Low maternal vitamin B12 status is associated with intrauterine growth retardation in urban South Indians

Exploring the Impact of Folic Acid Supplementation and Vitamin B12 Deficiency on Maternal and Fetal Outcomes in Pregnant Women with Celiac Disease

Background: Celiac disease is a chronic small intestinal immune-mediated enteropathy precipitated by exposure to dietary gluten, affecting approximately 1% of the global population and two million Americans. An increasing number of studies have identified a link between celiac disease and adverse maternal and fetal outcomes during pregnancy and after birth. Additionally, both celiac disease and pregnancy are associated with an increased risk for nutrient deficiencies, specifically vitamin B12 and folate. Methods: This review examines the current literature related to the folate trap and vitamin B12 deficiency in patients with celiac disease and pregnant women independently and provides rationale for future research to explore the relationship between the folate-to-12 ratio in pregnant women with celiac disease. Results: Deficiencies in vitamin B12 are linked with several negative maternal and fetal health outcomes including pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, spontaneous abortion/miscarriage, preterm birth, neural tube defects, intrauterine growth restriction, and low gestational age and birthweight. Conclusions: Folic acid supplementation is widely recommended during pregnancy, but complementary vitamin B12 supplementation is not standard. Physicians should consider celiac disease screening during pregnancy as well as vitamin B12 supplementation.

Effect of a High Linoleic Acid Diet on Pregnant Women and Their Offspring

Nutritional intake during pregnancy can affect gestational length, fetal development, and impact postnatal growth and health in offspring. Perturbations in maternal nutrition with either an excess or deficiency in nutrients during pregnancy may have harmful effects on the offspring's development and increase the risk of developing chronic diseases later in life. In pregnancy, nutrients transfer from the mother to the fetus via the placenta. Essential fatty acids, linoleic acid (LA) and alpha linoleic acid (ALA), can only be obtained in the diet. In Western countries, the ratio of LA and ALA in the diet has increased dramatically in recent decades. Some animal and human studies have found a correlation between maternal intake of LA and birth weight; however, the association varies. In contrast, some human studies have demonstrated inconclusive findings regarding the correlation between cord blood levels of LA and birth outcomes. In addition, high dietary LA intake in animal studies in pregnancy increased the production of inflammatory markers such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, cytokines, and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. This review aims to highlight the effect of high dietary LA intake during pregnancy on birth outcomes, obesity, maternal inflammatory markers, and the transfer of fatty acids across the placenta.

Indicators of Cobalamin Status During Pregnancy, Pregnancy Outcome and Long-Term Effects on Offspring Health

BACKGROUND

Little attention has been given to prenatal cobalamin insufficiency in settings where dietary cobalamin intake is presumed adequate, such as populations with habitual intake of foods from animal sources.

RESULTS

However, low cobalamin status in women of fertile age has been reported in Europe, United States, and Canada. In India, where cobalamin deficiency is highly prevalent, it has been associated with an increased risk of miscarriage, intrauterine growth retardation, as well as insulin resistance and lower neurodevelopment scores in the offspring. Low cobalamin status in pregnancy has been associated with similar outcomes as those reported in the Indian studies although the evidence is scant and conflicting.

CONCLUSIONS

Consideration should be given to maternal cobalamin status in the context of prevention of adverse pregnancy outcomes as well as cobalamin insufficiency both in the mother and the offspring during lactation. Further attention is now justified with the increasing tendency toward plant-based diets. Reference intervals for cobalamin status during each trimester of pregnancy are needed and further investigation of the long-term conse-quences of low cobalamin status during pregnancy for health and development in the offspring is warranted.

Cord Blood Proteomic Profiles, Birth Weight, and Early Life Growth Trajectories

Importance

The cord blood proteome, a repository of proteins derived from both mother and fetus, might offer valuable insights into the physiological and pathological state of the fetus. However, its association with birth weight and growth trajectories early in life remains unexplored.

Objective

To identify cord blood proteins associated with birth weight and the birth weight ratio (BWR) and to evaluate the associations of these cord blood proteins with early growth trajectories.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study included 288 mother-child pairs from the ongoing prospective Environmental Influence on Early Aging birth cohort study. Newborns were recruited from East-Limburg Hospital in Genk, Belgium, between February 2010 and November 2017 and followed up until ages 4 to 6 years. Data were analyzed from February 2022 to September 2023.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The outcome of interest was the associations of 368 inflammatory-related cord blood proteins with birth weight or BWR and with early life growth trajectories (ie, rapid growth at age 12 months and weight, body mass index [BMI] z score, waist circumference, and overweight at age 4-6 years) using multiple linear regression models. The BWR was calculated by dividing the birth weight by the median birth weight of the population-specific reference growth curve, considering parity, sex, and gestational age. Results are presented as estimates or odds ratios (ORs) for each doubling in proteins.

Results

The sample included 288 infants (125 [43.4%] male; mean [SD] gestation age, 277.2 [11.6] days). The mean (SD) age of the child at the follow-up examination was 4.6 (0.4) years old. After multiple testing correction, there were significant associations of birth weight and BWR with 7 proteins: 2 positive associations: afamin (birth weight: coefficient, 341.16 [95% CI, 192.76 to 489.50]) and secreted frizzled-related protein 4 (SFRP4; birth weight: coefficient, 242.60 [95% CI, 142.77 to 342.43]; BWR: coefficient, 0.07 [95% CI, 0.04 to 0.10]) and 5 negative associations: cadherin EGF LAG 7-pass G-type receptor 2 (CELSR2; birth weight: coefficient, -237.52 [95% CI, -343.15 to -131.89]), ephrin type-A receptor 4 (EPHA4; birth weight: coefficient, -342.78 [95% CI, -463.10 to -222.47]; BWR: coefficient, -0.11 [95% CI, -0.14 to -0.07]), SLIT and NTRK-like protein 1 (SLITRK1; birth weight: coefficient, -366.32 [95% CI, -476.66 to -255.97]; BWR: coefficient, -0.11 [95% CI, -0.15 to -0.08]), transcobalamin-1 (TCN1; birth weight: coefficient, -208.75 [95% CI, -305.23 to -112.26]), and unc-5 netrin receptor D (UNC5D; birth weight: coefficient, -209.27 [95% CI, -295.14 to -123.40]; BWR: coefficient, -0.07 [95% CI, -0.09 to -0.04]). Further evaluation showed that 2 proteins were still associated with rapid growth at age 12 months (afamin: OR, 0.32 [95% CI, 0.11-0.88]; TCN1: OR, 2.44 [95% CI, 1.26-4.80]). At age 4 to 6 years, CELSR2, EPHA4, SLITRK1, and UNC5D were negatively associated with weight (coefficients, -1.33 to -0.68 kg) and body mass index z score (coefficients, -0.41 to -0.23), and EPHA4, SLITRK1, and UNC5D were negatively associated with waist circumference (coefficients, -1.98 to -0.87 cm). At ages 4 to 6 years, afamin (OR, 0.19 [95% CI, 0.05-0.70]) and SLITRK1 (OR, 0.32 [95% CI, 0.10-0.99]) were associated with lower odds for overweight.

Conclusions and Relevance

This cohort study found 7 cord blood proteins associated with birth weight and growth trajectories early in life. Overall, these findings suggest that stressors that could affect the cord blood proteome during pregnancy might have long-lasting associations with weight and body anthropometrics.

Folate and vitamin B12 status and predicted neural tube defects risk among nonpregnant women of reproductive age from the Malawi National Micronutrient Survey, 2015-2016

BACKGROUND

Maternal folate and vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to serious adverse pregnancy outcomes. There are no nationally representative estimates on folate and vitamin B12 status among women of reproductive age (WRA) in Malawi.

OBJECTIVE

We assessed folate and vitamin B12 status among nonpregnant WRA in Malawi and predicted the risk of folate-sensitive neural tube defects (NTDs) were they to become pregnant.

METHODS

Using data from the cross-sectional, nationally representative 2015-2016 Malawi Micronutrient Survey, we calculated the proportion of folate and vitamin B12 deficiency and insufficiency by demographic characteristics among 778 nonpregnant WRA (15-49 years). We predicted NTD prevalence using red blood cell (RBC) folate distributions and a published Bayesian model of the association between RBC folate and NTD risk. Analyses accounted for complex survey design.

RESULTS

Among WRA, 8.5% (95% CI: 6.2, 11.6) and 13.3% (10.0, 17.4) had serum (<7 nmol/L) and RBC folate (<305 nmol/L) deficiency, respectively. The proportion of vitamin B12 deficiency (<148 pmol/L) and insufficiency (≤221 pmol/L) was 11.8% (8.6, 16.0) and 40.6% (34.1, 47.4), respectively. RBC folate insufficiency (<748 nmol/L, defined as the concentration associated with the threshold for elevated NTD risk: >8 cases per 10,000 births) was widespread: 81.4% (75.0, 86.4). The predicted NTD risk nationally was 24.7 cases per 10,000 live births. RBC folate insufficiency and higher predicted NTD risk were more common among WRA living in urban areas or with higher education.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the importance of nutritional and NTD surveillance in Malawi and the opportunity for improving folate and vitamin B12 nutrition among Malawian WRA.

Vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy for maternal and child health outcomes

BACKGROUND

Vitamin B12 deficiency is a major public health problem worldwide, with the highest burden in elderly people, pregnant women, and young children. Due to its role in DNA synthesis and methylation, folate metabolism, and erythropoiesis, vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy may confer longer-term benefits to maternal and child health outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the benefits and harms of oral vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and child health outcomes.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth's Trials Register, ClinicalTrials.gov, the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) on 2 June 2023, and reference lists of retrieved studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, or cluster-RCTs evaluating the effects of oral vitamin B12 supplementation compared to placebo or no vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard Cochrane methods. Four review authors independently assessed trial eligibility. Two review authors independently extracted data from included studies and conducted checks for accuracy. Three review authors independently assessed the risk of bias of the included studies using the Cochrane RoB 1 tool. We used GRADE to evaluate the certainty of evidence for primary outcomes.

MAIN RESULTS

The review included five trials with 984 pregnant women. All trials were conducted in low- and middle-income countries, including India, Bangladesh, South Africa, and Croatia. At enrolment, 26% to 51% of pregnant women had vitamin B12 deficiency (less than 150 pmol/L), and the prevalence of anaemia (haemoglobin less than 11.0 g/dL) ranged from 30% to 46%. The dosage of vitamin B12 supplementation varied from 5 μg/day to 250 μg/day, with administration beginning at 8 to 28 weeks' gestation through to delivery or three months' postpartum, and the duration of supplementation ranged from 8 to 16 weeks to 32 to 38 weeks. Three trials, involving 609 pregnant women, contributed data for meta-analyses of the effects of vitamin B12 supplementation compared to placebo or no vitamin B12 supplementation. Maternal anaemia: there may be little to no difference for maternal anaemia by intervention group, but the evidence is very uncertain (70.9% versus 65.0%; risk ratio (RR) 1.08, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.93 to 1.26; 2 trials, 284 women; very low-certainty evidence). Maternal vitamin B12 status: vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy may reduce the risk of maternal vitamin B12 deficiency compared to placebo or no vitamin B12 supplementation, but the evidence is very uncertain (25.9% versus 67.9%; RR 0.38, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.51; 2 trials, 272 women; very low-certainty evidence). Women who received vitamin B12 supplements during pregnancy may have higher total vitamin B12 concentrations compared to placebo or no vitamin B12 supplementation (mean difference (MD) 60.89 pmol/L, 95% CI 40.86 to 80.92; 3 trials, 412 women). However, there was substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 85%). Adverse pregnancy outcomes: the evidence is uncertain about the effect on adverse pregnancy outcomes, including preterm birth (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.55 to 1.74; 2 trials, 340 women; low-certainty evidence), and low birthweight (RR 1.50, 95% CI 0.93 to 2.43; 2 trials, 344 women; low-certainty evidence). Two trials reported data on spontaneous abortion (or miscarriage); however, the trials did not report quantitative data for meta-analysis and there was no clear definition of spontaneous abortion in the study reports. No trials evaluated the effects of vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy on neural tube defects. Infant vitamin B12 status: children born to women who received vitamin B12 supplementation had higher total vitamin B12 concentrations compared to placebo or no vitamin B12 supplementation (MD 71.89 pmol/L, 95% CI 20.23 to 123.54; 2 trials, 144 children). Child cognitive outcomes: three ancillary analyses of one trial reported child cognitive outcomes; however, data were not reported in a format that could be included in quantitative meta-analyses. In one study, maternal vitamin B12 supplementation did not improve neurodevelopment status (e.g. cognitive, language (receptive and expressive), motor (fine and gross), social-emotional, or adaptive (conceptual, social, practical) domains) in children compared to placebo (9 months, Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development Third Edition (BSID-III); 1 trial; low-certainty evidence) or neurophysiological outcomes (72 months, event-related potential measures; 1 trial; low-certainty evidence), though children born to women who received vitamin B12 supplementation had improved expressive language domain compared to placebo (30 months, BSID-III; 1 trial; low-certainty evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Oral vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy may reduce the risk of maternal vitamin B12 deficiency and may improve maternal vitamin B12 concentrations during pregnancy or postpartum compared to placebo or no vitamin B12 supplementation, but the evidence is very uncertain. The effects of vitamin B12 supplementation on other primary outcomes assessed in this review were not reported, or were not reported in a format for inclusion in quantitative analyses. Vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy may improve maternal and infant vitamin B12 status, but the potential impact on longer-term clinical and functional maternal and child health outcomes has not yet been established.

Maternal-Periconceptional Vitamin B12 Deficiency in Wistar Rats Leads to Sex-Specific Programming for Cardiometabolic Disease Risk in the Next Generation

BACKGROUND

Maternal vitamin B12 deficiency plays a vital role in fetal programming, as corroborated by previous studies on murine models and longitudinal human cohorts.

OBJECTIVES

This study assessed the effects of diet-induced maternal vitamin B12 deficiency on F1 offspring in terms of cardiometabolic health and normalization of these effects by maternal-periconceptional vitamin B12 supplementation.

METHODS

A diet-induced maternal vitamin B12 deficient Wistar rat model was generated in which female rats were either fed a control AIN-76A diet (with 0.01 g/kg vitamin B12) or the same diet with vitamin B12 removed. Females from the vitamin B12-deficient group were mated with males on the control diet. A subset of vitamin B12-deficient females was repleted with vitamin B12 on day 1 of conception. The offspring in the F1 generation were assessed for changes in body composition, plasma biochemistry, and molecular changes in the liver. A multiomics approach was used to obtain a mechanistic insight into the changes in the offspring liver.

RESULTS

We showed that a 36% reduction in plasma vitamin B12 levels during pregnancy in F0 females can lead to continued vitamin B12 deficiency (60%-70% compared with control) in the F1 offspring and program them for cardiometabolic adversities. These adversities, such as high triglycerides and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, were seen only among F1 males but not females. DNA methylome analysis of the liver of F1 3-mo-old offspring highlights sexual dimorphism in the alteration of methylation status of genes critical to signaling processes. Proteomics and targeted metabolomics analysis confirm that sex-specific alterations occur through modulations in PPAR signaling and steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway. Repletion of deficient mothers with vitamin B12 at conception normalizes most of the molecular and biochemical changes.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal vitamin B12 deficiency has a programming effect on the next generation and increases the risk for cardiometabolic syndrome in a sex-specific manner. Normalization of the molecular risk markers on vitamin B12 supplementation indicates a causal role.

Bioactive Ingredients from Dairy-Based Lactic Acid Bacterial Fermentations for Functional Food Production and Their Health Effects

Lactic acid bacteria are traditionally applied in a variety of fermented food products, and they have the ability to produce a wide range of bioactive ingredients during fermentation, including vitamins, bacteriocins, bioactive peptides, and bioactive compounds. The bioactivity and health benefits associated with these ingredients have garnered interest in applications in the functional dairy market and have relevance both as components produced in situ and as functional additives. This review provides a brief description of the regulations regarding the functional food market in the European Union, as well as an overview of some of the functional dairy products currently available in the Irish and European markets. A better understanding of the production of these ingredients excreted by lactic acid bacteria can further drive the development and innovation of the continuously growing functional food market.

Vitamins and minerals, education, and self-care need during preconception to 1000 days of life in Southeast Asia: An expert panel opinion

Addressing maternal malnutrition and its drivers is paramount in Southeast Asia. This article summarizes the key clinical learnings and evidence-based opinions from the experts to understand the need for vitamins and minerals supplementation, education, and self-care from preconception to the first 1000 days of life, which warranted further attention since COVID-19 pandemic. Evidence describing the importance of vitamins and minerals during preconception, pregnancy, and lactation stages was identified using literature databases. A pre-meeting survey was conducted to determine the current practices and challenges in Southeast Asia. Based on the literature review and clinical experience, experts defined the topics, and an online meeting was held on 13th July 2021. During the meeting, nine experts from Southeast Asia provided evidence-based opinion on the vitamins and minerals supplementation, education, and self-care need during preconception, pregnancy, and lactation stages. The expert opinions underpin maternal malnutrition as a prevalent issue and discuss appropriate interventions and prevention strategies for women in Southeast Asia. The recent pandemic further impacted nutrition status, pregnancy, and neonatal health outcomes. The expert panel emphasized a need to improve existing inadequacies in education, self-care, and social support, and discussed the role of policymakers in addressing the barriers to dietary changes. As inadequacies in regular vitamins and minerals supplementation, education, and self-care for women of reproductive age implicate maternal and child health outcomes, there is an urgent need for addressing malnutrition concerns in this population. Thus, a strong partnership between policymakers, healthcare professionals, and other relevant sectors is required.

Vitamin B6 Levels and Impaired Folate Status but Not Vitamin B12 Associated with Low Birth Weight: Results from the MAASTHI Birth Cohort in South India

Vitamins B12 and B6 and folate are known to have implications for pregnancy outcomes. We aimed to describe B6, B12, and folate status in pregnancy and investigate their associations with low birth weight and preterm delivery in mothers recruited from public hospitals in urban Bengaluru. Pregnant women between 18 and 45 years were included in the MAASTHI prospective cohort study. Each participant's age, socioeconomic status, and anthropometry were recorded during baseline and followed up after delivery. Blood samples were collected between the 24th and 32nd weeks of gestation and stored at -80° for analysis. B6, B12, folate, homocysteine, and methylmalonic acid (MMA) levels were analyzed in the stored samples. We found low plasma vitamin B12, folate, and B6 levels in 48.5%, 42.0%, and 10.4% of the women (n = 230), respectively. Elevated MMA and homocysteine were observed among 73.6% and 6.1% of the women, respectively. We found B6 levels were significantly associated with birth weight (β(SE) -0.002(0.0), p = 0.001) after adjusting for age, parity, adiposity, gestational diabetes, and socioeconomic status of the mother. Those with impaired folate deficiency were twice at risk (AOR 1.95 (1.29, 3.07), p = 0.002) of low birth weight. Vitamin B6 levels and impaired folate status were associated with low birth weight in the MAASTHI birth cohort.

NAD+, Sirtuins and PARPs: enhancing oocyte developmental competence

Oocyte quality is the limiting factor in female fertility. It is well known that maternal nutrition plays a role in reproductive function, and manipulating nutrition to improve fertility in livestock has been common practice in the past, particularly with respect to negative energy balance in cattle. A deficiency in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) production has been associated with increased incidences of miscarriage and congenital defects in humans and mice, while elevating NAD⁺ through dietary supplements in aged subjects improved oocyte quality and embryo development. NAD⁺ is consumed by Sirtuins and poly-ADP-ribose polymerases (PARPs) within the cell and thus need constant replenishment in order to maintain various cellular functions. Sirtuins and PARPs play important roles in oocyte maturation and embryo development, and their activation may prove beneficial to in vitro embryo production and livestock breeding programs. This review examines the roles of NAD⁺, Sirtuins and PARPs in aspects of fertility, providing insights into the potential use of NAD⁺-elevating treatments in livestock breeding and embryo production programs.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Vitamin B12 Deficiency among Pregnant Women in Rural Bangladesh

Vitamin B12 deficiency is associated with an increased risk of pregnancy complications and adverse birth outcomes. However, data on vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnant Bangladeshi women are limited. This study examines vitamin B12 deficiency and marginal deficiency in rural Bangladeshi women during early and late pregnancies. Some 522 women whose gestational age was <20 weeks were recruited. Serum vitamin B12 concentrations were measured at baseline and after 14 weeks of iron-folate supplementation. Logistic regression analysis examined the association of various socio-demographic, dietary, and pregnancy-related factors with vitamin B12 deficiency and marginal deficiency. Overall, 19% of the women during early pregnancy had vitamin B12 deficiency (serum vitamin B12 concentration < 203 pg/mL) and nearly 40% had marginal deficiency (serum vitamin B12 concentration 203 to <300 pg/mL). Vitamin B12 deficiency doubled to 38% during late pregnancy, while marginal deficiency slightly increased to 41.7%. The pregnant women with a gestational age of ≥27 weeks had a higher risk of developing vitamin B12 deficiency (OR = 2.61; 95% CI = 1.096−6.214) than those of a gestational age of <27 weeks. Vitamin B12 deficiency was significantly higher in pregnant women in rented accommodation (OR = 13.32; 95% CI = 1.55−114.25) than in those living in their own house. Vitamin B12 deficiency was significantly higher among women who consumed red or organ meat <3 times a week than in those who consumed it more often (OR = 2.327, 95% CI = 1.194−4.536). None of these factors were significantly associated with marginal vitamin B12 deficiency. In conclusion, vitamin B12 deficiency and marginal deficiency among pregnant rural Bangladeshi women increased as their pregnancies progressed. Increasing gestational age, living in a rented house, and the consumption of red or organ meat <3 times a week were identified as the independent risk factors of vitamin B12 deficiency in this population. Further research with more in-depth assessments of dietary vitamin B12 intakes is needed to develop an intervention program preventing vitamin B12 deficiency in this population.

Evaluating the Diagnostic Value of a Combined Indicator of Vitamin B12 Status (cB12) Throughout Pregnancy

Background

Inadequate provision of vitamin B₁₂ during pregnancy is associated with a number of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes. We set out to (1) suggest pregnancy-specific reference ranges for a range of biomarkers of vitamin B₁₂; (2) assess the temporal behaviors of these markers over the course of pregnancy; and (3) test whether any biomarkers, including the genetic marker HIBCH rs291466 strongly associated with MMA measured early in pregnancy could reliably and significantly predict future B₁₂ status within a healthy UK population of pregnant women.

Materials and Methods

We used existing biobank samples from the placebo arm of the UK Selenium in PRegnancy Intervention (SPRINT) study, to generate biochemical data for serum folate, B₁₂, holotranscobalamin (HoloTC), total homocysteine (tHcy), and MMA, calculate cB₁₂, and genotyped the polymorphism rs291466 in gene HIBCH on a total of n=114 women across trimesters 1–3 of their pregnancy. We performed a series of exploratory cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses to investigate levels at each trimester, suggest references ranges, evaluate changes and correlations between the B₁₂ biomarkers, and assess the predictive capabilities of each biomarker from 12-weeks to 35-weeks of gestation.

Results

Significant changes in all vitamin B₁₂ biomarker values were observed over the three trimesters (P < 0.05). Our study shows that cB₁₂ values were largely constant and stable throughout trimester 1 (T1) and T2 (i.e., up to week 20), but declined significantly in T3 (−66% | P < 0.001). Yet, cB₁₂ generally remained within the normal boundaries. We identified pregnancy and trimester-specific reference ranges for each biomarker at each trimester, notably for total serum B₁₂. This marker fell below the recommended cut-offs in 1/3 of the cohort at the third trimester, contrasting other markers (mostly normal). Our multivariate analyses indicated that none of the biomarkers could reliably and accurately predict any other biomarkers than themselves later in pregnancy. Yet, HoloTC seems to be a promising predictor within the limitations of our cohort, constituted of B₁₂-replete individuals. Most notably, cB₁₂ did not significantly predict itself between trimesters. Finally, we show that the HIBCH variant has little predictive power for MMA or cB₁₂ as it does not explain the significant increase in MMA concentrations nor the decline of cB₁₂ throughout pregnancy.

Conclusion

Trimester-specific reference ranges for biomarkers of vitamin B₁₂ in normal pregnancy are suggested. However, these biomarkers have limited predictive value in identifying mothers at elevated risk of vitamin B₁₂ insufficiency/deficiency during pregnancy.

Cobalamin and folate status in women during early pregnancy in Bhaktapur, Nepal

The demand for cobalamin (vitamin B12) and folate is increased during pregnancy, and deficiency during pregnancy may lead to complications and adverse outcomes. Yet, the status of these micronutrients is unknown in many populations. We assessed the concentration of cobalamin, folate and their functional biomarkers, total homocysteine (tHcy) and methylmalonic acid (MMA), in 561 pregnant women enrolled in a community-based randomised controlled trial in Bhaktapur, Nepal. Plasma concentrations of cobalamin, folate, tHcy and MMA were measured and a combined indicator of vitamin B12 status (3cB12) was calculated. We report mean or median concentrations and the prevalence of deficiency according to commonly used cut-offs, and assessed their association with indicators of socio-economic status, and maternal and dietary characteristics by linear regression. Among the women at gestational week less than 15, deficiencies of cobalamin and folate were seen in 24 and 1 %, respectively. Being a vegetarian was associated with lower plasma cobalamin, and a higher socio-economic status was associated with a better micronutrient status. We conclude that cobalamin deficiency defined by commonly used cut-offs was common in Nepalese women in early pregnancy. In contrast, folate deficiency was rare. As there is no consensus on cut-off points for vitamin B12 deficiency during pregnancy, future studies are needed to assess the potential functional consequences of these low values.

Associations of prenatal metabolomics profiles with early childhood growth trajectories and obesity risk in African Americans: the CANDLE study

OBJECTIVE

Prenatal metabolomics profiles, providing measures of in utero nutritional and environmental exposures, may improve the prediction of childhood outcomes. We aimed to identify prenatal plasma metabolites associated with early childhood body mass index (BMI) trajectories and overweight/obesity risk in offspring.

METHODS

This study included 450 African American mother-child pairs from the Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood Study. An untargeted metabolomics analysis was performed on the mothers' plasma samples collected during the second trimester. The children's BMI-z-score trajectories from birth to age 4 [rising-high- (9.8%), moderate- (68.2%), and low-BMI (22.0%)] and overweight/obesity status at age 4 were the main outcomes. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) was used to select the prenatal metabolites associated with childhood outcomes.

RESULTS

The mothers were 24.5 years old on average at recruitment, 76.4% having education less than 12 years and 80.0% with Medicaid or Medicare. In LASSO, seven and five prenatal metabolites were associated with the BMI-z-score trajectories and overweight/obese at age 4, respectively. These metabolites are mainly from/relevant to the pathways of steroid biosynthesis, amino acid metabolism, vitamin B complex, and xenobiotics metabolism (e.g., caffeine and nicotine). The odds ratios (95% CI) associated with a one SD increase in the prenatal metabolite risk scores (MRSs) constructed from the LASSO-selected metabolites were 2.97 (1.95-4.54) and 2.03 (1.54-2.67) for children being in the rising-high-BMI trajectory group and overweight/obesity at age 4, respectively. The MRSs significantly improved the risk prediction for childhood outcomes beyond traditional prenatal risk factors. The increase (95% CI) in the area under the receiver operating characteristic curves were 0.10 (0.03-0.18) and 0.07 (0.02-0.12) for the rising-high-BMI trajectory (P = 0.005) and overweight/obesity at age 4 (P = 0.007), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal metabolomics profiles advanced prediction of early childhood growth trajectories and obesity risk in offspring.

Maternal Vitamin B12 Status During Pregnancy and Its Association With Outcomes of Pregnancy and Health of the Offspring: A Systematic Review and Implications for Policy in India

Background

Vitamins B12 and folate participate in the one-carbon metabolism cycle and hence regulate fetal growth. Though vitamin B12 deficiency is widely prevalent, the current public health policy in India is to supplement only iron and folic acid for the prevention of anaemia. Prompted by our research findings of the importance of maternal vitamin B12 status for a healthy pregnancy, birth and offspring health outcomes, we evaluated available literature evidence using a systematic review approach, to inform policy.

Methods

A systematic search was performed for relevant Indian studies in the MEDLINE/PubMed and IndMed databases. We selected studies reporting maternal vitamin B12 status (dietary intake or blood concentrations), and/or metabolic markers of vitamin B12 deficiency (homocysteine, methylmalonic acid) or haematological indices during pregnancy and their associations with outcomes of pregnancy, infancy or in later life. Intervention trials of vitamin B12 during pregnancy were also included. Quality of evidence was assessed on the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system. We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement.

Results

Of the 635 articles identified, 46 studies met the inclusion criteria (cohort studies-26, case-control studies-13, RCT's -7). There is a high prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency in Indian women during pregnancy (40-70%) (3 studies). Observational studies support associations (adjusted for potential sociodemographic confounders, maternal body size, postnatal factors) of lower maternal B12, higher homocysteine or an imbalance between vitamin B12-folate status with a higher risk of NTDs (6 studies), pregnancy complications (recurrent pregnancy losses, gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia) (9 studies), lower birth weight (10 studies) and adverse longer-term health outcomes in the offspring (cognitive functions, adiposity, insulin resistance) (11 studies). Vitamin B12 supplementation (7 RCT's) in pregnancy showed a beneficial effect on offspring neurocognitive development and an effect on birth weight was inconclusive. There is a high quality evidence to support the role of low maternal vitamin B12 in higher risk for NTD and low birth weight and moderate-quality evidence for higher risk of gestational diabetes and later life adverse health outcomes (cognitive functions, risk for diabetes) in offspring.

Conclusion

In the Indian population low maternal vitaminB12 status, is associated with adverse maternal and child health outcomes. The level of evidence supports adding vitamin B12 to existing nutritional programs in India for extended benefits on outcomes in pregnancy and offspring health besides control of anaemia.

Systematic Review Registration

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Maternal vitamin B12 deficiency and perinatal outcomes in southern India

Background

Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency during pregnancy has been associated with adverse maternal and infant health outcomes. Few prospective studies have investigated vitamin B₁₂ status early in pregnancy, and its links to infant vitamin B₁₂ status, particularly in India where the burden of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is estimated to be the highest globally. The objective of this study was to examine the associations of maternal vitamin B₁₂ biomarkers with neonatal vitamin B₁₂ status.

Methods

Pregnant women (~12 weeks’ gestation) were enrolled in a perinatal cohort study in Bangalore, India. Total vitamin B₁₂, methylmalonic acid (MMA), and homocysteine concentrations were evaluated in maternal samples at enrollment and in neonates at birth using cord blood. Linear and binomial regression models were used to evaluate the associations of maternal vitamin B₁₂ biomarkers with neonatal vitamin B₁₂ status and perinatal outcomes.

Results

A total of 63.2% of women had vitamin B₁₂ deficiency (<148 pmol/L), 87.2% had vitamin B₁₂ insufficiency (<221 pmol/L), and 47.3% had impaired vitamin B₁₂ status (vitamin B₁₂<148 pmol/L and MMA>0.26μmol/L) at enrollment; 40.8% of neonates had vitamin B₁₂ deficiency, 65.6% were insufficiency, and 38.1% had impaired vitamin B₁₂ status at birth. Higher maternal vitamin B₁₂ concentrations at enrollment were associated with increased neonatal vitamin B₁₂ concentrations (β(SE): 0.40 (0.05); p<0.0001) and lower risk of neonatal vitamin B₁₂ deficiency (Risk Ratio [RR]: 0.53; 95% CI: [0.43, 0.65]; p<0.0001). Maternal vitamin B₁₂ deficiency (RR: 1.97 [1.43, 2.71]; p<0.001), insufficiency (RR: 2.18 [1.23, 3.85]; p = 0.007), and impaired vitamin B₁₂ status (RR: 1.49 [1.13, 1.97]; p = 0.005) predicted a two-fold increase in the risk of neonatal vitamin B₁₂ deficiency at birth.

Conclusions

The prevalence of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency was high early in pregnancy and predicted neonatal vitamin B₁₂ status. Future research is needed to determine the role of vitamin B₁₂ in the development of pregnancy and infant outcomes, and to inform screening and interventions to improve maternal and child health.

Maternal Vitamin B12 Status and Risk of Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate Birth Defects in Tamil Nadu State, India

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The causal role of maternal nutrition in orofacial clefts is uncertain. We tested hypotheses that low maternal vitamin B₁₂ and low folate status are each associated with an increased risk of isolated cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL±P) in a case-control study in Tamil Nadu state, India.

METHODS

Case-mothers of CL±P children (n = 47) and control-mothers of unaffected children (n = 50) were recruited an average of 1.4 years after birth of the index child and plasma vitamin B₁₂, methylmalonic acid (MMA), total homocysteine (tHcy), and folate were measured at that time. Logistic regression analyses estimated associations between nutrient biomarkers and case-control status.

RESULTS

Odds ratios (ORs) contrasting biomarker levels showed associations between case-mothers and low versus high plasma vitamin B₁₂ (OR = 2.48, 95% CI, 1.02-6.01) and high versus low plasma MMA, an indicator of poor B₁₂ status (OR = 3.65 95% CI, 1.21-11.05). Case-control status was not consistently associated with folate or tHcy levels. Low vitamin B₁₂ status, when defined by a combination of both plasma vitamin B₁₂ and MMA levels, had an even stronger association with case-mothers (OR = 6.54, 95% CI, 1.33-32.09).

CONCLUSIONS

Mothers of CL±P children in southern India were 6.5 times more likely to have poor vitamin B₁₂ status, defined by multiple biomarkers, compared to control-mothers. Further studies in populations with diverse nutritional backgrounds are required to determine whether poor maternal vitamin B₁₂ or folate levels or their interactions are causally related to CL±P.

Maternal vitamin B12 status in early pregnancy and its association with birth outcomes in Canadian mother-newborn Dyads

Vitamin B12 (B12) is a co-enzyme essential for fetal growth and development. Lower maternal B12 status has been associated with preterm birth (<37 gestational weeks) and low birth weight (<2500 g), which are linked to morbidity and mortality across the lifespan. In Canada, 17-25 % of women in early pregnancy had a serum total B12 concentration <148 pmol/l and maternal total B12 concentration decreased throughout pregnancy. This study aimed to determine the association between maternal B12 status and birth outcomes in Canadian mother-newborn dyads. A secondary analysis of 709 mother-newborn dyads in British Columbia (BC), Canada, was conducted. Bio-banked first- (n 656) and second-trimester (n 709) maternal serum samples of apparently healthy South Asian (50 %) and European (50 %) women from the BC Prenatal Genetic Screening Program were quantified for B12 biomarkers (total B12, holotranscobalamin (holoTC), methylmalonic acid (MMA) and total homocysteine (tHcy)). Obstetric history and birth outcome data were obtained from the BC Perinatal Data Registry. All associations were determined using multiple linear regression. Maternal serum total B12, holoTC, MMA and tHcy had a mean weekly decrease of 3·64 pmol/l, 1·04 pmol/l, 1·44 nmol/l and 0·104 μmol/l, respectively (P < 0·001). Despite a total B12 concentration <148 pmol/l among 20-25 % of the women, maternal B12 biomarker concentrations were not associated with birth weight z-score, head circumference z-score and gestational age at birth (P > 0·05). Additional research in women at high risk of adverse birth outcomes and the association between maternal B12 status and functional, for example, cognitive, outcomes is needed.

Review of Vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnancy: a diagnosis not to miss as veganism and vegetarianism become more prevalent

Vegetarianism and veganism are increasingly popular. The Food Standards Agency, biennial Food and You Survey of adults aged 16 years and over living in the UK, found that between 2012 and 2018 the proportion of people who reported never consuming dairy products had increased from 2% to 5%. However, veganism risks development of vitamin B12 deficiency as it is not available from plant sources. Moreover, its impact may be slow to be detected because body stores of vitamin B12 can last years. There is currently no published guidance on antenatal diagnosis and management of vitamin B12 deficiency. This paper reviews the metabolism, diagnosis and treatment of vitamin B12 in pregnancy. It concludes that national screening policymakers should consider introducing screening for B12 deficiency into the Antenatal and Newborn Screening Programmes for mothers and their infants if at risk of vitamin B12 deficiency. In the interim, national policy should be developed for prophylactic vitamin B12 supplementation in high-risk groups around the time of pregnancy.

Prevalence and Indicators of Vitamin B12 Insufficiency among Young Women of Childbearing Age

Vitamin B12 insufficiency is a global health issue among women of childbearing age, yet few studies have investigated its prevalence and risk factors among healthy Middle Eastern populations. This cross-sectional study included 346 Saudi women aged 19–30 years and enrolled at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. A series of questionnaires were administered to record the study participants’ sociodemographic status, medical history, dietary intake, and physical activity. Participants’ anthropometric data were also recorded and their fasting blood samples were analyzed. The rate of vitamin B12 insufficiency (≤220 pmol/L) was approximately 6% among the study participants. After adjusting for confounding factors, it was observed that the risk factors for vitamin B12 insufficiency included daily sitting time ≥ 7 h, low income (<10,000 Saudi riyal) and increasing age. The recommended dietary allowance of vitamin B12 (>2.4 mcg/day) has been shown to confer reasonable protection against vitamin B12 insufficiency. These study findings highlight that a combination of increased physical activity and dietary vitamin B12 intake above the current recommended dietary allowance may help improve the serum vitamin B12 levels of young women of childbearing age, especially those with a low socioeconomic status. Timely detection and protection against vitamin B12 insufficiency in this subpopulation are important to prevent maternal and fetal health risks.

Reference intervals for serum total vitamin B12 and holotranscobalamin concentrations and their change points with methylmalonic acid concentration to assess vitamin B12 status during early and mid-pregnancy

Background Maternal vitamin B12 (B-12) adequacy is important for maternal health and optimal fetal growth. However, pregnancy-specific cut-offs for B-12 biomarkers are lacking. Methods Reference intervals for serum total B-12, holotranscobalamin (holoTC) and methylmalonic acid (MMA) concentrations were calculated following CLSI EP28-A3c guidelines in 723 pregnant women of European (50%) and South Asian (50%) ethnicity, residing in British Columbia, Canada, at median (range) 11.4 (8.3-13.9) and 16.1 (14.9-20.9) weeks of gestation. Change point analyses described relationships between log serum MMA concentration with serum total B-12 and holoTC concentrations, assuming linear-linear relationships. Results The central 95% reference interval limits indicated that serum total B-12 <89.9 and <84.0 pmol/L, holoTC <29.5 and <26.0 pmol/L and MMA >371 and >374 nmol/L, in the first and second trimesters, respectively, may indicate B-12 deficiency in pregnant women. The lower limits of total B-12 and holoTC and the upper limits of MMA significantly differed by ethnicity in both trimesters. According to the change point analysis, total B-12 <186 and <180 pmol/L and holoTC <62.2 and <67.5 pmol/L in the first and second trimesters, respectively, suggested an increased probability of impaired intracellular B-12 status, with no difference between ethnicities. Conclusions We present novel reference limits and change points for B-12 biomarkers, which may be employed to identify possible B-12 deficiency in women during early and mid-pregnancy. Future research is needed to validate these cut-offs and determine the predictors and functional outcomes associated with impaired B-12 status in ethnically diverse populations.

Intestinal parasitic infections in pregnancy - A review

Intestinal parasitic infections are widespread worldwide and with increased global travel and transport of food, these are not entirely limited to traditionally endemic areas. The prevalence of parasitic infections in endemic areas among pregnant women ranges from 24 to 70 % with approximately 10 % of women having multiple parasites. Pregnancy with its increased nutritional demands and altered immunological defenses is an especially vulnerable time for acquiring parasitic infections, which may be associated with adverse outcomes such as anaemia, which in some cases may even contribute to mortality. The presence of a helminthic infections during pregnancy may also cause immunological effects that can contribute to maternal morbidity and mortality as well as affecting the maternal immune response and immune system function in the baby after birth. Mass administration of anthelminthic drug therapy has been applied in endemic areas but there is inconclusive evidence of its benefit in improving pregnancy outcomes, however, no safety concerns have been highlighted with the use of the recommended drugs for parasitic infections.

Diagnostic Challenges Using a 2-Tier Strategy for Methylmalonic Acidurias: Data from 1.2 Million Dried Blood Spots

BACKGROUND

The detection of methylmalonic acid (MMA) by second-tier analysis has been shown to reduce the number of false positives in newborn screening (NBS) for genetically determined methylmalonic acidurias (MMAuria). In addition to genetic conditions, MMA is an indicator of vitamin B12 status, thus applicable to detect maternal vitamin B12 deficiency in the newborns screened.

METHODS

Biochemical and clinical follow-up data of a 7.5-year pilot study with 1.2 million newborns screened were reviewed.

RESULTS

Among 1,195,850 NBS samples, 3,595 (0.3%) fulfilled criteria for second-tier analysis of MMA. In 37 (0.003%; 1/32,000) samples, elevated concentrations of MMA were detected, resulting in diagnostic workup at a metabolic center in 21 newborns. In 6 infants (1/199,000), genetic conditions were established, 1 infant with cobalamin C deficiency (CblC) showed only a moderate elevation of MMA. The remaining 15 newborns (1/79,000) displayed significantly lower concentrations of MMA and were evaluated for maternal vitamin B12 deficiency. In 9 mothers, vitamin B12 deficiency was verified, and 6 showed no indication for vitamin B12 deficiency. Treatment with vitamin B12 normalized biochemical parameters in all 15 infants.

CONCLUSIONS

Applying a 2-tier strategy measuring MMA in NBS identified genetic conditions of MMAuria. It was possible to separate severe, early-onset phenotypes from maternal vitamin B12 deficiency. However, the detection of CblC deficiency with mildly elevated MMA interferes with impaired vitamin B12 status of unknown relevance and thus burdens possibly healthy newborns. Regarding maternal vitamin B12 deficiency, testing and supplementing mothers-to-be is preferable. This might decrease straining follow-up of newborns and improve quality and overall perception of NBS.

Grandmother's Diet Matters: Early Life Programming with Sucrose Influences Metabolic and Lipid Parameters in Second Generation of Rats

Early life exposure to certain environmental stimuli is related to the development of alternative phenotypes in mammals. A number of these phenotypes are related to an increased risk of disease later in life, creating a massive healthcare burden. With recent focus on the determination of underlying causes of common metabolic disorders, parental nutrition is of great interest, mainly due to a global shift towards a Western-type diet. Recent studies focusing on the increase of food or macronutrient intake don't always consider the source of these nutrients as an important factor. In our study, we concentrate on the effects of high-sucrose diet, which provides carbohydrates in form of sucrose as opposed to starch in standard diet, fed in pregnancy and lactation in two subsequent generations of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and congenic SHR-Zbtb16 rats. Maternal sucrose intake increased fasting glycaemia in SHR female offspring in adulthood and increased their chow consumption in gravidity. High-sucrose diet fed to the maternal grandmother increased brown fat weight and HDL cholesterol levels in adult male offspring of both strains, i.e., the grandsons. Fasting glycaemia was however decreased only in SHR offspring. In conclusion, we show the second-generation effects of maternal exposition to a high-sucrose diet, some modulated to a certain extent by variation in the Zbtb16 gene.

Diet quality, nutrient intakes and biochemical status of New Zealand women of childbearing age according to alcohol consumption patterns

OBJECTIVE

To investigate associations between alcohol consumption patterns and diet quality, nutrient intakes and biochemical profile of women of childbearing age.

DESIGN

Nutrient intake data from 24 h diet recalls, alcohol consumption data and diet quality from the Dietary Habits Questionnaire, and biochemical analyses from the cross-sectional 2008/09 Adult Nutrition Survey in New Zealand.

SETTING

New Zealand households.

PARTICIPANTS

New Zealand women aged 18-45 years (n 1124).

RESULTS

All analyses were completed using Stata and survey weights were used to allow for the complex survey design to produce population estimates. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to examine the associations between drinking patterns and the variables of interest, with 'infrequent moderate/light' drinkers being the reference category. The findings indicate that alcohol-consuming women of childbearing age tend to replace food energy with alcohol energy (P = 0·022). 'More frequent heavy' and 'more frequent moderate/light' drinkers had higher intakes of total, mono- and polyunsaturated fats with the latter group also consuming higher levels of saturated fats (P < 0·05). Women who were 'infrequent moderate/light' drinkers had relatively better diet quality, nutrient intakes and adequate biochemical status in comparison to other drinkers and abstainers. 'Infrequent heavy' drinkers, who were predominantly younger in age, had lower serum vitamin B12 levels (P = 0·01) with a higher proportion of women in this category having below-recommended levels of serum folate (P < 0·05).

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol consumption, especially heavy drinking patterns, may compromise nutritional status of women of childbearing age.

Trends of folate, vitamin B12 , and homocysteine levels in different trimesters of pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of folate and vitamin B₁₂ levels on pregnancy progression and outcomes.

METHODS

The present study is a prospective follow up study of 100 pregnant women. Biochemical investigations (plasma homocysteine, folate, and vitamin B₁₂ levels) were performed on all pregnant women in first, second, and third trimesters. Nonparametric tests were used to compare the differences in median levels and odds ratio analysis for the assessment of the risk between the selected biomarkers and adverse pregnancy progression and outcomes.

RESULTS

The pregnant women at their first antenatal care visit were found to be predominantly folate replete (97%) and vitamin B₁₂ deficient (60%). Hyperhomocysteinemia in first and second trimesters was found to pose more than 3-fold increased risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes (P = .006 and .0002, respectively). Low birth weight (LBW) was found to be the most common adverse pregnancy outcome (52%), and was significantly associated with vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in the first and second trimesters (82%, P < .0001; 71.4%, P = .04, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is more common among Indian pregnant women as compared to folate deficiency. Hyperhomocysteinemia is an independent risk factor for pregnancy complications. Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in first and second trimesters is associated with LBW babies.

Maternal choline supplementation alters vitamin B-12 status in human and murine pregnancy

Despite participation in overlapping metabolic pathways, the relationship between choline and vitamin B-12 has not been well characterized especially during pregnancy. We sought to determine the effects of maternal choline supplementation on vitamin B-12 status biomarkers in human and mouse pregnancy, hypothesizing that increased choline intake would improve vitamin B-12 status. Associations between common genetic variants in choline-metabolizing genes and vitamin B-12 status biomarkers were also explored in humans. Healthy third-trimester pregnant women (n=26) consumed either 480 or 930 mg choline/day as part of a 12-week controlled feeding study. Wild-type NSA and Dlx3 heterozygous (Dlx3+/-) mice, which display placental insufficiency, consumed a 1×, 2× or 4× choline diet and were sacrificed at gestational days 15.5 and 18.5. Serum vitamin B-12, methylmalonic acid (MMA) and homocysteine were measured in all samples; holotranscobalamin (in humans) and hepatic vitamin B-12 (in mice) were also measured. The 2× choline supplementation for 12 weeks in pregnant women yielded higher serum concentrations of holotranscobalamin, the bioactive form of vitamin B-12 (~24%, P=.01). Women with genetic variants in choline dehydrogenase (CHDH) and betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase (BHMT) had higher serum MMA concentrations (~31%, P=.03) and lower serum holotranscobalamin concentrations (~34%, P=.03), respectively. The 4× choline dose decreased serum homocysteine concentrations in both NSA and Dlx3+/- mice (~36% and~43% respectively, P≤.015). In conclusion, differences in choline supply due to supplementation or genetic variation modulate vitamin B-12 status during pregnancy, supporting a functional relationship between these nutrients.

Placental expression of ENG, VEGF, and FLT: Gender-specific associations with maternal vitamin B12 status

OBJECTIVES

Adequate vitamin B₁₂ is a requisite during pregnancy and its deficiency is linked with increased risk for adverse outcomes, likely mediated by impaired placental angiogenesis. Thus, we aimed to test associations of maternal vitamin B₁₂ status with the placental expression of angiogenesis-associated genes ENG, VEGF, and FLT.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

In this retrospective case-control study, placental and maternal trimester 1 blood samples (n = 104) were collected from small for gestational age (SGA) and appropriate for gestational age (AGA) full-term singleton pregnancies. Maternal trimester 1 vitamin B₁₂ status was measured. Placentae and neonates were weighed at birth. Realtime quantitative PCR was performed to assess placental transcript abundance of ENG, VEGF, and FLT normalized to a panel of reference genes. Associations of placental transcript abundance of the genes with maternal trimester 1 vitamin B₁₂ status were evaluated.

RESULTS

Placental ENG transcript abundance associated negatively with maternal trimester 1 vitamin B₁₂ status (β = -0.461, P = 0.017, n = 104). This association was specific to the female births (β = -0.590, P = 0.014, n = 60). Placental VEGF transcript levels were negatively associated with maternal trimester 1 vitamin B₁₂ status only in the female births (β = -1.995, P = 0.029). Placental FLT transcript levels were not associated with maternal trimester 1 vitamin B₁₂ status.

CONCLUSION

Maternal trimester 1 vitamin B₁₂ status was associated negatively with placental ENG and VEGF expression predominantly in the female births. Therefore, we hypothesize that the placenta adapts to low maternal vitamin B₁₂ status by up-regulating angiogenic pathways in a gender-specific manner.

Vitamin B12 Status in Pregnant Adolescents and Their Infants

Vitamin B12 deficiency has been associated with increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Few prospective studies have investigated the burden or determinants of vitamin B12 deficiency early in life, particularly among pregnant adolescents and their children. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency and to examine associations between maternal and neonatal vitamin B12 status in a cohort study of healthy pregnant adolescents. Serum vitamin B12 and folate concentrations were measured in adolescents at mid-gestation (n = 124; 26.4 ± 3.5 weeks) and delivery (n = 131; 40.0 ± 1.3 weeks), and in neonates at birth using cord blood. Linear regression was used to examine associations between maternal and neonatal vitamin B12 status. Although the prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency (<148.0 pmol/L; 1.6%) in adolescents was low during pregnancy, 22.6% of adolescents were vitamin B12 insufficient (<221.0 pmol/L; 22.6%) at mid-gestation. Maternal vitamin B12 concentrations significantly decreased from mid-gestation to delivery (p < 0.0001), and 53.4% had insufficient vitamin B12 status at delivery. Maternal vitamin B12 concentrations (p < 0.001) and vitamin B12 deficiency (p = 0.002) at delivery were significantly associated with infant vitamin B12 concentrations in multivariate analyses, adjusting for gestational age, maternal age, parity, smoking status, relationship status, prenatal supplement use, pre-pregnancy body mass index, race, and intake of vitamin B12 and folate. Maternal vitamin B12 concentrations significantly decreased during pregnancy and predicted neonatal vitamin B12 status in a cohort of healthy pregnant adolescents.

Maternal Nutrition and Offspring Stress Response-Implications for Future Development of Non-Communicable Disease: A Perspective From India

Psychological stress is recognized as a major modifiable risk factor for adult non-communicable disease (NCD) that includes depression, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. Dysregulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity resulting in either exaggerated or blunted cortisol responses, and altered autonomic cardiovascular control have been thought to underlie this association. The developmental origins hypothesis proposes that impaired nutrition during fetal and early postnatal growth is associated with a higher NCD risk later in life. Maternal nutrients are vital for fetal growth and development, and both maternal undernutrition and over nutrition as in the case of gestational diabetes are associated with higher NCD risk markers in the offspring. Recent studies suggest that fetal exposure to maternal nutritional imbalances may permanently alter cortisol and cardio-sympathetic stress-responsiveness, which may link early life nutrition with adult disease risk. A few recent studies that examined the association between low birth weight as a marker of fetal undernutrition and stress response in humans showed that lower birth weight was associated with an altered HPA axis and cardiovascular sympathetic nervous system responses to stress in adults as well as in children. In addition, altered stress responses in relation to gestational diabetes have been noted. In this paper, we present available evidence from India for the association between maternal nutrition and offspring stress responsiveness against the backdrop of global evidence, and discuss its role in the escalating NCD rates in this population. We also discuss the scope for future studies in India and other transitioning countries.

Fetal sex modifies the effect of maternal macronutrient intake on the incidence of small-for-gestational-age births: a prospective observational cohort study

Background

Maternal macronutrient intake is likely to play a pivotal role in fetoplacental growth. Male fetuses grow faster and their growth is more responsive to maternal size.

Objective

We assessed the role of fetal sex in modifying the effect of maternal macronutrient intake on the risk of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) birth.

Design

This was a prospective, observational cohort study of 2035 births from an urban South Asian Indian population. Maternal intakes of total energy and macronutrients were recorded by validated food-frequency questionnaires. The interaction of trimester 1 macronutrient intake with fetal sex was tested on the outcome of SGA births.

Results

The prevalence of SGA was 28%. Trimester 1 macronutrient composition was high in carbohydrate and low in fat (means ± SDs-carbohydrate: 64.6% ± 5.1%; protein: 11.5% ± 1.1%; and fat: 23.9% ± 4.4% of energy). Higher carbohydrate and lower fat consumption were each associated with an increased risk of SGA [adjusted OR (AOR) per 5% of energy (95% CI): carbohydrate: 1.15 (1.01, 1.32); fat: 0.83 (0.71, 0.97)] specifically among male births (males: n = 1047; females: n = 988). Dietary intake of >70% of energy from carbohydrate was also associated with increased risk (AOR: 1.67; 95% CI: 1.00, 2.78), whereas >25% of energy from fat intake was associated with decreased risk (AOR: 0.61; 95% CI: 0.41, 0.90) of SGA in male births.

Conclusions

Higher carbohydrate and lower fat intakes early in pregnancy were associated with increased risk of male SGA births. Therefore, we speculate that fetal sex acts as a modifier of the role of maternal periconceptional nutrition in optimal fetoplacental growth.

Type 1 Diabetes in a Resource-Poor Setting: Malnutrition Related, Malnutrition Modified, or Just Diabetes?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Very little is known about the occurrence of type 1 diabetes (T1DM) in resource-poor countries and particularly in their rural hinterlands.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies of the epidemiology of T1DM in Ethiopia and similar countries in sub-Saharan Africa show that the pattern of presenting disease differs substantially from that in the West. Typically, the peak age of onset of the disease is more than a decade later with a male excess and a low prevalence of indicators of islet-cell autoimmunity. It is also associated with markers of undernutrition. These findings raise the question as to whether the principal form of T1DM seen in these resource-poor communities has a different pathogenesis. Whether the disease is a direct result of malnutrition or whether malnutrition may modify the expression of islet-cell autoimmunity is unclear. However, the poor prognosis in these settings underlines the urgent need for detailed clinical and epidemiological studies.

Maternal intake of milk and milk proteins is positively associated with birth weight: A prospective observational cohort study

BACKGROUND

A striking number of low birth weight (LBW) Indian babies are born annually. Previous studies have confirmed the positive association between milk intake and birth weight. However, the relations between protein and vitamin B₁₂ from milk and birth weight have not been systematically explored.

AIMS

We examined the relations between birth weight and maternal intake of milk, protein from milk and vitamin B₁₂ from milk.

METHODS

This prospective, observational cohort study was conducted in an urban South Indian hospital. The dietary intakes of milk and milk products were assessed using validated food frequency questionnaire and at delivery birth outcomes were measured. The relations between milk products, milk protein, and vitamin B₁₂ from milk with birth weight and gestational weight gain were assessed in 2036 births with first trimester dietary and delivery data.

RESULTS

Median consumption of milk products in the first trimester was 310 g·day^-1 and average birth weight was 2876 g. Birth weight was positively associated with intake of milk products and of % protein from milk products (%milk protein) in the first trimester [β = 86.8, 95% confidence interval (CI): 29.1, 144.6; β = 63.1, 95% CI: 10.8, 115.5; P < 0.001 for both]. Intake of milk products and of %milk protein in the third trimester was positively associated with gestational weight gain (GWG) between the second and third trimester (One-way ANOVA, P < 0.001 and = 0.001, respectively). Neither birth weight nor GWG were associated with %vitamin B₁₂ from milk products.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that intake of milk products in the first trimester and especially, protein from milk products is positively associated with birth weight in this South Asian Indian population.

Fetal programming of the metabolic syndrome

Prenatal development is currently recognized as a critical period in the etiology of human diseases. This is particularly so when an unfavorable environment interacts with a genetic predisposition. The fetal programming concept suggests that maternal nutritional imbalance and metabolic disturbances may have a persistent and intergenerational effect on the health of offspring and on the risk of diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

Does the impact of a plant-based diet during pregnancy on birth weight differ by ethnicity? A dietary pattern analysis from a prospective Canadian birth cohort alliance

OBJECTIVE

Birth weight is an indicator of newborn health and a strong predictor of health outcomes in later life. Significant variation in diet during pregnancy between ethnic groups in high-income countries provides an ideal opportunity to investigate the influence of maternal diet on birth weight.

SETTING

Four multiethnic birth cohorts based in Canada (the NutriGen Alliance).

PARTICIPANTS

3997 full-term mother-infant pairs of diverse ethnic groups who had principal component analysis-derived diet pattern scores-plant-based, Western and health-conscious-and birth weight data.

RESULTS

No associations were identified between the Western and health-conscious diet patterns and birth weight; however, the plant-based dietary pattern was inversely associated with birth weight (β=-67.6 g per 1-unit increase; P<0.001), and an interaction with non-white ethnicity and birth weight was observed. Ethnically stratified analyses demonstrated that among white Europeans, maternal consumption of a plant-based diet associated with lower birth weight (β=-65.9 g per 1-unit increase; P<0.001), increased risk of small-for-gestational age (SGA; OR=1.46; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.54;P=0.005) and reduced risk of large-for-gestational age (LGA; OR=0.71; 95% CI 0.53 to 0.95;P=0.02). Among South Asians, maternal consumption of a plant-based diet associated with a higher birth weight (β=+40.5 g per 1-unit increase; P=0.01), partially explained by cooked vegetable consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal consumption of a plant-based diet during pregnancy is associated with birth weight. Among white Europeans, a plant-based diet is associated with lower birth weight, reduced odds of an infant born LGA and increased odds of SGA, whereas among South Asians living in Canada, a plant-based diet is associated with increased birth weight.

Pregnant women of South Asian ethnicity in Canada have substantially lower vitamin B12 status compared with pregnant women of European ethnicity

Maternal vitamin B12 (B12) status has been inversely associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and positively with fetal growth and infant development. South Asians, Canada's largest ethnic minority, are prone to B12 deficiency. Yet, data are lacking on B12 status in South Asian pregnant women in North America. We sought to determine B12 status, using multiple biomarkers, in 1st and 2nd trimester pregnant women of South Asian and, for comparison, European ethnicity living in Vancouver, Canada. In this retrospective cohort study, total B12, holotranscobalamin (holoTC), methylmalonic acid (MMA), and total homocysteine concentrations were quantified in two routinely collected (mean gestational week: 11·5 (range 8·3-13·9) and 16·5 (range 14·9-20·9)), banked serum samples of 748 healthy pregnant South Asian (n 371) and European (n 377) women. South Asian pregnant women had significantly lower B12 status than European pregnant women at both time points, as indicated by lower serum total B12 and holoTC concentrations, and higher MMA concentrations (all P≤0·001). The largest difference, which was substantial (Cohen's d≥0·5), was observed in mean serum total B12 concentrations (1st trimester: 189 (95 % CI 180, 199) v. 246 (95 % CI 236, 257) pmol/l; 2nd trimester: 176 (95 % CI 168, 185) v. 226 (95 % CI 216, 236) pmol/l). Further, South Asian ethnicity was a significant negative predictor of B12 status during pregnancy. South Asian women living in Vancouver have substantially lower B12 status during early pregnancy. Future research identifying predictors and health consequences of this observed difference is needed to allow for targeted interventions.

The effects of vitamin B12 supplementation in pregnancy and postpartum on growth and neurodevelopment in early childhood: Study Protocol for a Randomized Placebo Controlled Trial

INTRODUCTION

Vitamin B₁₂ is crucial for normal cell division and differentiation, and necessary for the development and myelination of the central nervous system. Pregnant mothers in resource poor settings are at risk for poor vitamin B₁₂ status. Poor vitamin B₁₂ status in infancy is linked to poor growth and neurodevelopment. Brain development starts from conception, and pregnancy is a period of rapid growth and development for the brain.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The study is an individually randomised double-blind placebo controlled trial in 800 pregnant Nepalese women randomised in a 1:1 ratio. A daily dose of 50 µg of vitamin B₁₂ or placebo is given to women from early pregnancy, not later than week 15, until 6 months after birth. Weekly visits are conducted in order to record compliance, growth and morbidity. The primary outcomes are scores on the cognitive, language and motor subscales of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition, measured at 6 and 12 months of age, and growth (length and weight) measured at 6 and 12 months of age.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

National Health and Research Council, Nepal (NHRC 253/2016) and Regional Committee for Medical and Health Research Ethics of Western Norway (2016/1620/REK vest) have approved the study. Investigators who have contributed to the conceptualising, conducting, as well as being involved in the data analyses and manuscript writing will be eligible for authorship and be responsible to share outcomes with different stakeholders through publications and workshops. The results from this study may support new dietary guidelines for Nepalese and possibly South Asian pregnant women that can lead to improved pregnancy outcomes, neurodevelopment and cognitive functioning in children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

Universal Trial Number: U1111-1183-4093.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov: NCT03071666. Protocol date: version 1.2, 1 June 2017.

Combined Vitamin B-12 and Balanced Protein-Energy Supplementation Affect Homocysteine Remethylation in the Methionine Cycle in Pregnant South Indian Women of Low Vitamin B-12 Status

Background: Low-quality dietary protein intake and vitamin B-12 deficiency could interact to decrease methionine transmethylation and remethylation rates during pregnancy and may affect epigenetic modifications of the fetal genome.Objective: The objective of this randomized, partially open-labeled intervention trial was to examine the effect of supplemental high-quality protein and vitamin B-12 on third-trimester methionine kinetics in pregnant Indian women with a low vitamin B-12 status.Methods: Pregnant women with low serum vitamin B-12 concentrations (<200 pmol/L) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: the first group received balanced protein-energy supplementation of 500 mL milk/d plus a 10-μg vitamin B-12 tablet/d (M+B-12 group; n = 30), the second group received milk (500 mL/d) plus a placebo tablet (M+P group; n = 30), and the third group received a placebo tablet alone (P group; n = 33). Third-trimester fasting plasma amino acid kinetics were measured by infusing 1-¹³C,methyl-²H₃-methionine, ring-²H₅-phenylalanine, ring-²H₄-tyrosine,1-¹³C-glycine, and 2,3,3-²H₃,¹⁵N-serine in a subset of participants. Placental mRNA expression of genes involved in methionine pathways, placental long interspersed nuclear elements 1 (LINE-1) methylation, and promoter methylation levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were analyzed.Results: Remethylation rates in the M+B-12, M+P, and P groups were 5.1 ± 1.7, 4.1 ± 1.0, and, 5.0 ± 1.4 μmol ⋅ kg^-1 ⋅ h^-1, respectively (P = 0.057), such that the percentage of transmethylation remethylated to methionine tended to be higher in the M+B-12 group (49.5% ± 10.5%) than in the M+P group (42.3% ± 8.4%; P = 0.053) but neither differed from the P group (44.2% ± 8.1%; P > 0.1). Placental mRNA expression, LINE-1, and VEGF promoter methylation did not differ between groups.Conclusions: Combined vitamin B-12 and balanced protein-energy supplementation increased the homocysteine remethylation rate in late pregnancy. Thus, vitamin B-12 along with balanced protein-energy supplementation is critical for optimal functioning of the methionine cycle in the third trimester of pregnancy in Indian women with low serum vitamin B-12 in early pregnancy. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as CTRI/2016/01/006578.

Chronic transgenerational vitamin B12 deficiency of severe and moderate magnitudes modulates adiposity-probable underlying mechanisms

We have demonstrated previously that severe but not moderate vitamin B12 deficiency altered body composition and induced adiposity in female C57BL/6 mice. This study aims to elucidate the effects of chronic transgenerational dietary vitamin B12 restriction on body composition and various biochemical parameters in the F1 generation offspring of our mouse models of severe and moderate vitamin B12 deficiency established earlier. Female weanling C57BL/6 mice received, ad libitum, for 4 weeks a (i) control diet, (ii) vitamin B12-restricted diet with pectin as dietary fiber (severely deficient diet), or (iii) vitamin B12-restricted diet with cellulose as dietary fiber (moderately deficient diet) and then mated with control males. The offspring of control and severely deficient dams continued on the respective diets of their mothers. Few moderately deficient dams were rehabilitated to control diet from parturition and their pups were weaned to control diet. Also, some offspring born to moderately B12 deficient dams were weaned to control diet, while others continued on the same diet as their mothers. Various parameters were determined in the F1 offspring after 12 and 36 weeks of feeding. The results indicate that both severe and moderate maternal vitamin B12 restrictions were associated with accelerated catch-up growth, increased body fat percentage, visceral adiposity, dyslipidemia, fasting hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in the F1 offspring. Inflammation, increased glucocorticoid and oxidative stress and poor antioxidant defence probably underlie these adverse effects. Rehabilitation from parturition but not weaning was beneficial in delaying the onset of the adverse outcomes in the offspring. © 2016 BioFactors, 43(3):400-414, 2017.

South Asian Ethnicity Is Related to the Highest Risk of Vitamin B12 Deficiency in Pregnant Canadian Women

Vitamin B12 (B12) adequacy during pregnancy is crucial for maternal health and optimal fetal development; however, suboptimal B12 status has been reported in pregnant Canadian women. Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is a sensitive indicator of B12 status. Since few studies have measured MMA during pregnancy in Canadian women, the objective of this study was to evaluate B12 status in pregnant women living in Metro Vancouver, using both plasma total B12 and MMA. We recruited a convenience sample of 320 pregnant women between 20 and 35 gestational weeks from local healthcare facilities. Plasma total B12 concentrations indicative of deficiency (<148 pmol/L) and suboptimal B12 status (148–220 pmol/L) were found in 18% and 33% of the women, respectively. Normal plasma MMA concentration (<210 nmol/L) was observed in 82% of all women. Gestational age was a strong predictor of plasma total B12 and MMA concentration, and South Asian ethnicity of B-12 deficiency and MMA concentrations. Overall, there was a high discrepancy between the prevalence of B12 inadequacy depending on the biomarker used. Independently, however, South Asian women were at particular risk for B12 deficiency, likely due to lower animal source food intake. Further study of this vulnerable group and performance testing of B12 biomarkers is warranted.

Perturbing Status of Vitamin B12 in Indian Infants and Their Mothers

BACKGROUND

Vitamin B12 deficiency in early life can adversely affect the growth of developing brain with myriad of neurodevelopmental manifestations. At this age, the deficiency is usually the result of low maternal levels.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the vitamin B12 status of healthy exclusively breast-fed Indian infants aged 1 to 6 months and their mothers.

METHODS

One hundred term exclusively breast-fed infants aged 1 to 6 months attending pediatric outpatient department were recruited. Hemogram, serum B12, folate, and ferritin levels were obtained from each infant-mother pair.

RESULTS

The prevalence of B12 deficiency in infants was found to be 57%. Forty-six percent of mothers were deficient. There was a positive correlation ( r = .23) between the B12 levels of the infants and their mothers.

CONCLUSION

There is a high prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency in Indian infants and their mothers. There is an urgent need to supplement our population with vitamin B12, and the best time to do this would be antenatal.

Periconceptional folic acid supplementation and vitamin B12 status in a cohort of Chinese early pregnancy women with the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes

Maternal folate and vitamin B₁₂ deficiency predict poor pregnancy outcome. To improve pregnancy outcomes in rural area of China, we investigate rural women's folic acid supplementation (FAS) status and the associations between maternal vitamin B status during the first trimester and subsequent adverse pregnancy outcomes. We collected the questionnaire information and drew 5 ml of blood from 309 early pregnant rural women. The birth outcomes were retrieved from medical records after delivery. Out of the total, 257 had taken FAS, including 50 before conception (group A) and 207 during the first trimester (group B). The concentration of plasma folate and the RBC folate supplementation groups were obviously higher than that of no-supplementation group (group N, p<0.01). The mean vitamin B₁₂ levels in FAS group were significantly higher than those in groups N and B (p<0.05). Women who delivered SGA or premature infants had reduced plasma folate levels (p<0.05) compared with controls. The multiple linear regression models revealed that RBC folate levels affected the infant birth weight (p<0.01) and birth length (p<0.05). In conclusion, FAS can significantly improve plasma folate and RBC folate levels in childbearing-age women and reduce the risk of subsequent adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Associations of Maternal Vitamin B12 Concentration in Pregnancy With the Risks of Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Individual Participant Data

Vitamin B12 (hereafter referred to as B12) deficiency in pregnancy is prevalent and has been associated with both lower birth weight (birth weight <2,500 g) and preterm birth (length of gestation <37 weeks). Nevertheless, current evidence is contradictory. We performed a systematic review and a meta-analysis of individual participant data to evaluate the associations of maternal serum or plasma B12 concentrations in pregnancy with offspring birth weight and length of gestation. Twenty-two eligible studies were identified (11,993 observations). Eighteen studies were included in the meta-analysis (11,216 observations). No linear association was observed between maternal B12 levels in pregnancy and birth weight, but B12 deficiency (<148 pmol/L) was associated with a higher risk of low birth weight in newborns (adjusted risk ratio = 1.15, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01, 1.31). There was a linear association between maternal levels of B12 and preterm birth (per each 1-standard-deviation increase in B12, adjusted risk ratio = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.82, 0.97). Accordingly, B12 deficiency was associated with a higher risk of preterm birth (adjusted risk ratio = 1.21, 95% CI: 0.99, 1.49). This finding supports the need for randomized controlled trials of vitamin B12 supplementation in pregnancy.

A Prospective Study on Serum Methylmalonic Acid and Homocysteine in Pregnant Women

This study aimed to investigate serum methylmalonic acid (MMA) and homocysteine levels and to assess their effects on pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Serum MMA and homocysteine levels in 278 pregnant Korean women, determined by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry in each trimester, were compared with those of previous studies in other ethnic groups. We investigated the association between MMA and homocysteine status with pregnancy and neonatal events: gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, gestational age at delivery, preterm birth, small for gestational age, neonatal birth weight, and congenital abnormalities. The median (range) MMA level was 0.142 (0.063–0.446) µmol/L and homocysteine level was 10.6 (4.4–38.0) µmol/L in pregnant women. MMA levels were significantly higher in the third trimester than during other trimesters (p < 0.05), while homocysteine levels were not. No significant association was observed between MMA or homocysteine levels and any of the maternal or neonatal outcomes examined. Future studies are needed to assess the associations among maternal serum concentrations of MMA and homocysteine, and maternal and neonatal outcomes.

Vitamin B12 Status among Pregnant Women in the UK and Its Association with Obesity and Gestational Diabetes

Background: To evaluate vitamin B12 and folate status in pregnancy and their relationship with maternal obesity, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), and offspring birthweight. Methods: A retrospective case-control study of 344 women (143 GDM, 201 no-GDM) attending a district general hospital and that had B12 and folate levels measured in the early 3rd trimester was performed. Maternal history including early pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and neonatal data (birthweight, sex, and gestational age) was recorded for all subjects. Results: 26% of the cohort had B12 levels <150 pmol/L (32% vs. 22% in the two groups respectively, p < 0.05) while 1.5% were folate deficient. After adjusting for confounders, 1st trimester BMI was negatively associated with 3rd trimester B12 levels. Women with B12 insufficiency had higher odds of obesity and GDM (aOR (95% CI) 2.40 (1.31, 4.40), p = 0.004, and 2.59 (1.35, 4.98), p = 0.004, respectively), although the latter was partly mediated by BMI. In women without GDM, the lowest quartile of B12 and highest quartile of folate had significantly higher adjusted risk of fetal macrosomia (RR 5.3 (1.26, 21.91), p = 0.02 and 4.99 (1.15, 21.62), p = 0.03 respectively). Conclusion: This is the first study from the UK to show that maternal B12 levels are associated with BMI, risk of GDM, and additionally may have an independent effect on macrosomia. Due to the increasing burden of maternal obesity and GDM, longitudinal studies with B12 measurements in early pregnancy are needed to explore this link.