetal immune regulation, and transport substances such as miRNAs, lncRNAs, and proteins involved in the development of PE. Detection of the contents of exosomes can help in the early diagnosis of PE, and can help to improve PE by inhibiting the action of exosomes or preventing their binding to target organs.

CONCLUSION

Exosomes may be involved in the development of PE, and exosomes can be used as markers for predicting the onset of PE and tracking the disease process and determining the prognosis, and exosomes have great potential in the treatment of PE.

HPV16 E6-induced M2 macrophage polarization in the cervical microenvironment via exosomal miR-204-5p

The persistent infection of high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) and the progression of cervical cancer necessitate the involvement of microenvironmental immunity. As cervical lesions advance, there is an observed increase in the infiltration of type 2 (M2) macrophages. However, the precise mechanism driving this increased infiltration of M2 macrophages remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of exosomes in polarising M2 macrophages in cervical lesions associated with HPV E6. Through the analysis of bioinformatics data and clinical specimens, we discovered a positive correlation between HPV E6/E7 mRNA copy number and the level of M2 macrophage infiltration. Exosomes derived from HPV E6 overexpressed (HPV E6+) cervical squamous cell carcinoma (CESC) cells were found to induce the polarisation of macrophages towards M2 type. Specifically, miR-204-5p, enriched in HPV E6 + CESC exosomes, was transported into macrophages and triggered M2 macrophage polarisation by inhibiting JAK2. The clinical relevance of exosomal miR-204-5p in the progression of cervical lesions was validated through serum samples from 35 cases. Exosomal miR-204-5p emerges as a critical factor influencing M2 macrophage polarisation and is correlated with the severity of cervical lesions. Consequently, miR-204-5p could be used as a potential treatment and a candidate biomarker for cervical lesions.

High throughput and rapid isolation of extracellular vesicles and exosomes with purity using size exclusion liquid chromatography

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as potential biomarkers for diagnosing a range of diseases without invasive procedures. Extracellular vesicles also offer advantages compared to synthetic vesicles for delivery of various drugs; however, limitations in segregating EVs from other particles and soluble proteins have led to inconsistent EV retrieval rates with low levels of purity. Here, we report a new high-yield (88.47 %) and rapid (<20 min) EV isolation method termed size exclusion - fast protein liquid chromatography (SE-FPLC). We show SE-FPLC can effectively isolate EVs from multiple sources including EVs derived from human and mouse cells and serum samples. The results indicate that SE-FPLC can successfully remove highly abundant protein contaminants such as albumin and lipoprotein complexes, which can represent a major hurdle in large scale isolation of EVs. The high-yield nature of SE-FPLC allows for easy industrial scaling up of EV production for various clinical utilities. SE-FPLC also enables analysis of small volumes of blood for use in point-of-care diagnostics in the clinic. Collectively, SE-FPLC offers many advantages over current EV isolation methods and offers rapid clinical translation.

Unveiling exosomes: Cutting-edge isolation techniques and their therapeutic potential

Exosomes are one type of nanosized membrane vesicles with an endocytic origin. They are secreted by almost all cell types and play diverse functional roles. It is essential for research purposes to differentiate exosomes from microvesicles and isolate them from other components in a fluid sample or cell culture medium. Exosomes are important mediators in cell-cell communication. They deliver their cargos, such as mRNA transcripts, microRNA, lipids, cytosolic and membrane proteins and enzymes, to target cells with or without physical connections between cells. They are highly heterogeneous in size, and their biological functions can vary depending on the cell type, their ability to interact with recipient cells and transport their contents, and the environment in which they are produced. This review summarized the recent progress in exosome isolation and characterization techniques. Moreover, we review the therapeutic approaches, biological functions of exosomes in disease progression, tumour metastasis regulation, immune regulation and some ongoing clinical trials.

Drug delivery based exosomes uptake pathways

Most cells secrete a material called extracellular vesicles (EVs), which play a crucial role in cellular communication. Exosomes are one of the most studied types of EVs. Recent research has shown the many functions and substrates of cellular exosomes. Multiple studies have shown the efficacy of exosomes in transporting a wide variety of cargo to their respective target cells. As a result, they are often utilized to transport medicaments to patients. Natural exosomes as well as exosomes modified with other compounds to enhance transport capabilities have been employed. In this article, we take a look at how different types of exosomes and modified exosomes may transport different types of cargo to their respective targets. Exosomes have a lot of potential as drug delivery vehicles for many synthetic compounds, proteins, nucleic acids, and gene repair specialists because they can stay in the body for a long time, are biocompatible, and can carry natural materials. A good way to put specific protein particles into exosomes is still not clear, though, and the exosomes can't be used in many situations yet. The determinants for exosome production, as well as ways for loading certain therapeutic molecules (proteins, nucleic acids, and small compounds), were covered in this paper. Further study and the development of therapeutic exosomes may both benefit from the information collected in this review.

Categorizing interaction modes of antimicrobial peptides with extracellular vesicles: Disruption, membrane trespassing, and clearance of the protein corona

Host antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are known to play important roles as part of the immune system, from antimicrobial actions to immune regulation. Recent results also demonstrate that EVs could serve as carriers for AMPs. Related, it was shown that some AMPs can remove the protein corona (PC), the externally adsorbed layer of proteins, from EVs which can be exploited for subtractive proteomics strategies. The interaction of these compounds is thus interesting for multiple reasons from better insight to natural processes to direct applications in EV-based bioengineering. However, we have only limited information on the various ways these species may interact with each other. To reach a broader overview, here we selected twenty-six AMPs, including cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), and investigated their interactions with red blood cell-derived vesicles (REVs). For this, we employed a complex lipid biophysics including linearly polarized light spectroscopy, flow cytometry, nanoparticle tracking analysis, electron microscopy and also zeta-potential measurements. This enabled the categorization of these peptides into distinct groups. At specific low concentrations, peptides such as LL-37 and lasioglossin-III were effective in PC elimination with minimal disruption of the membrane. In contrast, AMPs like KLA, bradykinin, histatin-5, and most of the tested CPPs (e.g. octa-arginine, penetratin, and buforin II), demonstrate cell-penetrating mechanisms as they could sustain large peptide concentrations with minimal membrane damage. The systematic overview presented here shows the potential mechanism of how AMPs and EVs could interact in vivo, and also how certain peptides may be employed to manipulate EVs for specific applications.

Extracellular Vesicle ASC: A Novel Mediator for Lung-Brain Axis in Preterm Brain Injury

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and neurodevelopmental impairment are among the most common morbidities affecting preterm infants. Although BPD is a predictor of poor neurodevelopmental outcomes, it is currently uncertain how BPD contributes to brain injury in preterm infants. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in interorgan communication in diverse pathological processes. ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain) is pivotal in inflammasome assembly and activation of inflammatory response. We assessed expression profiles of the alveolar macrophage (AM) markers CD11b, CD11c, and CD206 as well as ASC in EVs isolated from the plasma of preterm infants at risk for BPD at 1 week of age. We found that infants on higher fraction of inspired oxygen therapy (HO2⩾30%) had increased concentrations of AM-derived EV-ASC compared with infants on lower fraction of inspired oxygen (LO2<30%). To assess the function of these EVs, we performed adoptive transfer experiments by injecting them into the circulation of newborn mice. We discovered that mice that received EVs from infants on HO2 had increased lung inflammation, decreased alveolarization, and disrupted vascular development, the hallmarks of BPD. Importantly, these EVs crossed the blood-brain barrier, and the EVs from infants on HO2 caused inflammation, reduced cell survival, and increased cell death, with features of pyroptosis and necroptosis in the hippocampus. These results highlight a novel role for AM-derived EV-ASC in mediating the lung-to-brain cross-talk that is critical in the pathogenesis of BPD and brain injury and identify potential novel targets for preventing and treating BPD and brain injury in preterm infants.

Novel Advances in Cell-Free Therapy for Premature Ovarian Failure (POF): A Comprehensive Review

Premature ovarian failure (POF), is a condition characterized by the early decline of ovulation function. POF is a complex disorder that can be caused by various factors, and the idiopathic form represents a significant proportion of POF patients. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is currently considered the first-line treatment for POF. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in platelet-rich plasma (PRP), in vitro activation (IVA), stem cell therapy, exosome therapy, microRNAs, and mitochondrial targeting therapies as a promising cell-free therapeutic approach in reproductive medicine. PLT-Exos, a new generation of cells, has been used to treat POF for more than a decade and has been shown to attenuate oocyte morphology and promote the differentiation of theca cells through the upregulation of PI3K/Akt and Bcl2, as well as the downregulation of the Smad and Bax signaling pathways. This review summarizes the current state of the art in the field of PLT-Exos and discusses the advantages and limitations of their potential clinical applications.

Inflammatory pain resolution by mouse serum-derived small extracellular vesicles

Current treatments for chronic pain have limited efficacy and significant side effects, warranting research on alternative strategies for pain management. One approach involves using small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), or exosomes, to transport beneficial biomolecular cargo to aid pain resolution. Exosomes are 30-150 nm sEVs that can be beneficial or harmful depending on their source and cargo composition. We report a comprehensive multi-modal analysis of different aspects of sEV characterization, miRNAs, and protein markers across sEV sources. To investigate the short- and long-term effects of mouse serum-derived sEVs in pain modulation, sEVs from naïve control or spared nerve injury (SNI) model male donor mice were injected intrathecally into naïve male recipient mice. These sEVs transiently increased basal mechanical thresholds, an effect mediated by opioid signaling as this outcome was blocked by naltrexone. Mass spectrometry of sEVs detected endogenous opioid peptide leu-enkephalin. sEVs from naïve female mice have higher levels of leu-enkephalin compared to male, matching the analgesic onset of leu-enkephalin in male recipient mice. In investigating the long-term effect of sEVs, we observed that a single prophylactic intrathecal injection of sEVs two weeks prior to induction of the pain model in recipient mice accelerated recovery from inflammatory pain after complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) injection. Our exploratory studies examining immune cell populations in spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion using ChipCytometry suggested alterations in immune cell populations 14 days post-CFA. Flow cytometry confirmed increases in CD206+ macrophages in the spinal cord in sEV-treated mice. Collectively, these studies demonstrate multiple mechanisms by which sEVs can attenuate pain.

Exosomal therapy is a luxury area for regenerative medicine

Stem cell-based therapies have made significant advancements in tissue regeneration and medical engineering. However, there are limitations to cell transplantation therapy, such as immune rejection and limited cell viability. These limitations greatly impede the translation of stem cell-based tissue regeneration into clinical practice. In recent years, exosomes, which are packaged vesicles released from cells, have shown promising progress. Specifically, exosomes derived from stem cells have demonstrated remarkable therapeutic benefits. Exosomes are nanoscale extracellular vesicles that act as paracrine mediators. They transfer functional cargos, such as miRNA and mRNA molecules, peptides, proteins, cytokines, and lipids, from MSCs to recipient cells. By participating in intercellular communication events, exosomes contribute to the healing of injured or diseased tissues and organs. Studies have shown that the therapeutic effects of MSCs in various experimental paradigms can be solely attributed to their exosomes. Consequently, MSC-derived exosomes can be modified and utilized to develop a unique cell-free therapeutic approach for treating multiple diseases, including neurological, immunological, heart, and other diseases. This review is divided into several categories, including the current understanding of exosome biogenesis, isolation techniques, and their application as therapeutic tools.

Host-derived CEACAM-laden vesicles engage enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli for elimination and toxin neutralization

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) cause hundreds of millions of diarrheal illnesses annually ranging from mildly symptomatic cases to severe, life-threatening cholera-like diarrhea. Although ETEC are associated with long-term sequelae including malnutrition, the acute diarrheal illness is largely self-limited. Recent studies indicate that in addition to causing diarrhea, the ETEC heat-labile toxin (LT) modulates the expression of many genes in intestinal epithelia, including carcinoembryonic cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) which ETEC exploit as receptors, enabling toxin delivery. Here, however, we demonstrate that LT also enhances the expression of CEACAMs on extracellular vesicles (EV) shed by intestinal epithelia and that CEACAM-laden EV increase in abundance during human infections, mitigate pathogen-host interactions, scavenge free ETEC toxins, and accelerate ETEC clearance from the gastrointestinal tract. Collectively, these findings indicate that CEACAMs play a multifaceted role in ETEC pathogen-host interactions, transiently favoring the pathogen, but ultimately contributing to innate responses that extinguish these common infections.

Shedding Light on Cellular Secrets: A Review of Advanced Optical Biosensing Techniques for Detecting Extracellular Vesicles with a Special Focus on Cancer Diagnosis

In the relentless pursuit of innovative diagnostic tools for cancer, this review illuminates the cutting-edge realm of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their biomolecular cargo detection through advanced optical biosensing techniques with a primary emphasis on their significance in cancer diagnosis. From the sophisticated domain of nanomaterials to the precision of surface plasmon resonance, we herein examine the diverse universe of optical biosensors, emphasizing their specified applications in cancer diagnosis. Exploring and understanding the details of EVs, we present innovative applications of enhancing and blending signals, going beyond the limits to sharpen our ability to sense and distinguish with greater sensitivity and specificity. Our special focus on cancer diagnosis underscores the transformative potential of optical biosensors in early detection and personalized medicine. This review aims to help guide researchers, clinicians, and enthusiasts into the captivating domain where light meets cellular secrets, creating innovative opportunities in cancer diagnostics.

TGF - β/SMAD signaling pathway and protein molecules in the treatment of liver fibrosis: A natural lipid membrane protein of exosomes

In recent years, exosomes, as an important medium of intercellular information transmission, have received extensive attention for their potential in the treatment of liver fibrosis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of exosome natural lipid membrane proteins in the treatment of liver fibrosis, with emphasis on the regulatory mechanism through the TGF-β/SMAD signaling pathway. Exosomes were extracted from healthy human hepatocytes and their membrane protein components were identified by mass spectrometry. Subsequently, the effects of these exosomes and their membrane proteins on the TGF-β/SMAD signaling pathway were examined using in vitro cell models and mouse liver fibrosis models. Western blot, qPCR and immunofluorescence were used to analyze the expression of fibrosis markers and the activity of signaling pathways. In vitro cell experiments, fibrotic cells showed an obvious reversal trend after treating exosome membrane proteins. In a mouse model of liver fibrosis, the injection of exosome membrane proteins significantly improved the degree of fibrosis in liver tissue.

Dual Role of Extracellular Vesicles as Orchestrators of Emerging and Reemerging Virus Infections

Current decade witnessed the emergence and re-emergence of many viruses, which affected public health significantly. Viruses mainly utilize host cell machinery to promote its growth, and spread of these diseases. Numerous factors influence virus-host cell interactions, of which extracellular vesicles play an important role, where they transfer information both locally and distally by enclosing viral and host-derived proteins and RNAs as their cargo. Thus, they play a dual role in mediating virus infections by promoting virus dissemination and evoking immune responses in host organisms. Moreover, it acts as a double-edged sword during these infections. Advances in extracellular vesicles regulating emerging and reemerging virus infections, particularly in the context of SARS-CoV-2, Dengue, Ebola, Zika, Chikungunya, West Nile, and Japanese Encephalitis viruses are discussed in this review.

Subcellular particles for characterization of host-parasite interactions

Parasitic diseases remain a major global health problem for humans. Parasites employ a variety of strategies to invade and survive within their hosts and to manipulate host defense mechanisms, always in the pathogen's favor. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), membrane-bound nanospheres carrying a variety of bioactive compounds, were shown to be released by the parasites during all stages of the infection, enabling growth and expansion within the host and adaptation to frequently changing environmental stressors. In this review, we discuss how the use of existing nanotechnologies and high-resolution imaging tools assisted in revealing the role of EVs during parasitic infections, enabling the quantitation, visualization, and detailed characterization of EVs. We discuss here the cases of malaria, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis as examples of parasitic neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Unraveling the EVs' role in the NTD pathogenesis may enormously contribute to their early and reliable diagnostic, effective treatment, and prevention.

Infertility: Focus on the therapeutic potential of extracellular vesicles

Infertility is a well-known problem that arises from a variety of reproductive diseases. Until now, researchers have tried various methods to restore fertility, including medication specific to the cause, hormone treatments, surgical removals, and assisted reproductive technologies. While these methods do produce results, they do not consistently lead to fertility restoration in every instance. The use of exosome therapy has significant potential in treating infertility in patients. This is because exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, which are different types of vesicles, play a crucial role in transferring bioactive molecules that aid in cell-to-cell communication. Reproductive fluids can transport a variety of molecular cargos, such as miRNAs, mRNAs, proteins, lipids, and DNA molecules. The percentage of these cargos in the fluids can be linked to their physiological and pathological status. EVs are involved in several physiological and pathological processes and offer interesting non-cellular therapeutic possibilities to treat infertility. EVs (extracellular vesicles) transplantation has been shown in many studies to be a key part of regenerating different parts of the reproductive system, including the production of oocytes and the start of sperm production. Nevertheless, the existing evidence necessitates testifying to the effectiveness of injecting EVs in resolving reproductive problems among humans. This review focuses on the current literature about infertility issues in both females and males, specifically examining the potential treatments involving extracellular vesicles (EVs).

Boron Neutron Capture Therapy-Derived Extracellular Vesicles via DNA Accumulation Boost Antitumor Dendritic Cell Vaccine Efficacy

Radiated tumor cell-derived extracellular vesicles (RT-EVs) encapsulate abundant DNA fragments from irradiated tumor cells, in addition to acting as integrators of multiple tumor antigens. Accumulating evidence indicates these DNA fragments from damaged cells are involved in downstream immune responses, but most of them are degraded in cells before incorporation into derived RT-EVs, thus the low abundance of DNA fragments limits immune responses of RT-EVs. Here, this study found that different radiations affected fates of DNA fragments in RT-EVs. Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) induced DNA accumulation in RT-EVs (BEVs) by causing more DNA breaks and DNA oxidation resisting nuclease degradation. This is attributed to the high-linear energy transfer (LET) properties of alpha particles from the neutron capture reaction of 10B. When being internalized by dendritic cells (DCs), BEVs activated the DNA sensing pathway, resulting in functional enhancements including antigen presentation, migration capacity, and cytokine secretion. After vaccination of the BEVs-educated DCs (BEV@BMDCs), the effector T cells significantly expanded and infiltrated into tumors, suggesting robust anti-tumor immune activation. BEV@BMDCs not only effectively inhibited the primary tumor growth and metastasis formation but also elicited long-term immune memory. In conclusion, a successful DC vaccine is provided as a promising candidate for tumor vaccine.

Hydrogel encapsulation of mesenchymal stem cells-derived extracellular vesicles as a novel therapeutic approach in cancer therapy

Cell therapy has emerged as one of the most promising approaches to treating disease in recent decades. The application of stem cells in anti-tumor therapy is determined by their varying capacity for proliferation, migration, and differentiation. These capacities are derived from different sources. The use of stem cell carriers in cancer treatment is justified by the following three reasons: (I) shield therapeutic agents from swift biological deterioration; (II) reduce systemic side effects; and (III) increase local therapeutic levels since stem cells have an innate ability to target tumors. The quantity of stem cells confined to the tumor microenvironment determines this system's anti-tumor activity. Nevertheless, there are limitations to the use of different types of stem cells. When immune cells are used in cell therapy, it may lead to cytokine storms and improper reactions to self-antigens. Furthermore, the use of stem cells may result in cancer. Additionally, after an intravenous injection, cells could not migrate to the injury location. Exosomes derived from different cells were thus proposed as possible therapeutic options. Exosomes are becoming more and more well-liked because of their small size, biocompatibility, and simplicity in storage and separation. A number of investigations have shown that adding various medications and microRNAs to exosomes may enhance their therapeutic effectiveness. Thus, it is essential to evaluate studies looking into the therapeutic effectiveness of encapsulated exosomes. In this review, we looked at studies on encapsulated exosomes' use in regenerative medicine and the treatment of cancer. The results imply that the therapeutic potential increases when encapsulated exosomes are used rather than intact exosomes. Therefore, in order to optimize the effectiveness of the treatment, it is advised to implement this technique in accordance with the kind of therapy.

Involvement of extracellular vesicles in the interaction of hosts and Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, is widely distributed. This protozoan parasite is one of the best adapted, being able to infect innumerous species of animals and different types of cells. This chapter reviews current literature on extracellular vesicles secreted by T. gondii and by its hosts. The topics describe the life cycle and transmission (1); toxoplasmosis epidemiology (2); laboratorial diagnosis approach (3); The T. gondii interaction with extracellular vesicles and miRNAs (4); and the perspectives on T. gondii infection. Each topic emphases the host immune responses to the parasite antigens and the interaction with the extracellular vesicles and miRNAs.

Irradiated tumor cell-released microparticles enhance the therapeutic efficacy of PD-1 inhibitors by promoting M1-TAMs polarization in NSCLC brain metastases

Brain metastases (BMs) are the most common sites of metastasis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, BMs are not responsive to immunotherapy because of the blood-brain barrier. This is because intracranial immune cells such as M2 tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) accumulate, creating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this study, we focused on irradiated tumor cell-released microparticles (RT-MPs) that can cross the blood-brain barrier and influence the intracranial immune microenvironment. Using animal models of BMs, we observed that RT-MPs could penetrate the blood-brain barrier and be swallowed by TAMs. Then the microenvironment of TAMs is shifted from the M2 phenotype to the M1 phenotype, thereby modulating the interactions between TAMs and tumor cells. Single-cell sequencing analysis demonstrated that TAMs, after internalizing RT-MPs, active chemokine signaling pathways and secrete more chemokines, such as CCL5, CXCL2, CXCL1, CCL3, CCL4, and CCL22, attracting more CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells, improving immune-mediated killing, and enhancing subsequent combination anti-PD-1 therapy. These findings provide a preclinical foundation for exploring alternative treatments for patients with immunoresistant NSCLC BMs.

Extracellular vesicles

Cells, pathogens, and other systems release extracellular vesicles (EVs). The particles promote intercellular communication and contain proteins, lipids, RNA and DNA. Initially considered to be cellular waste in the twentieth century, EVs were becoming recognized for their function in biological communication and control. EVs are divided into many subtypes: exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. Exosomes form in the late endosome/multivesicular body and are released when the compartments fuse with the plasma membrane. Microvesicles are generated by direct budding of the plasma membrane, whereas apoptotic bodies are formed after cellular apoptosis. The new guideline for EVs that describes alternate nomenclature for EVs. The particles modulate the immune response by affecting both innate and adaptive immunity, and their specific the structure allows them to be used as biomarkers to diagnose a variety of diseases. EVs have a wide range of applications, for example, delivery systems for medications and genetic therapies because of their ability to convey specific cellular material. In anti-tumor therapy, EVs deliver therapeutic chemicals to tumor cells. The EVs promote transplant compatibility and reduce organ rejection. Host-parasite interactions, therapeutic and diagnostic for cancer, cardiovascular disease, cardiac tissue regeneration, and the treatment of neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. The study of EVs keeps on expanding, revealing new functions and beneficial options. EVs have the potential to change drug delivery, diagnostics, and specific therapeutics, creating a new frontier in biomedical.

Lipidomic and Proteomic Insights from Extracellular Vesicles in Postmortem Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Reveal Substance Use Disorder-Induced Brain Changes

Substance use disorder (SUD) significantly increases the risk of neurotoxicity, inflammation, oxidative stress, and impaired neuroplasticity. The activation of inflammatory pathways by substances may lead to glial activation and chronic neuroinflammation, potentially mediated by the release of extracellular particles (EPs), such as extracellular condensates (ECs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs). These particles, which reflect the physiological, pathophysiological, and metabolic states of their cells of origin, might carry molecular signatures indicative of SUD. In particular, our study investigated neuroinflammatory signatures in SUD by isolating EVs from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) Brodmann's area 9 (BA9) in postmortem subjects. We isolated BA9-derived EVs from postmortem brain tissues of eight individuals (controls: n=4, SUD: n=4). The EVs were analyzed for physical properties (concentration, size, zeta potential, morphology) and subjected to integrative multi-omics analysis to profile the lipidomic and proteomic characteristics. We assessed the interactions and bioactivity of EVs by evaluating their uptake by glial cells. We further assessed the effects of EVs on complement mRNA expression in glial cells as well as their effects on microglial migration. No significant differences in EV concentration, size, zeta potential, or surface markers were observed between SUD and control groups. However, lipidomic analysis revealed significant enrichment of glycerophosphoinositol bisphosphate (PIP2) in SUD EVs. Proteomic analysis indicates downregulation of SERPINB12, ACYP2, CAMK1D, DSC1, and FLNB, and upregulation of C4A, C3, and ALB in SUD EVs. Gene ontology and protein-protein interactome analyses highlight functions such as cell motility, focal adhesion, and acute phase response signaling that is associated with the identified proteins. Both control and SUD EVs increased C3 and C4 mRNA expression in microglia, but only SUD EVs upregulated these genes in astrocytes. SUD EVs also significantly enhanced microglial migration in a wound healing assay.This study successfully isolated EVs from postmortem brains and used a multi-omics approach to identify EV-associated lipids and proteins in SUD. Elevated C3 and C4 in SUD EVs and the distinct effects of EVs on glial cells suggest a crucial role in acute phase response signaling and neuroinflammation.

Exploring extracellular vesicles in zoonotic helminth biology: implications for diagnosis, therapeutic and delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as key intercellular communication and pathogenesis mediators. Parasitic organisms' helminths, cause widespread infections with significant health impacts worldwide. Recent research has shed light on the role of EVs in the lifecycle, immune evasion, and disease progression of these parasitic organisms. These tiny membrane-bound organelles including microvesicles and exosomes, facilitate the transfer of proteins, lipids, mRNAs, and microRNAs between cells. EVs have been isolated from various bodily fluids, offering a potential diagnostic and therapeutic avenue for combating infectious agents. According to recent research, EVs from helminths hold great promise in the diagnosis of parasitic infections due to their specificity, early detection capabilities, accessibility, and the potential for staging and monitoring infections, promote intercellular communication, and are a viable therapeutic tool for the treatment of infectious agents. Exploring host-parasite interactions has identified promising new targets for diagnostic, therapy, and vaccine development against helminths. This literature review delves into EVS's origin, nature, biogenesis, and composition in these parasitic organisms. It also highlights the proteins and miRNAs involved in EV release, providing a comprehensive summary of the latest findings on the significance of EVs in the biology of helminths, promising targets for therapeutic and diagnostic biomarkers.

Immunogenicity of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising next-generation therapeutics and drug delivery systems due to demonstrated safety and efficacy in preclinical models and early-stage clinical trials. There is an urgent need to address the immunogenicity of EVs (beyond the apparent lack of immunotoxicity) to advance clinical development. To date, few studies have assessed unintended immunological recognition of EVs. An in-depth understanding of EV-induced immunogenicity and clearance is necessary to develop effective therapeutic strategies, including approaches to mitigate immunological recognition when undesired. This article summarizes various factors involved in the potential immunogenicity of EVs and strategies to reduce immunological recognition for improved therapeutic benefit.

Potential of extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapy for parasitic diseases

Parasitic diseases have a significant impact on human and animal health, representing a major hazard to the public and causing economic and health damage worldwide. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have long been recognized as diagnostic and therapeutic tools but are now also known to be implicated in the natural history of parasitic diseases and host immune response modulation. Studies have shown that EVs play a role in parasitic disease development by interacting with parasites and communicating with other types of cells. This review highlights the most recent research on EVs and their role in several aspects of parasite-host interactions in five key parasitic diseases: Chagas disease, malaria, toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis and helminthiases. We also discuss the potential use of EVs as diagnostic tools or treatment options for these infectious diseases.

Nanovaccines: Immunogenic tumor antigens, targeted delivery, and combination therapy to enhance cancer immunotherapy

Nanovaccines have been designed to overcome the limitations associated with conventional vaccines. Effective delivery methods such as engineered carriers or smart nanoparticles (NPs) are critical requisites for inducing self-tolerance and optimizing vaccine immunogenicity with minimum side effects. NPs can be used as adjuvants, immunogens, or nanocarriers to develop nanovaccines for efficient antigen delivery. Multiloaded nanovaccines carrying multiple tumor antigens along with immunostimulants can effectively increase immunity against tumor cells. They can be biologically engineered to boost interactions with dendritic cells and to allow a gradual and constant antigen release. Modifying NPs surface properties, using high-density lipoprotein-mimicking nanodiscs, and developing nano-based artificial antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cell-derived-exosomes are amongst the new developed technologies to enhance antigen-presentation and immune reactions against tumor cells. The present review provides an overview on the different perspectives, improvements, and barriers of successful clinical application of current cancer therapeutic and vaccination options. The immunomodulatory effects of different types of nanovaccines and the nanoparticles incorporated into their structure are described. The advantages of using nanovaccines to prevent and treat common illnesses such as AIDS, malaria, cancer and tuberculosis are discussed. Further, potential paths to develop optimal cancer vaccines are described. Given the immunosuppressive characteristics of both cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment, applying immunomodulators and immune checkpoint inhibitors in combination with other conventional anticancer therapies are necessary to boost the effectiveness of the immune response.

Exosome prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

The growing prevalence of NAFLD and its global health burden have provoked considerable research on possible diagnostic and therapeutic options for NAFLD. Although various pathophysiological mechanisms and genetic factors have been identified to be associated with NAFLD, its treatment remains challenging. In recent years, exosomes have attracted widespread attention for their role in metabolic dysfunctions and their efficacy as pathological biomarkers. Exosomes have also shown tremendous potential in treating a variety of disorders. With increasing evidence supporting the significant role of exosomes in NAFLD pathogenesis, their theragnostic potential has become a point of interest in NAFLD. Expectedly, exosome-based treatment strategies have shown promise in the prevention and amelioration of NAFLD in preclinical studies. However, there are still serious challenges in preparing, standardizing, and applying exosome-based therapies as a routine clinical option that should be overcome. Due to the great potential of this novel theragnostic agent in NAFLD, further investigations on their safety, clinical efficacy, and application standardization are highly recommended.

Stress-Related Roles of Exosomes and Exosomal miRNAs in Common Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Exosomes, natural nanovesicles that contain a cargo of biologically active molecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, are released from cells to the extracellular environment. They then act as autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine mediators of communication between cells by delivering their cargo into recipient cells and causing downstream effects. Exosomes are greatly enriched in miRNAs, which are small non-coding RNAs that act both as cytoplasmic post-transcriptional repression agents, modulating the translation of mRNAs into proteins, as well as nuclear transcriptional gene activators. Neuronal exosomal miRNAs have important physiologic functions in the central nervous system (CNS), including cell-to-cell communication, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis, as well as modulating stress and inflammatory responses. Stress-induced changes in exosomal functions include effects on neurogenesis and neuroinflammation, which can lead to the appearance of various neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, major depression, bipolar disorder, and Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases. The current knowledge regarding the roles of exosomes in the pathophysiology of common mental disorders is discussed in this review.

ESCRT-III: a versatile membrane remodeling machinery and its implications in cellular processes and diseases

The endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) machinery is an evolutionarily conserved cytosolic protein complex that plays a crucial role in membrane remodeling and scission events across eukaryotes. Initially discovered for its function in multivesicular body (MVB) formation, the ESCRT complex has since been implicated in a wide range of membrane-associated processes, including endocytosis, exocytosis, cytokinesis, and autophagy. Recent advances have elucidated the ESCRT assembly pathway and highlighted the distinct functions of the various ESCRT complexes and their associated partners. Among the ESCRT complexes, ESCRT-III stands out as a critical player in membrane remodeling, with its subunits assembled into higher-order multimers capable of bending and severing membranes. This review focuses on the ESCRT-III complex, exploring its diverse functions in cellular processes beyond MVB biogenesis. We delve into the molecular mechanisms underlying ESCRT-III-mediated membrane remodeling and highlight its emerging roles in processes such as viral budding, autophagosome closure, and cytokinetic abscission. We also discuss the implications of ESCRT-III dysregulation in neurodegenerative diseases. The versatile membrane remodeling capabilities of ESCRT-III across diverse cellular processes underscore its importance in maintaining proper cellular function. Furthermore, we highlight the promising potential of ESCRT-III as a therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases, offering insights into the treatments of the diseases and the technical applications in related research fields.

Exosome-Derived microRNA: Potential Target for Diagnosis and Treatment of Sepsis

Exosome-derived microRNAs (miRNAs) are emerging as pivotal players in the pathophysiology of sepsis, representing a new frontier in both the diagnosis and treatment of this complex condition. Sepsis, a severe systemic response to infection, involves intricate immune and nonimmune mechanisms, where exosome-mediated communication can significantly influence disease progression and outcomes. During the progress of sepsis, the miRNA profile of exosomes undergoes notable alterations, is reflecting, and may affect the progression of the disease. This review comprehensively explores the biology of exosome-derived miRNAs, which originate from both immune cells (such as macrophages and dendritic cells) and nonimmune cells (such as endothelial and epithelial cells) and play a dynamic role in modulating pathways that affect the course of sepsis, including those related to inflammation, immune response, cell survival, and apoptosis. Taking into account these dynamic changes, we further discuss the potential of exosome-derived miRNAs as biomarkers for the early detection and prognosis of sepsis and advantages over traditional biomarkers due to their stability and specificity. Furthermore, this review evaluates exosome-based therapeutic miRNA delivery systems in sepsis, which may pave the way for targeted modulation of the septic response and personalized treatment options.

Eosinophil-derived extracellular vesicles: isolation and classification techniques and implications for disease pathophysiology

Eosinophils are leukocytes characterized by their ability to release granule content that is highly rich in enzymes and proteins. Besides the antihelminthic, bactericidal, and antiviral properties of eosinophils and their secretory granules, these also play a prominent role in the pathophysiology of diseases such as asthma, eosinophilic esophagitis, and other hypereosinophilic conditions by causing tissue damage and airway hyperresponsiveness. Although this cell was first recognized mainly for its capacity to release granule content, nowadays other capabilities such as cytokine secretion have been linked to its physiology, and research has found that eosinophils are not only involved in innate immunity, but also as orchestrators of immune responses. Nearly 10 yr ago, eosinophil-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were first described; since then, the EV field has grown exponentially, revealing their vital roles in intracellular communication. In this review, we synthesize current knowledge on eosinophil-derived EVs, beginning with a description of what they are and what makes them important regulators of disease, followed by an account of the methodologies used to isolate and characterize EVs. We also summarize current understanding of eosinophil-derived vesicles functionality, especially in asthma, the disease in which eosinophil-derived EVs have been most widely studied, describing how they modulate the role of eosinophils themselves (through autocrine signaling) and the way they affect airway structural cells and airway remodeling. Deeper understanding of this cell type could lead to novel research in eosinophil biology, its role in other diseases, and possible use of eosinophil-derived EVs as therapeutic targets.

Host-derived CEACAM-laden vesicles engage enterotoxigenic E. coli for elimination and toxin neutralization

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) cause hundreds of millions of diarrheal illnesses annually ranging from mildly symptomatic cases to severe, life-threatening cholera-like diarrhea. Although ETEC are associated with long-term sequelae including malnutrition, the acute diarrheal illness is largely self-limited. Recent studies indicate that in addition to causing diarrhea, the ETEC heat-labile toxin (LT) modulates the expression of many genes in intestinal epithelia, including carcinoembryonic cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) which ETEC exploit as receptors, enabling toxin delivery. Here however, we demonstrate that LT also enhances the expression of CEACAMs on extracellular vesicles (EV) shed by intestinal epithelia and that CEACAM-laden EV increase in abundance during human infections, mitigate pathogen-host interactions, scavenge free ETEC toxins, and accelerate ETEC clearance from the gastrointestinal tract. Collectively, these findings indicate that CEACAMs play a multifaceted role in ETEC pathogen-host interactions, transiently favoring the pathogen, but ultimately contributing to innate responses that extinguish these common infections.

Exosomal miR-7-25207 Increases Subgroup J Avian Leukosis Virus Titers by Targeting the Akt-CyclinQ1 and PRC1-YAF2 Dual Pathways

Subgroup J avian leukosis virus (ALV-J) is a major pathogen in poultry, causing substantial economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide. Exosomal small RNAs derived from virus-infected cells or biological fluids can serve as viral transmission vectors. However, the role and mechanism of exosomal miRNA in ALV-J infection are unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that exosomal microRNA-7-25207 (miR-7-25207) could increase the titers of ALV-J. Exosomes isolated from ALV-J-infected DF-1 cells (Exo-ALV-J) contained partial viral proteins from ALV-J and could transmit the infection to uninfected DF-1 cells, leading to productive infection. Additionally, the RNA expression profile of exosomes was altered following ALV-J infection. miRNA analysis revealed that the expression of exosomal miR-7-25207 increased. Overexpression of miR-7-25207 significantly increased the titers of ALV-J in transfected cells. Furthermore, miR-7-25207 directly suppressed the expression of Akt and PRC1. Akt, in turn, directly inhibited CyclinQ1 expression, while PRC1 directly interfered with YAF2 expression. In conclusion, ALV-J infection activates the expression of miR-7-25207, which is subsequently delivered via exosomes to uninfected cells, increasing ALV-J titers by targeting Akt-CyclinQ1 and PRC1-YAF2 dual pathways. These findings suggest that exosomal miR-7-25207 may serve as a potential biomarker for clinical parameters in ALV-J infection.

Profound Properties of Protein-Rich, Platelet-Rich Plasma Matrices as Novel, Multi-Purpose Biological Platforms in Tissue Repair, Regeneration, and Wound Healing

Autologous platelet-rich plasma (PRP) preparations are prepared at the point of care. Centrifugation cellular density separation sequesters a fresh unit of blood into three main fractions: a platelet-poor plasma (PPP) fraction, a stratum rich in platelets (platelet concentrate), and variable leukocyte bioformulation and erythrocyte fractions. The employment of autologous platelet concentrates facilitates the biological potential to accelerate and support numerous cellular activities that can lead to tissue repair, tissue regeneration, wound healing, and, ultimately, functional and structural repair. Normally, after PRP preparation, the PPP fraction is discarded. One of the less well-known but equally important features of PPP is that particular growth factors (GFs) are not abundantly present in PRP, as they reside outside of the platelet alpha granules. Precisely, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) are mainly present in the PPP fraction. In addition to their roles as angiogenesis activators, these plasma-based GFs are also known to inhibit inflammation and fibrosis, and they promote keratinocyte migration and support tissue repair and wound healing. Additionally, PPP is known for the presence of exosomes and other macrovesicles, exerting cell-cell communication and cell signaling. Newly developed ultrafiltration technologies incorporate PPP processing methods by eliminating, in a fast and efficient manner, plasma water, cytokines, molecules, and plasma proteins with a molecular mass (weight) less than the pore size of the fibers. Consequently, a viable and viscous protein concentrate of functional total proteins, like fibrinogen, albumin, and alpha-2-macroglobulin is created. Consolidating a small volume of high platelet concentrate with a small volume of highly concentrated protein-rich PPP creates a protein-rich, platelet-rich plasma (PR-PRP) biological preparation. After the activation of proteins, mainly fibrinogen, the PR-PRP matrix retains and facilitates interactions between invading resident cells, like macrophages, fibroblast, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), as well as the embedded concentrated PRP cells and molecules. The administered PR-PRP biologic will ultimately undergo fibrinolysis, leading to a sustained release of concentrated cells and molecules that have been retained in the PR-PRP matrix until the matrix is dissolved. We will discuss the unique biological and tissue reparative and regenerative properties of the PR-PRP matrix.

Acidity and hypoxia of tumor microenvironment, a positive interplay in extracellular vesicle release by tumor cells

The complex and continuously evolving features of the tumor microenvironment, varying between tumor histotypes, are characterized by the presence of host cells and tumor cells embedded in a milieu shaped by hypoxia and low pH, resulting from the frequent imbalance between vascularity and tumor cell proliferation. These microenvironmental metabolic stressors play a crucial role in remodeling host cells and tumor cells, contributing to the stimulation of cancer cell heterogeneity, clonal evolution, and multidrug resistance, ultimately leading to progression and metastasis. The extracellular vesicles (EVs), membrane-enclosed structures released into the extracellular milieu by tumor/host cells, are now recognized as critical drivers in the complex intercellular communication between tumor cells and the local cellular components in a hypoxic/acidic microenvironment. Understanding the intricate molecular mechanisms governing the interactions between tumor and host cells within a hypoxic and acidic microenvironment, triggered by the release of EVs, could pave the way for innovative strategies to disrupt the complex interplay of cancer cells with their microenvironment. This approach may contribute to the development of an efficient and safe therapeutic strategy to combat cancer progression. Therefore, we review the major findings on the release of EVs in a hypoxic/acidic tumor microenvironment to appreciate their role in tumor progression toward metastatic disease.

Trends in Developing Extracellular Vesicle-Based Therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles are nano-sized vesicles surrounded by lipid bilayers, and all cells release them to the extracellular environment for communication. Extracellular vesicles consist of molecules with various biological activities and can play essential roles as therapeutics, so they attract much attention as next-generation modalities to treat various diseases. As extracellular vesicles are cell-derived nanovesicles, they are favorable to be developed as therapeutics, but they also have limitations. In addition, there are a number of things to consider in terms of manufacturing, quality control, non-clinical studies, and clinical trials during the development of extracellular vesicle-based therapeutics. Meanwhile, as much attention has been paid to the potentials of extracellular vesicles as therapeutics, many biopharmaceutical companies are trying to develop extracellular vesicle-based therapeutics. This review will introduce the advantages and limitations of extracellular vesicles as therapeutics. In addition, it will cover things to consider during developing extracellular vesicle-based therapeutics and development cases of extracellular vesicle-based therapeutics.

Fluorescent, phosphorescent, magnetic resonance contrast and radioactive tracer labelling of extracellular vesicles

This review focusses on the significance of fluorescent, phosphorescent labelling and tracking of extracellular vesicles (EVs) for unravelling their biology, pathophysiology, and potential diagnostic and therapeutic uses. Various labeling strategies, such as lipid membrane, surface protein, luminal, nucleic acid, radionuclide, quantum dot labels, and metal complex-based stains, are evaluated for visualizing and characterizing EVs. Direct labelling with fluorescent lipophilic dyes is simple but generally lacks specificity, while surface protein labelling offers selectivity but may affect EV-cell interactions. Luminal and nucleic acid labelling strategies have their own advantages and challenges. Each labelling approach has strengths and weaknesses, which require a suitable probe and technique based on research goals, but new tetranuclear polypyridylruthenium(II) complexes as phosphorescent probes have strong phosphorescence, selective staining, and stability. Future research should prioritize the design of novel fluorescent probes and labelling platforms that can significantly enhance the efficiency, accuracy, and specificity of EV labeling, while preserving their composition and functionality. It is crucial to reduce false positive signals and explore the potential of multimodal imaging techniques to gain comprehensive insights into EVs.

Liposome-based in situ antigen-modification strategy for "universal" T-cell-receptor engineered T cell in cancer immunotherapy

T-cell receptor (TCR) engineered T-cell therapy, unlike chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, relies on the inherent ability of TCRs to detect a wider variety of antigenic epitopes, such as protein fragments found internally or externally on cells. Hence, TCR-T-cell therapy offers broader possibilities for treating solid tumors. However, because of the complicated process of identifying specific antigenic peptides, their clinical application still encounters significant challenges. Thus, we aimed to establish a novel "universal" TCR-T "artificial antigen expression" technique that involves the delivery of the antigen to tumor cells using DSPE-PEG-NY-ESO-1157-165 liposomes (NY-ESO-1 Lips) to express TCR-T-cell-specific recognition targets. In vitro as well as in vivo studies revealed that they could accumulate efficiently in the tumor area and deliver target antigens to activate the tumor-specific cytotoxic T-cell immune response. NY-ESO-1 TCR-T therapy, when used in combination, dramatically curbed tumor progression and extended the longevity of mice. Additionally, PD-1 blockage enhanced the therapeutic effect of the aforementioned therapy. In conclusion, NY-ESO-1 Lips "cursed" tumor cells by enabling antigenic target expression on their surface. This innovative technique presents a groundbreaking approach for the widespread utilization of TCR-T in solid tumor treatment.