The real-life costs of emotion regulation in anorexia nervosa: a combined ecological momentary assessment and fMRI study

Neuroscience meets behavior: A systematic literature review on magnetic resonance imaging of the brain combined with real-world digital phenotyping

A primary goal of neuroscience is to understand the relationship between the brain and behavior. While magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examines brain structure and function under controlled conditions, digital phenotyping via portable automatic devices (PAD) quantifies behavior in real-world settings. Combining these two technologies may bridge the gap between brain imaging, physiology, and real-time behavior, enhancing the generalizability of laboratory and clinical findings. However, the use of MRI and data from PADs outside the MRI scanner remains underexplored. Herein, we present a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis systematic literature review that identifies and analyzes the current state of research on the integration of brain MRI and PADs. PubMed and Scopus were automatically searched using keywords covering various MRI techniques and PADs. Abstracts were screened to only include articles that collected MRI brain data and PAD data outside the laboratory environment. Full-text screening was then conducted to ensure included articles combined quantitative data from MRI with data from PADs, yielding 94 selected papers for a total of N = 14,778 subjects. Results were reported as cross-frequency tables between brain imaging and behavior sampling methods and patterns were identified through network analysis. Furthermore, brain maps reported in the studies were synthesized according to the measurement modalities that were used. Results demonstrate the feasibility of integrating MRI and PADs across various study designs, patient and control populations, and age groups. The majority of published literature combines functional, T1-weighted, and diffusion weighted MRI with physical activity sensors, ecological momentary assessment via PADs, and sleep. The literature further highlights specific brain regions frequently correlated with distinct MRI-PAD combinations. These combinations enable in-depth studies on how physiology, brain function and behavior influence each other. Our review highlights the potential for constructing brain-behavior models that extend beyond the scanner and into real-world contexts.

A neural network underlying cognitive strategies related to eating, weight and body image concerns

Concerns about food intake, weight and body shape can trigger negatively loaded emotions, which may prompt the use of cognitive strategies to regulate these emotional states. A novel fMRI task was developed to assess the neurobehavioral correlates of cognitive strategies related to eating, weight and body image concerns, such as self-criticism, avoidance, rumination, and self-reassurance. Fourteen healthy females were presented audio sentences referring to these conditions and instructed to repeat these internally while engaging their thoughts with the content of food or body images. Participants were asked to report the elicited emotion and rate their performance. All cognitive strategies recruited a network including the inferior and superior frontal gyri, orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and dorsal striatum. These brain regions are involved in emotional, reward and inhibitory control processing. Representational similarity analysis revealed distinct patterns of neural responses for each cognitive strategy. Additionally, self-report measures showed that self-criticism was positively associated with superior frontal gyrus (SFG) activation. Self-compassion scores were negatively correlated with activations in the insula and right putamen, while self-reassurance scores were negatively associated with activity in the orbitofrontal cortex. These findings identify a neural network underlying cognitive strategies related to eating, weight and body image concerns, where neurobehavioral correlation patterns depend on the cognitive strategy.

Noradrenergic control of neurobehavior in human binge-eating disorder and obesity (NOBEAD): A smartphone-supported behavioral emotion regulation intervention study protocol integrating molecular brain imaging

OBJECTIVE

The neurobehavioral underpinnings of binge-eating disorder (BED), co-occurring with obesity (OB), are largely unknown. This research project conceptualizes BED as a disorder with dysfunctional emotion regulation (ER) linked with changes in central noradrenaline (NA) transmission and NA-modulated neuronal networks.

METHODS

We expect abnormalities in NA activity in both BED and OB, but most pronounced in BED. We expect these abnormalities to be modifiable through state-of-the-art ER intervention, specifically in BED. To assess the role of NA transmission, we will quantify changes in NA transporter (NAT) availability using the highly NAT-specific [11 C]methylreboxetin (MRB) and positron emission tomography-magnetic resonance imaging (PET-MRI) that allows measuring molecular and neuronal changes before and after an ER intervention. Individual 12-session smartphone-supported acceptance-based behavioral therapy will be conducted to improve ER. Thirty individuals with OB and BED (OB + BED), 30 individuals with OB without BED (OB - BED), and 20 individuals with normal weight will undergo assessments of NAT availability and neuronal network activity under rest and stimulated conditions, clinical interviews, self-report questionnaires on eating behavior, ER, mental and physical health, and quality of life, and neuropsychological tests on executive function. Afterwards, in an experimental randomized-controlled design, individuals with OB + BED and OB - BED will be allocated to smartphone-supported ER intervention versus a waitlist and re-assessed after 10 weeks.

DISCUSSION

By obtaining biological and behavioral markers, the proposed study will disentangle the involvement of NAT and the central NA system in the modulation of emotion-supporting neuronal networks that influence eating behavior. Neurobehavioral mechanisms of change during an ER intervention will be determined.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS): DRKS00029367.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

This study investigates the central noradrenaline system by using hybrid brain imaging in conjunction with emotion regulation as a putative core biological mechanism in individuals with obesity with or without binge-eating disorder that is targeted by emotion regulation intervention. The results will provide a molecular signature beyond functional imaging biomarkers as a predictive biomarker toward precision medicine for tailoring treatments for individuals with binge-eating disorders and obesity.

The Willpower Paradox: Possible and Impossible Conceptions of Self-Control

Self-control denotes the ability to override current desires to render behavior consistent with long-term goals. A key assumption is that self-control is required when short-term desires are transiently stronger (more preferred) than long-term goals and people would yield to temptation without exerting self-control. We argue that this widely shared conception of self-control raises a fundamental yet rarely discussed conceptual paradox: How is it possible that a person most strongly desires to perform a behavior (e.g., eat chocolate) and at the same time desires to recruit self-control to prevent themselves from doing it? A detailed analysis reveals that three common assumptions about self-control cannot be true simultaneously. To avoid the paradox, any coherent theory of self-control must abandon either the assumption (a) that recruitment of self-control is an intentional process, or (b) that humans are unitary agents, or (c) that self-control consists in overriding the currently strongest desire. We propose a taxonomy of different kinds of self-control processes that helps organize current theories according to which of these assumptions they abandon. We conclude by outlining unresolved questions and future research perspectives raised by different conceptions of self-control and discuss implications for the question of whether self-control can be considered rational.

Explicating the role of amygdala substructure alterations in the link between hypoleptinemia and rumination in anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

The amygdaloid complex plays a pivotal role in emotion processing and has been associated with rumination transdiagnostically. In anorexia nervosa (AN), we previously observed differential reductions of amygdala nuclei volumes (rostral-medial cluster substantially affected) and, in another study, elevated food-/weight-related rumination. Both amygdala volumes and rumination frequency correlated with characteristically suppressed leptin levels in AN. Thus, we hypothesized that amygdala nuclei alterations might be associated with AN-related rumination and potentially mediate the leptin-rumination relationship in AN.

METHODS

Rumination (food-/weight-related) was assessed using ecological momentary assessment for a 14-day period. We employed frequentist and Bayesian linear mixed effects models in females with AN (n = 51, 12-29 years, majority admitted to inpatient treatment) and age-matched healthy females (n = 51) to investigate associations between rostral-medial amygdala nuclei volume alterations (accessory basal, cortical, medial nuclei, corticoamygdaloid transitions) and rumination. We analyzed mediation effects using multi-level structural equation models.

RESULTS

Reduced right accessory basal and cortical nuclei volumes predicted more frequent weight-related rumination in AN; both nuclei fully mediated the effect of leptin on weight-related rumination. In contrast, we found robust evidence for the absence of amygdala nuclei volume effects on rumination in healthy females.

CONCLUSION

This study provides first evidence for the relevance of specific amygdala substructure reductions regarding cognitive symptom severity in AN and points toward novel mechanistic insight into the relationship between hypoleptinemia and rumination, which might involve the amygdaloid complex. Our findings in AN may have important clinical value with respect to understanding the beneficial neuropsychiatric effects of leptin (treatment) in AN and potentially other psychiatric conditions such as depression.

Brain functional alterations in patients with anorexia nervosa: A meta-analysis of task-based functional MRI studies

The goal of this study was to discern the neural activation patterns associated with anorexia nervosa (AN) in response to tasks related to body-, food-, emotional-, cognitive-, and reward- processing. A meta-analysis was performed on task-based fMRI studies, revealing that patients with AN showed increased activity in the left superior temporal gyrus and bilaterally in the ACC during a reward-related task. During cognitive-related tasks, patients with AN also showed increased activity in the left superior parietal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, but decreased activity in the MCC. Additionally, patients with AN showed increased activity bilaterally in the cerebellum, MCC, and decreased activity bilaterally in the bilateral precuneus/PCC, right middle temporal gyrus, left ACC when they viewed food images. During emotion-related tasks, patients with AN showed increased activity in the left cerebellum, but decreased activity bilaterally in the striatum, right mPFC, and right superior parietal gyrus. Patients with AN also showed increased activity in the right striatum and decreased activity in the right inferior temporal gyrus and bilaterally in the mPFC during body-related tasks. The present meta-analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the patterns of brain activity evoked by task stimuli, thereby augmenting the current comprehension of the pathophysiology in AN.

Can neuroimaging measures differentiate the disease course of anorexia nervosa? A systematic review

Anorexia nervosa (AN) entails many uncertainties regarding the clinical outcome, due to large heterogeneity in the disease course. AN is associated with global decrease in brain volumes and altered brain functioning during acute illness. However, it is unclear whether structural and functional brain alterations can predict clinical outcome. We aimed to systematically review the predictive value of volumetric and functional brain outcome measures of structural and functional brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on the disease course of AN. Four databases (Embase, Medline, Psycinfo, and Cochrane Central Register) were systematically searched. A total of 15 studies (structural MRI: n = 6, functional MRI: n = 9) were reviewed. In total 464 unique AN patients, and 328 controls were included. Follow-up time ranged between 1 and 43 months. Structural neuroimaging studies showed that lower brain volumes of the cerebellum, subcortical grey matter, and cortical white matter at admission predicted a worse clinical outcome. A smaller increase of the anterior cingulate cortex volume in the early phase of the disease predicted a worse clinical outcome. Lower overall gyrification, and a higher clustering coefficient predicted a worse clinical outcome. Functional MRI studies showed that frontal, parietal and temporal activity during task-based algorithms predicted follow-up body mass index, although results were bidirectional possibly due to the large heterogeneity in methodological approaches. Neuroimaging measures may predict the clinical outcome of AN. However, there is a lack of replication studies. Future studies are needed to validate the prognostic utility of neuroimaging measures in AN patients, and should harmonize demographic, clinical and neuroimaging features in order to enhance comparability.

Therapy outcome of day treatment for people with anorexia nervosa before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

OBJECTIVE

The current research aimed to compare clinical outcome measures of two National Eating Disorder (ED) Day Services at the Maudsley Hospital from before the COVID-19 lockdown, when treatment was face to face, with after the lockdown when treatment moved online.

METHOD

Clinical outcome measures collected as part of the admission and discharge process were compared from the beginning and end of treatment for patients treated either via face-to-face or online delivery. Twenty-nine patients' data were analyzed (89% of them female, 11% male, 89% from White ethnic backgrounds, 11% from BAME ethnic backgrounds and a mean age of 25.99 years). Additionally, the mean change in outcome measures was also compared between the two groups (pre-lockdown face to face and during lockdown online).

RESULTS

Treatment delivered face to face led to significant improvements in body mass index (BMI) but not in Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDEQ) Global and Work and Social Adjustment Scale (WSAS) Total scores. In contrast, treatment delivered online led to significant improvements in EDEQ Global and WSAS Total scores but not in BMI. Neither one of the delivery modalities created significantly larger mean changes in any of the clinical outcome measures than the other.

CONCLUSIONS

Both face-to-face and online delivery of eating disorder day treatment show some success. Suggested improvements for using online delivery of treatment include implementing additional support opportunities, adapting the online format to improve communication and commitment and using a hybrid model of specific face-to-face elements with some online treatment.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and amygdala function during cognitive reappraisal predicts weight restoration and emotion regulation impairment in anorexia nervosa

BACKGROUND

Although deficits in affective processing are a core component of anorexia nervosa (AN), we lack a detailed characterization of the neurobiological underpinnings of emotion regulation impairment in AN. Moreover, it remains unclear whether these neural correlates scale with clinical outcomes.

METHODS

We investigated the neural correlates of negative emotion regulation in a sample of young women receiving day-hospital treatment for AN (n = 21) and healthy controls (n = 21). We aimed to determine whether aberrant brain activation patterns during emotion regulation predicted weight gain following treatment in AN patients and were linked to AN severity. To achieve this, participants completed a cognitive reappraisal paradigm during functional magnetic resonance imaging. Skin conductance response, as well as subjective distress ratings, were recorded to corroborate task engagement.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, patients with AN showed reduced activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) during cognitive reappraisal [pFWE<0.05, threshold-free cluster enhancement (TFCE) corrected]. Importantly, psycho-physiological interaction analysis revealed reduced functional connectivity between the dlPFC and the amygdala in AN patients during emotion regulation (pFWE<0.05, TFCE corrected), and dlPFC-amygdala uncoupling was associated with emotion regulation deficits (r = -0.511, p = 0.018) and eating disorder severity (r = -0.565, p = .008) in the AN group. Finally, dlPFC activity positively correlated with increases in body mass index (r = 0.471, p = 0.042) and in body fat mass percentage (r = 0.605, p = 0.008) following 12 weeks of treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our findings indicate that individuals with AN present altered fronto-amygdalar response during cognitive reappraisal and that this response may serve as a predictor of response to treatment and be linked to clinical severity.

Intact neural and behavioral correlates of emotion processing and regulation in weight-recovered anorexia nervosa: a combined fMRI and EMA study

Altered emotion processing and regulation mechanisms play a key role in eating disorders. We recently reported increased fMRI responses in brain regions involved in emotion processing (amygdala, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) in acutely underweight anorexia nervosa (AN) patients while passively viewing negatively valenced images. We also showed that patients' ability to downregulate activity elicited by positively valenced pictures in a brain region involved in reward processing (ventral striatum) was predictive of worse outcomes (increased rumination and negative affect). The current study tries to answer the question of whether these alterations are only state effects associated with undernutrition or whether they constitute a trait characteristic of the disorder that persists after recovery. Forty-one individuals that were weight-recovered from AN (recAN) and 41 age-matched healthy controls (HC) completed an established emotion regulation paradigm using negatively and positively valenced visual stimuli. We assessed behavioral (arousal) and fMRI measures (activity in the amygdala, ventral striatum, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) during emotion processing and regulation. Additionally, measures of disorder-relevant rumination and affect were collected several times daily for 2 weeks after scanning via ecological momentary assessment. In contrast to our previous findings in acute AN patients, recAN showed no significant alterations either on a behavioral or neural level. Further, there were no associations between fMRI responses and post-scan momentary measures of rumination and affect. Together, these results suggest that neural responses to emotionally valenced stimuli as well as relationships with everyday rumination and affect likely reflect state-related alterations in AN that improve following successful weight-recovery.

A 1-year follow-up study of the longitudinal interplay between emotion dysregulation and childhood trauma in the treatment of anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to investigate the complex relationship between eating disorder (ED) specific psychopathology, emotion dysregulation, and their longitudinal variations in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) treated with a multidisciplinary approach including enhanced cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT-E), and to provide an integrated model which includes childhood trauma as a predictor of worse treatment outcomes.

METHOD

In total, 120 female patients with AN were evaluated at admission (T0), and 105 were re-evaluated after 1 year (T1) of treatment. At T0, patients underwent a clinical assessment and filled the Symptom Checklist 90-Revised (SCL90-R), the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q), the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). SCL-90-R, EDE-Q, and DERS were readministered at T1. Variations between T0 and T1 were evaluated, and the proposed model was investigated using bivariate latent change score analysis in a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework.

RESULTS

An overall significant clinical amelioration was observed after treatment. A unidirectional effect of DERS scores on EDE-Q variations was outlined by SEM: patients with higher baseline DERS scores achieved less EDE-Q improvements, and EDE-Q latent change score was significantly predicted by longitudinal variations of DERS-but not vice versa. Higher CTQ scores predicted reduced treatment efficacy for ED-specific psychopathology through the mediating effect of higher baseline DERS scores.

DISCUSSION

The present study sheds light on the mechanism by which early trauma compromises treatment outcome in patients with AN, underlining the crucial role of emotional dysregulation.

Youth Psychopathology in Daily Life: Systematically Reviewed Characteristics and Potentials of Ecological Momentary Assessment Applications

Traditionally, symptoms of youth psychopathology are assessed with questionnaires, clinical interviews, or laboratory observations. Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) could be a particularly valuable additional methodology, since EMA enables examining the daily lives of youths near real-time, considering fluctuations and specific contexts of symptoms. This systematic review aimed to review the characteristics of current EMA applications and to provide a synthesis of their potential in studying youth psychopathology. Following a systematic search in PsycInfo and Medline, we identified 50 studies in clinical samples. Most studies used EMA to examine fluctuations in symptoms, affect, and behavior, and the relation with contextual factors. EMA was also used to investigate interactions between parents and their children over time, and to monitor and predict treatment response. EMA appeared feasible in youth and could provide valuable insights that contribute to understanding youth psychopathology. Benefits, gaps, and suggestions for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Differences in the use of emotion regulation strategies between anorexia and bulimia nervosa: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Research has identified abnormal emotion regulation (ER) as an underlying mechanism in the onset and maintenance of eating disorders. Yet, it still remains unclear whether different forms of ER, adaptive and maladaptive strategies, are similar across categories of eating disorders.

METHOD

A systematic review and meta-analysis were carried out to look at ER differences between anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN), two common eating disorder pathologies with different eating patterns.

RESULTS

41 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The results revealed no differences in the use of maladaptive ER strategies between individuals with AN and BN, however patients with AN tend to use less adaptive ER strategies as compared to patients with BN.

CONCLUSIONS

Making less use of adaptive strategies in AN might be due to low body weight and high levels of alexithymia which define AN. In order to improve treatment outcome in individuals suffering from AN, these findings suggest to focus more on improving the use of adaptive ER strategies.

Examining prospective mediational relationships between momentary rumination, negative affect, and binge eating using ecological momentary assessment

BACKGROUND

Rumination is linked to negative affect (NA), and there is accumulating support for an association between rumination and eating disorder (ED) behaviors. However, no research has examined the dynamic interrelationships between negative affect, rumination, and binge eating in naturalistic settings.

METHODS

The present study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess the hypotheses that momentary rumination would mediate relationships between NA and binge eating, and momentary NA would mediate relationships between rumination and binge eating. Given that rumination may be focused on weight, shape, and food in ED samples, models were examined separately for general and ED-specific rumination. Forty women completed a 10-day EMA protocol that included measures of NA, general and ED-specific rumination, and binge eating.

RESULTS

Multilevel mediation models indicated significant within-subjects indirect effects, such that momentary general rumination mediated the association between NA and binge eating, and NA also mediated the association between general but not ED-specific rumination and binge eating. Between-subjects effects indicated women with higher overall NA reported greater ED-specific rumination, which was associated with greater binge eating.

LIMITATIONS

The study was limited by a modest sample size, and the design precludes causal inferences.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight the momentary interplay between rumination and NA as a mechanism underlying binge eating, as well as the specificity of ruminative thought content in relationship to binge eating. Future work is needed to address the construct of rumination in the context of eating disorder interventions.

Effects of stress on chewing and food intake in patients with anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

The present study investigates the impact of psychosocial stress on chewing and eating behavior in patients with anorexia nervosa (P_AN ).

METHOD

The eating and chewing behavior of P_AN were examined in a standardized setting by means of a chewing sensor. These procedures encompassed n = 19 P_AN , age, and gender matched to n = 19 healthy controls (HC). Food intake and chewing frequency were assessed in two experimental conditions: rest versus stress (via Trier Social Stress Test). To verify stress induction, two appraisal scales were employed. In addition, chronic stress, psychological distress and eating disorder symptoms were assessed.

RESULTS

In terms of food intake and chewing frequency, the results of the 2x2 ANOVA demonstrated a significant effect of condition and group. During stress, all participants demonstrated a higher chewing frequency and a decreased ingestion. In general, patients ate less at a lower chewing frequency (vs. HC). However, sample specific analyses demonstrated that the eating and chewing behavior of P_AN remained unchanged regardless of the condition, except for their drinking. Food choices were comparable between the groups, but appetite values significantly differed.

DISCUSSION

The increase in chewing frequency in all participants during stress suggests that chewing might impact affect regulation, however, not specifically in P_AN . Future research should clarify to what extent the normalization of chewing behavior could ameliorate ED-symptoms (incl. food intake) in P_AN . The application of a chewing sensor could support this aim and future interventions.

The Maudsley Anorexia Nervosa Treatment for Adults (MANTRA): a feasibility case series of an integrated group based approach

BACKGROUND

Individuals with Anorexia Nervosa (AN) typically struggle in social and emotional contexts. An Integrated Group Based approach for the delivery of MANTRA - The Maudsley Anorexia Nervosa Treatment for Adults - extends current NICE recommended therapy by augmenting treatment with opportunities for experiential practice in a group context. A feasibility case series, delivered across three NHS community services is presented.

METHODS

The design was a case series of four Integrated Group MANTRA treatments delivered across three NHS sites (N = 29). Feasibility data of: retention, acceptability and effectiveness; alongside the qualitative capture of participant experiences of treatment is presented.

RESULTS

Primary outcomes suggest treatment acceptability. Participants committed to treatment with only 2 dropouts. There was significant change with medium effect sizes for eating disorder cognitions and symptoms (as measured by the global score on EDEQ) and BMI. Core themes emerging from qualitative analysis captured the value of the relational aspect of the treatment, the incorporation of experiential methods, and the opportunity to draw on the support of the group members to reduce shame and stigma.

CONCLUSIONS

An Integrated Group based MANTRA approach is a feasible and effective alternative intervention for community Eating Disorder services.

Neurobiological and Psychological Maintenance Mechanisms Associated with Anticipatory Reward in Bulimia Nervosa

The purpose of this investigation is to identify the anticipatory reward mechanisms that maintain binge eating and purging in bulimia nervosa. Emerging data indicate the importance of reward and anticipatory processes as maintenance mechanisms of bulimia nervosa that can be targeted in treatment. The proposed research will identify neurobiological and psychological anticipatory mechanisms of binge eating and purging using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and ecological momentary assessment (EMA) in the natural environment. In this investigation, 60 adults (30 with bulimia nervosa and 30 matched comparison participants) will undergo negative and positive mood inductions followed by an fMRI food selection task (and a comparison shopping task) to examine neurobiological and affective responses to food and non-food reward anticipation. Participants with bulimia nervosa will complete two weeks of EMA examining real-time affect changes in relation to the anticipation of binge eating and purging. These methods will facilitate rigorous assessment of the links between neurobiological (fMRI) and naturalistic (EMA) data in anticipatory reward processes. Findings from this investigation will inform the conceptualization and treatment of bulimia nervosa by identifying the role of reward anticipation in symptom maintenance, providing a crucial framework for targeting these anticipatory processes in existing and novel interventions.

The costs of over-control in anorexia nervosa: evidence from fMRI and ecological momentary assessment

A growing body of evidence suggests that a high level of self-control may, despite its positive effects, influence cognitive processing in an unfavorable manner. However, the affective costs of self-control have only rarely been investigated. Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder that is often characterized by excessive self-control. Here, we used fMRI to explore whether over-control in AN may have negative affective consequences. 36 predominantly adolescent female AN patients and 36 age-matched healthy controls (HC) viewed negative and neutral pictures during two separate fMRI sessions before and after 10 min of rest. We tested whether abnormally elevated neural activity during the initial presentation in a brain region broadly implicated in top-down control, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), could predict subsequent activation in limbic areas relevant to bottom-up affective processing. Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA), we also tested for associations between the aforementioned neuroimaging markers and negative affective states in the two weeks following the experiment. fMRI data revealed that higher initial activation of the dlPFC in AN predicted increased amygdala reactivity during the second fMRI session, which in turn was related to increased self-reported tension during two weeks following the scan. These data suggest that over-control in AN patients may come at a cost including negative affective states on a short (minutes) as well as a longer time scale (days). This mechanism may significantly contribute to the persistence of AN.

Influence of negative mood on restrained eaters' memory suppression of food cues: An event-related potentials study

Negative mood has been found to be a critical trigger for overeating in restrained eaters. The ability to suppress thinking of palatable food cues is crucial to control hedonic eating; nevertheless, little research has been conducted to explore inhibitory control in cognitive processes among restrained eaters. To address this gap, this study primed restrained eaters with negative (n = 23) or neutral emotions (n = 24) and applied a Think/No-think paradigm to explore their retrieval facilitation/suppression ability for food cues, while recording Electroencephalogram (EEG) data. Results indicated that the recall rate of the No-think condition (retrieval suppressing task) was higher than the Think condition (retrieval task). Negative affect did not influence the recall rate, but it did evoke smaller N2 amplitudes, larger P2 and P3 amplitudes, as well as late positive component (LPC) amplitudes. Among these components, P2 evoked by the No-think and Think conditions was larger than the perceptual control condition. Our findings suggested that in negative moods, restrained eaters need to allocate more attentional resources to suppress food cues. The findings further demonstrated that the influence of negative moods appeared at an early stage of cognitive processing and caused a resource depletion in memory suppression. This research provides a neurophysiological basis for understanding emotional influences on the process of restrained eaters' inhibition control for external food cues.

Autonomic Nervous System Response to Psychosocial Stress in Anorexia Nervosa: A Cross-Sectional and Controlled Study

To foster understanding in the psychopathology of patients with anorexia nervosa (P_AN) at the psychological and physiological level, standardized experimental studies on reliable biomarkers are needed, especially due to the lack of disorder-specific samples. To this end, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) response to a psychosocial stressor was investigated in n = 19 P_AN (BMI: 18.7 ± 3.3 kg/m²), age, and gender-matched to n = 19 healthy controls (HC; BMI: 24.23 ± 3.0 kg/m²). For this purpose, heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) parameters were assessed in a cross-sectional study design under two experimental conditions: (1) rest and (2) stress (Trier Social Stress Test). In addition, psychological indicators of stress were assessed. An 2 × 2 × 8 ANOVA demonstrated similar HR and HRV patterns (except LF-HRV) between P_AN and HC at rest. Under stress, P_AN (vs. HC) demonstrated a blunted HR [condition^*time^*group: F_{(2.91, 104.98)} = 9.326, p = 0.000, η² = 0.206] and an attenuated HRV response (reduced SNS/PNS reactivity). Significant effects of stress appraisal (SA) and BMI on HRV-reactivity were revealed. SA on SDNN = Condition^*time^*SA = F_{(4.12, 140.15)} = 2.676, p = 0.033, η² = 0.073. BMI on LF/HF-Ratio = Condition^*time^*BMI = F_{(3.53, 60.16)} = 3.339, p = 0.019, η² = 0.164. Psychological indices suggested higher levels of chronic and appraised stress in P_AN relative to HC. Additional analyses demonstrated that ED-symptoms are highly correlated with the latter constructs, as well as with psychological burden, but not with weight. Further, it was shown that abnormalities in reactivity persisted despite normalized ANS activity. Overall, we suggested that besides weight recovery, improvement in stress appraisal could be beneficial for cardiac health. In this light, a combination of therapy (e.g., development and activation of coping skills, cognitive reappraisal) and biofeedback training may improve treatment outcomes and regulate stress reactivity.

Exploring Neural Mechanisms Related to Cognitive Control, Reward, and Affect in Eating Disorders: A Narrative Review of FMRI Studies

Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have contributed to our understanding of possible neural abnormalities among individuals with eating disorders. Many of these studies have focused on three domains: 1) cognitive control, 2) reward processing, and 3) affective processing. This review attempts to summarize the recent fMRI findings across these domains among the most well-characterized eating disorders: anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorder (BED). Though the literature is a bit murky, a few major themes have emerged. Cognitive control systems are affected among individuals across eating disorder diagnoses, but effects seem least pronounced in AN. Specifically, individuals with all eating disorders appear to show decreased prefrontal activation during cognitive control, but there is less evidence in AN linking decreased prefrontal activation with behavior. There is some evidence that the reinforcing value of food is reduced in AN, but individuals with BN and BED show hyperactivation to rewarding food-related stimuli, suggesting the reinforcing value of food may be enhanced. However, more complex reward processing paradigms show that individuals with BN and BED exhibit hypoactivation to reward anticipation and provide mixed results with regards to reward receipt. There are fewer neuroimaging findings related to affective processing, yet behavioral findings suggest affective processing is important in understanding eating disorders. Though the extant literature is complicated, these studies represent a foundation from which to build and provide insight into potential neurobiological mechanisms that may contribute to the pathophysiology of eating disorders.

Brain activation during social cognition predicts everyday perspective-taking: A combined fMRI and ecological momentary assessment study of the social brain

Identifying distinct neural networks underlying social affect (empathy, compassion) and social cognition (Theory of Mind) has advanced our understanding of social interactions. However, little is known about the relation of activation in these networks to psychological experience in daily life. This study (N = 122) examined the ecological validity of neural activation patterns induced by a laboratory paradigm of social affect and cognition with respect to social interactions in everyday life. We used the EmpaToM task, a naturalistic video-based paradigm for the assessment of empathy, compassion, and Theory of Mind, and combined it with a subsequent 14-day ecological momentary assessment protocol on social interactions. Everyday social affect was predicted by social affect experienced during the EmpaToM task, but not by related neural activation in regions of interest from the social affect network. In contrast, everyday social cognition was predicted by neural activation differences in the medial prefrontal cortex – a region of interest from the social cognition network – but not by social cognition performance in the EmpaToM task. The relationship between medial prefrontal cortex activation and everyday social cognition was stronger for spontaneous rather than deliberate perspective taking during the EmpaToM task, pointing to a distinction between propensity and capacity in social cognition. Finally, this neural indicator of Theory of Mind explained variance in everyday social cognition to a similar extent as an established selfreport scale. Taken together, this study provides evidence for the ecological validity of lab-based social affect and cognition paradigms when considering relevant moderating factors.

The potential use of N-methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDMA) assisted psychotherapy in the treatment of eating disorders comorbid with PTSD

Despite advances in the field, eating disorders (EDs) remain very challenging disorders to treat, especially when comorbid with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). N-methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy for treatment refractory PTSD shows great promise, with two-thirds of participants achieving full remission at 1 year or more at follow-up. PTSD is a common comorbidity associated with EDs, and patients with EDs and PTSD (ED-PTSD) are reported to have higher severities of illness, greater comorbidities, higher treatment dropouts, and poorer outcomes. We hypothesize that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy will be efficacious in the ED-PTSD population for both ED and PTSD symptoms. The rationales for and proposed mechanisms of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for ED-PTSD are considered from neurobiological, psychological and social perspectives. MDMA is associated with unique psychopharmacological effects, including: 1) reduced fear, 2) enhanced wellbeing, 3) increased sociability/extroversion, 4) reduced self-criticism, 5) increased compassion for self/others, 6) increased interpersonal trust, and 7) alert state of consciousness. These anxiolytic and prosocial effects may counteract avoidance and hyperarousal in the context of psychotherapy for those with ED-PTSD. Other clinical features of EDs that may be amenable to MDMA-assisted psychotherapy include body image distortion, cognitive rigidity, and socio-emotional processing difficulties. To illustrate its potential, personal accounts of individuals with ED-PTSD symptoms reporting benefit from MDMA adjunctive to psychotherapy are described. In addition, the possible risks and challenges in conducting this work are addressed, and future implications of this proposal are discussed.

Ecological momentary assessment in eating disorders research: recent findings and promising new directions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) is an important tool for clarifying common precipitants and consequences of eating disorder symptoms that might be meaningfully targeted in treatments for these pernicious disorders. This article reviews recent advances in EMA work conducted within clinical eating disorder samples.

RECENT FINDINGS

Published studies from the past 2.5 years can broadly be categorized as involving functional analysis of eating disorder behaviors, examining hypothesized predictors of eating disorder symptoms, or applying novel approaches to EMA data. Examples of the latter category include the use of latent profile analysis with EMA data, integration of neurocognitive (e.g., ambulatory inhibitory control task) or biological indicators (e.g., fMRI, plasma leptin), and examining changes in associations between momentary variables over time through multiwave EMA data collection.

SUMMARY

EMA studies in eating disorders have advanced significantly in recent years, with findings demonstrating strong support for the emotion regulation function of eating disorder behaviors and momentary predictors of distinct eating disorder symptoms. The use of novel statistical and data collection approaches represent exciting areas of growth, with likely implications for intervention approaches, including those that utilize ambulatory technology to deliver treatment.

Body image states in everyday life: Evidence from ecological momentary assessment methodology

This review highlights the contributions of Professor Thomas Cash to the scholarship of body image experiences in daily life, including his influence on subsequent research in this field. Cash's arguments for capturing a broad range of state-based body image experiences have been heeded, with recent studies exploring positive body image constructs as well as the more studied negative body image experiences. Appearance comparisons are the most commonly studied contextual influence on body image, and they seem to have a consistent effect. However, the experiences of body image in sexual contexts, and among adolescents, those who are pregnant, or have other physical characteristics that may increase the salience of appearance warrant further attention. Findings generally support Cash's contention that trait body image relates to likelihood and level of experience of body image in daily life, though the moderating effects of trait aspects on state-based relationships remains unclear. The discussion concludes with consideration of the impact of assessment schedules on obtained results. It is also discussed how accumulated knowledge regarding state-based body image experiences may be leveraged in treatment contexts, particularly in light of clear evidence that repeated assessment of body image in daily life increases self-awareness of one's body image characteristics.

Clinical insight in anorexia nervosa: Associated and predictive factors

Clinical and cognitive factors associated with clinical insight regarding both baseline level and its time-related changes, in outpatients treated for anorexia nervosa. The 193 participants were recruited at 13 French centers specializing in eating disorders (FFAB network) and assessed for insight (SAI-ED), body mass index (BMI), eating disorder severity, symptoms of depression and anxiety, emotional state, silhouette, and functionality; two cognitive tests were also administered. The 137 patients were then re-assessed 18 weeks later. Minimum and ideal subjective BMI and premorbid intelligence were associated with poor baseline insight. Contrary to nearly all other clinical factors, the level of insight revealed no improvement after four months of care. Only the higher value of the minimum lifetime BMI was significantly predictive of increased insight. More positive emotions (PANAS), less symptoms of depression and anxiety (HADS scores), and fewer syndromes (HADS above threshold) were the only factors that covaried with the changes in the level of insight. In conclusion, poor insight has little time variability, contrary to nearly all clinical and cognitive factors. As increased insight is mainly accompanied by improvements in the emotional domain, the latter could represent potential targets for patients with lack of awareness about their eating disorder.

The Neurobiology of Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are severe psychiatric illnesses with a typical age of onset in adolescence. Brain research in youth and young adults may help us identify specific neurobiology that contributes to onset and maintenance of those disorders. This article provides a state-of-the-art review of our current understanding of the neurobiology of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. This includes brain structure and function studies to understand food restriction, binge-eating or purging behaviors, cognitive and emotional factors, as well as interoception. Binge-eating disorder and avoidant restrictive food intake disorder are also discussed, but the literature is still very small.

Neural Processing of Disorder-Related Stimuli in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa: A Narrative Review of Brain Imaging Studies

Abnormalities and alterations in brain function are commonly associated with the etiology and maintenance of anorexia nervosa (AN). Different symptom categories of AN have been correlated with distinct neurobiological patterns in previous studies. The aim of this literature review is to provide a narrative overview of the investigations into neural correlates of disorder-specific stimuli in patients with AN. Although findings vary across studies, a summary of neuroimaging results according to stimulus category allows us to account for methodological differences in experimental paradigms. Based on the available evidence, the following conclusions can be made: (a) the neural processing of visual food cues is characterized by increased top-down control, which enables restrictive eating, (b) increased emotional and reward processing during gustatory stimulation triggers disorder-specific thought patterns, (c) hunger ceases to motivate food foraging but instead reinforces disorder-related behaviors, (d) body image processing is related to increased emotional and hedonic reactions, (e) emotional stimuli provoke increased saliency associated with decreased top-down control and (f) neural hypersensitivity during interoceptive processing reinforces avoidance behavior. Taken together, studies that investigated symptom-specific neural processing have contributed to a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of AN.

From Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) to Ecological Momentary Intervention (EMI): Past and Future Directions for Ambulatory Assessment and Interventions in Eating Disorders

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Ambulatory assessment methods, including ecological momentary assessment (EMA), have often been used in eating disorders (EDs) to assess the type, frequency, and temporal sequencing of ED symptoms occurring in naturalistic environments. Relatedly, growing research in EDs has explored the utility of ecological momentary interventions (EMIs) to target ED symptoms. The aims of the present review were to (1) synthesize recent literature pertaining to ambulatory assessment/EMA and EMI in EDs, and (2) identify relevant limitations and future directions in these domains.

RECENT FINDINGS

With respect to ambulatory assessment and EMA, there has been substantial growth in the expansion of constructs assessed with EMA, the exploration of state- vs. trait-level processes, integration of objective and passive assessment approaches, and consideration of methodological issues. The EMI literature in EDs also continues to grow, though most of the recent research focuses on mobile health (mHealth) technologies with relatively minimal EMI components that adapt to momentary contextual information. Despite these encouraging advances, there remain several promising areas of ambulatory assessment research and clinical applications in EDs going forward. These include integration of passive data collection, use of EMA in treatment evaluation and design, evaluation of dynamic system processes, inclusion of diverse samples, and development and evaluation of adaptive, tailored EMIs such as just-in-time adaptive interventions. While much remains to be learned in each of these domains, the continual growth in mobile technology has potential to facilitate and refine our understanding of the nature of ED psychopathology and ultimately improve intervention approaches.

Harnessing networks and machine learning in neuropsychiatric care

The development of next-generation therapies for neuropsychiatric illness will likely rely on a precise and accurate understanding of human brain dynamics. Toward this end, researchers have focused on collecting large quantities of neuroimaging data. For simplicity, we will refer to large cross-sectional neuroimaging studies as broad studies and to intensive longitudinal studies as deep studies. Recent progress in identifying illness subtypes and predicting treatment response in neuropsychiatry has been supported by these study designs, along with methods bridging machine learning and network science. Such methods combine analytic power, interpretability, and direct connection to underlying theory in cognitive neuroscience. Ultimately, we propose a general framework for the treatment of neuropsychiatric illness relying on the findings from broad and deep studies combined with basic cognitive and physiologic measurements.

Editorial: To Eat or Not to Eat: Advancing the Neuroscience of Hedonic Versus Controlled Eating Across Weight and Eating Disorders

Excessive weight and obesity, especially with childhood onset, is associated with long-term morbidity and mortality and places a major burden on the health care system. In the United States, 17% of children and adolescents are obese (32% overweight). By adulthood, the number rises to 34% or even 68% when also considering overweight individuals.¹ Conventional nonsurgical treatments are often ineffective, and weight loss achieved with behaviorally oriented therapy programs is usually small (∼5%) and short-lived.² A better understanding of the associated psychological mechanisms and their neurobiological underpinnings may allow for the development of more efficient, potentially brain-based, therapeutic interventions. A growing number of human functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies point to alterations in reward-related corticostriatal circuity and the hypothalamus, a key area in energy homeostasis.³ Recent studies have analyzed resting state functional connectivity (rsFC), a technique sensitive to changes in the interaction between distant brain regions, which is particularly advantageous in clinical samples, as it requires little compliance and as scanning time is relatively short.

Editorial: Connecting the Nodes of Altered Brain Network Organization in Eating Disorders

Two prevalent eating disorders (ED) in adolescence are anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN). AN is characterized primarily by an extensive restriction of energy intake leading to significantly low body weight. In contrast, the cardinal symptom of BN is uncontrolled eating of an abnormally large amount of food, followed by compensatory behavior to avoid weight gain (eg, self-induced vomiting or laxative abuse). Despite these differences and the fact that individuals with BN are usually of normal weight, patients with both disorders have an abnormal preoccupation with body weight and shape,¹ often in the form of distressing ruminations.^2,3 Left untreated, body image distortion and associated extreme eating/purging habits often have severe and life-long physical, social and psychological consequences. A better understanding of the neurobiological substrates of clinical symptoms may help to improve therapeutic interventions and outcome.⁴.

Could repetitive negative thinking interfere with corrective learning? The example of anorexia nervosa

Identifying processes that may interfere with corrective learning during treatments for anorexia nervosa (AN) may help to improve the effectiveness of existing interventions. We propose that certain cognitive processes characteristic of the AN temperament may help explain previous findings in AN suggesting difficulty updating previously learned associations and learning from feedback. Specifically, we hypothesize that engagement in repetitive negative thinking (RNT), including worry and rumination, could interfere with corrective learning that is critical to the success of behavioral treatments. In doing so, we draw from existing work in anxiety and mood disorders linking RNT to the maintenance of symptoms and poorer response to cognitive-behavioral treatments. Next, we outline hypothesized mechanisms through which engagement in RNT before, during, and after exposure to aversive stimuli could interfere with learning in AN. We then provide recommendations for how these hypothesized associations could be tested in future research. Although prior work has suggested that RNT processes are common among individuals with AN, this work has been primarily descriptive in nature. We propose that extending this work through direct examination of the impact of active engagement in RNT on corrective learning could aid in identifying AN maintenance processes that could be explicitly targeted in treatment.

Processing and regulation of negative emotions in anorexia nervosa: An fMRI study

Theoretical models and recent advances in the treatment of anorexia nervosa (AN) have increasingly focused on the role of alterations in the processing and regulation of emotions. To date, however, our understanding of these changes is still limited and reports of emotional dysregulation in AN have been based largely on self-report data, and there is a relative lack of objective experimental evidence or neurobiological data. The current functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study investigated the hemodynamic correlates of passive viewing and voluntary downregulation of negative emotions by means of the reappraisal strategy detachment in AN patients. Detachment is regarded as adaptive regulation strategy associated with a reduction in emotion-related amygdala activity and increased recruitment of prefrontal brain regions associated with cognitive control processes. Emotion regulation efficacy was assessed via behavioral arousal ratings and fMRI activation elicited by an established experimental paradigm including negative images. Participants were instructed to either simply view emotional pictures or detach themselves from feelings triggered by the stimuli. The sample consisted of 36 predominantly adolescent female AN patients and a pairwise age-matched healthy control group. Behavioral and neuroimaging data analyses indicated a reduction of arousal and amygdala activity during the regulation condition for both patients and controls. However, compared with controls, individuals with AN showed increased activation in the amygdala as well as in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) during the passive viewing of aversive compared with neutral pictures. These results extend previous findings indicative of altered processing of salient emotional stimuli in AN, but do not point to a general deficit in the voluntary regulation of negative emotions. Increased dlPFC activation in AN during passive viewing of negative stimuli is in line with the hypothesis that the disorder may be characterized by excessive self-control. Taken together, the data seem to suggest that reappraisal via detachment may be an effective strategy to reduce negative arousal for individuals with AN.