Nicotine activates TRPM5-dependent and independent taste pathways

Impact of vanilla flavor on nicotine taste, choice, intake, and seeking behaviors

RATIONALE

Flavors can alter the orosensory properties of tobacco products. Specifically, flavors can serve as an oral cue for smokeless tobacco products.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to investigate the impact of oral vanillin, the principal chemical of vanilla flavor in tobacco products, on nicotine's taste, and nicotine choice, intake, and seeking behaviors.

METHODS

Experiments were performed in young adult Sprague Dawley rats. We employed a two-bottle free-choice test (2BC) to measure the preference for different concentrations of vanillin and its effect on nicotine preference. To explore the long-term effects of early exposure to sweetened vanillin, we utilized a combined 2BC and intraoral self-administration (IOSA) model. We assessed the nicotine taking and seeking behaviors in the presence or absence of vanillin. We performed a taste reactivity test (TRT) to quantify liking (ingestive) and disliking (aversive) taste responses to oral nicotine with or without vanillin.

RESULTS

In 2BC, female rats preferred vanillin containing solutions more than their male counterparts. In IOSA, vanillin alone and in combination with nicotine led to greater IOSA compared to water. Female rats self-administered vanillin plus nicotine more than male rats. Vanillin increased motivation to nicotine taking, but only in females. In TRT, vanillin increased nicotine's ingestive responses but blocked aversive responses in both sexes.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that vanilla flavor can increase oral nicotine intake. It can also increase liking and decrease disliking of nicotine's taste. Furthermore, the impact of vanilla flavor on nicotine taste and nicotine choice, intake, and seeking behaviors is concentration and sex dependent.

Effect of chronic vapor nicotine exposure on affective and cognitive behavior in male mice

Nicotine use is a leading cause of preventable deaths worldwide, and most of those who attempt to quit will relapse. While electronic cigarettes and other electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) were presented as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes and promoted as devices to help traditional tobacco smokers reduce or quit smoking, they have instead contributed to increasing nicotine use among youths. Despite this, ENDS also represent a useful tool to create novel preclinical animal models of nicotine exposure that more accurately represent human nicotine use. In this study, we validated a chronic, intermittent, ENDS-based passive vapor exposure model in mice, and then measured changes in multiple behaviors related to nicotine abstinence. First, we performed a behavioral dose curve to investigate the effects of different nicotine inter-vape intervals on various measures including body weight, locomotor activity, and pain hypersensitivity. Next, we performed a pharmacokinetic study to measure plasma levels of nicotine and cotinine following chronic exposure for each inter-vape interval. Finally, we utilized a behavior test battery at a single dosing regimen that produces blood levels equivalent to human smokers in order to characterize the effects of chronic nicotine, vehicle, or passive airflow and identified nicotine-induced impairments in cognitive behavior.

Effect of chronic vapor nicotine exposure on affective and cognitive behavior in male mice

Nicotine use is a leading cause of preventable deaths worldwide, and most of those who attempt to quit will relapse. While electronic cigarettes and other electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) were presented as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes and promoted as devices to help traditional tobacco smokers reduce or quit smoking, they have instead contributed to increasing nicotine use among youths. Despite this, ENDS also represent a useful tool to create novel preclinical animal models of nicotine exposure that more accurately represent human nicotine use. In this study, we validated a chronic, intermittent, ENDS-based passive vapor exposure model in mice, and then measured changes in multiple behaviors related to nicotine abstinence. First, we performed a behavioral dose curve to investigate the effects of different nicotine inter-vape intervals on various measures including body weight, locomotor activity, and pain hypersensitivity. Next, we performed a pharmacokinetic study to measure plasma levels of nicotine and cotinine following chronic exposure for each inter-vape interval. Finally, we utilized a behavior test battery at a single dosing regimen that produces blood levels equivalent to human smokers in order to characterize the effects of chronic nicotine, vehicle, or passive airflow and identified nicotine-induced impairments in cognitive behavior.

Artificial Sweeteners in US-Marketed Oral Nicotine Pouch Products: Correlation with Nicotine Contents and Effects on Product Preference

Introduction

Artificial sweeteners are listed as ingredients of oral nicotine pouches (ONPs), a new product category with rapidly growing market share. The exact sweetener contents of ONPs remain unknown. Artificial sweeteners in ONPs may facilitate initiation and encourage consumption behavior.

Aims and Methods

Artificial sweetener contents in major US-marketed ONP brands (Zyn, on!, Velo) were determined by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS). Sweetener effects during the initiation of ONP consumption were modeled in single- and two-bottle tests, offering mice ONP extracts calibrated to contain nicotine levels similar to saliva of people who use smokeless tobacco. To examine the contribution of sweet taste perception, consumption behavior was compared between wild-type mice and mice deficient in the sweet taste receptor (Tas1r2-/-).

Results

Acesulfame-K was detected in on!, Zyn and Velo ONPs (~0.3-0.9 mg/pouch), including products marketed as "Unflavored" or "Flavor ban approved". In Velo ONPs, sweetened with sucralose (0.6-1.2 mg/pouch), higher nicotine strength products contained higher sucralose levels. Tas1r2-/- mice consumed less ONP extracts than wild-type mice in both sexes. ONP extracts with both higher nicotine and sweetener strengths were tolerated by wild-type mice, but produced stronger aversion in Tas1r2-/- mice.

Conclusions

ONPs contain significant amounts of artificial sweeteners, with some brands adding more sweetener to ONPs with higher nicotine strengths. Artificial sweeteners, at levels present in ONPs, increase nicotine consumption. Increasing sweetener contents facilitates consumption of ONPs with higher nicotine strengths. Sweetness is a key determinant of ONP use initiation, likely reducing the aversive sensory effects of nicotine and other ONP constituents.

Implications

Artificial sweeteners such as acesulfame-K or sucralose reduce aversion and facilitate initiation and continued consumption of ONPs. The marketing of some artificially sweetened ONPs as "Unflavored" of "Flavor ban-approved" suggests that the tobacco industry rejects sweet taste as a determinant for the presence of a characterizing flavor. Sweetness as imparted by artificial sweeteners in tobacco products needs to be addressed by regulators as a component of a characterizing flavor, with the aim to reduce product appeal and initiation by never users, and especially youth attracted to sweet flavors.

Examining the Association between Cigarette Smoking Quantity and Subjective Salt Taste Preference and Salt-Related Eating Behavior

BACKGROUND

Smoking can reduce taste sensitivity, the ability to sense various tastes, and diet quality and can increase the incidence of diseases such as hypertension. This study aimed to analyze the association between the smoking amount, subjective salt preference, and salt-related eating behaviors.

METHODS

Data of more than 16 million individuals from the Korean Community Health Survey were used. Forest plots were drawn to compare the cumulative odds ratios of salt taste preference and salt-related eating behaviors, adjusted for sex, age, body mass index, education level, household income, marital status, and drinking status at various smoking levels.

RESULTS

Subjective salt preference and salt-related eating behaviors increased with smoking amount; the adjusted odds ratios (AORs) for smoking >20 cigarettes were higher than those for smoking <20 cigarettes. For daily smokers, the AOR was 1.27 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.22-1.31) for 1-5 cigarettes per day and 1.68 (95% CI, 1.65-1.71) for 16-20 cigarettes per day (P<0.001). Smokers were more likely to have more frequent salt-related eating behaviors than nonsmokers.

CONCLUSION

The subjective salt preference of smokers was higher than that of nonsmokers. Additionally, smokers used salt or soy sauce and dipped fried food in soy sauce more frequently than nonsmokers, which was also related to smoking amount.

Strawberry Additive Increases Nicotine Vapor Sampling and Systemic Exposure But Does Not Enhance Pavlovian-Based Nicotine Reward in Mice

Nicotine is an addictive drug whose popularity has recently increased, particularly among adolescents, because of the availability of electronic nicotine devices (i.e., "vaping") and nicotine e-liquids containing additives with rich chemosensory properties. Some efforts to understand the role of these additives in nicotine reward suggest that they increase nicotine reward and reinforcement, but the sensory contributions of additives, especially in their vapor forms, are largely untested. Here, to better understand how a fruit-flavored (i.e., strawberry) additive influences nicotine reward and aversion, we used a conditioned place preference (CPP) procedure in which nicotine and a strawberry additive were delivered as a vapor to male and female adolescent mice. We found that nicotine vapor alone can lead to a dose-dependent CPP when using a biased design. The strawberry additive did not produce CPP on its own, and we did not observe an effect of the strawberry additive on nicotine vapor-induced reward. Nevertheless, mice exposed to nicotine plus strawberry additive vapor had higher plasma cotinine concentrations, which did not appear to reflect altered nicotine metabolism. Instead, by directly measuring vapor sampling through respiration monitoring, we uncovered an increase in the amount of sniffing toward strawberry-containing nicotine vapor compared with nicotine vapor alone. Together these data indicate that chemosensory-rich e-liquid additives may enhance the perceived sensory profile of nicotine vapors rather than the reward value per se, which leads to overall increased nicotine exposure.

The effects of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking on salty taste preferences based on Korean Community Health Survey data

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Excessive sodium intake, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption are risk factors for a wide range of diseases. This study aimed to determine whether smokers and drinkers are more likely to enjoy their food with more salt, and whether the combination of smoking and drinking is associated with salty taste preferences.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

This study analyzed the data of over 16 million Koreans from two four-year Korean Community Health Survey cycles (i.e., 2010 to 2013 and 2014 to 2017). The respondents' preferences for salty foods (i.e., their salt intake levels, whether they added salt or soy sauce to foods served on the table, and whether they dipped fried foods in salt or soy sauce), and the odds ratio (OR) of their preference were examined among smokers and drinkers when adjusted for sex, age, body mass index, educational level, household income, marital status, and cigarette smoking or alcohol consumption status.

RESULTS

Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption were correlated with the consumption of salty food. Based on the adjusted model, cigarette smokers and alcohol drinkers preferred adding salt or soy sauce or dipping fried foods in soybean more than non-smokers and non-drinkers. In addition, people who smoked and consumed alcohol reported a more significant stacking effect regarding the salty taste preference.

CONCLUSION

This large population-based study found that both cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption were correlated with salty taste preferences, which may cause excessive sodium intake.

Chemosensory Contributions of E-Cigarette Additives on Nicotine Use

While rates of smoking combustible cigarettes in the United States have trended down in recent years, use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) has dramatically increased, especially among adolescents. The vast majority of e-cigarette users consume "flavored" products that contain a variety of chemosensory-rich additives, and recent literature suggests that these additives have led to the current "teen vaping epidemic." This review, covering research from both human and rodent models, provides a comprehensive overview of the sensory implications of e-cigarette additives and what is currently known about their impact on nicotine use. In doing so, we specifically address the oronasal sensory contributions of e-cigarette additives. Finally, we summarize the existing gaps in the field and highlight future directions needed to better understand the powerful influence of these additives on nicotine use.

Sensory Effects of Nicotine and Tobacco

INTRODUCTION

Ingestion of nicotine by smoking, vaping, or other means elicits various effects including reward, antinociception, and aversion due to irritation, bitter taste, and unpleasant side effects such as nausea and dizziness.

AIMS AND METHODS

Here we review the sensory effects of nicotine and the underlying neurobiological processes.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Nicotine elicits oral irritation and pain via the activation of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) expressed by trigeminal nociceptors. These nociceptors excite neurons in the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis (Vc) and other brainstem regions in a manner that is significantly reduced by the nAChR antagonist mecamylamine. Vc neurons are excited by lingual application of nicotine and exhibit a progressive decline in firing to subsequent applications, consistent with desensitization of peripheral sensory neurons and progressively declining ratings of oral irritation in human psychophysical experiments. Nicotine also elicits a nAChR-mediated bitter taste via excitation of gustatory afferents. Nicotine solutions are avoided even when sweeteners are added. Studies employing oral self-administration have yielded mixed results: Some studies show avoidance of nicotine while others report increased nicotine intake over time, particularly in adolescents and females. Nicotine is consistently reported to increase human pain threshold and tolerance levels. In animal studies, nicotine is antinociceptive when delivered by inhalation of tobacco smoke or systemic infusion, intrathecally, and by intracranial microinjection in the pedunculopontine tegmentum, ventrolateral periaqueductal gray, and rostral ventromedial medulla. The antinociception is thought to be mediated by descending inhibition of spinal nociceptive transmission. Menthol cross-desensitizes nicotine-evoked oral irritation, reducing harshness that may account for its popularity as a flavor additive to tobacco products.

IMPLICATIONS

Nicotine activates brain systems underlying reward and antinociception, but at the same time elicits aversive sensory effects including oral irritation and pain, bitter taste, and other unpleasant side effects mediated largely by nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). This review discusses the competing aversive and antinociceptive effects of nicotine and exposure to tobacco smoke, and the underlying neurobiology. An improved understanding of the interacting effects of nicotine will hopefully inform novel approaches to mitigate nicotine and tobacco use.

Animal Models to Investigate the Impact of Flavors on Nicotine Addiction and Dependence

BACKGROUND

Tobacco use in humans is a long-standing public health concern. Flavors are common additives in tobacco and alternative tobacco products, added to mask nicotine's harsh orosensory effects and increase the appeal of these products. Animal models are integral for investigating nicotine use and addiction and are helpful for understanding the effects of flavor additives on the use of nicotine delivery products.

OBJECTIVE

This review focuses on preclinical models to evaluate the contribution of flavor additives to nicotine addiction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An electronic literature search was conducted by authors up to May 2022. Original articles were selected.

RESULTS

The behavioral models of rodents described here capture multiple dimensions of human flavored nicotine use behaviors, including advantages and disadvantages.

CONCLUSION

The consensus of the literature search was that human research on nicotine use behavior has not caught up with fast-changing product innovations, marketing practices, and federal regulations. Animal models are therefore needed to investigate mechanisms underlying nicotine use and addiction. This review provides a comprehensive overvie.

Evaluation of Flavor Effects on Oral Nicotine Liking and/or Disliking Using the Taste Reactivity Test in Rats

INTRODUCTION

Tobacco product flavors may change the sensory properties of nicotine, such as taste and olfactory cues, which may alter nicotine reward and aversion and nicotine taking behavior. The hedonic or aversive value of a taste stimulus can be evaluated by examining affective orofacial movements in rodents.

AIMS AND METHODS

We characterized taste responses to various oral nicotine concentrations using the taste reactivity test in rats. We also evaluated the impact of menthol and benzaldehyde (cherry, almond) flavorants on both ingestive and aversive responses to oral nicotine. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 5-10 per sex per group) were implanted with intraoral catheters and received 20 infusions (200 µl/ea). Nicotine (1-100 µg/mL) was evaluated in taste reactivity test to determine taste responses to nicotine. Later, the effects of menthol (50 µg/mL) and benzaldehyde (100 µg/mL) on the taste responses to nicotine were determined.

RESULTS

Nicotine at low concentrations (3 µg/mL in males, 1 µg/mL in females) elicited significantly greater ingestive responses compared with water, whereas higher nicotine concentrations (≥30 µg/mL in males, ≥10 µg/mL in females) elicited significant aversive reactions. Thus, intraoral nicotine induced both hedonic and aversive responses in a concentration- and sex-dependent manner. Females were more sensitive to nicotine's concentration. The addition of menthol or benzaldehyde significantly increased the hedonic responses to nicotine, and significantly decreased the aversive nicotine responses.

CONCLUSIONS

Oral nicotine induces both hedonic and aversive taste responses, which may represent liking and disliking. Menthol and benzaldehyde can alter the orosensory experience of nicotine, which may influence nicotine's abuse liability.

IMPLICATIONS

Our work represents a model to study impact of flavors on oral nicotine liking and disliking responses in rats. Moreover, our findings show that menthol and benzaldehyde alter the orosensory experience of nicotine, suggesting that both could influence nicotine's abuse liability.

Novel Putative Positive Modulators of α4β2 nAChRs Potentiate Nicotine Reward-Related Behavior

The popular tobacco and e-cigarette chemical flavorant (-)-menthol acts as a nonselective, noncompetitive antagonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), and contributes to multiple physiological effects that exacerbates nicotine addiction-related behavior. Menthol is classically known as a TRPM8 agonist; therefore, some have postulated that TRPM8 antagonists may be potential candidates for novel nicotine cessation pharmacotherapies. Here, we examine a novel class of TRPM8 antagonists for their ability to alter nicotine reward-related behavior in a mouse model of conditioned place preference. We found that these novel ligands enhanced nicotine reward-related behavior in a mouse model of conditioned place preference. To gain an understanding of the potential mechanism, we examined these ligands on mouse α4β2 nAChRs transiently transfected into neuroblastoma-2a cells. Using calcium flux assays, we determined that these ligands act as positive modulators (PMs) on α4β2 nAChRs. Due to α4β2 nAChRs' important role in nicotine dependence, as well as various neurological disorders including Parkinson's disease, the identification of these ligands as α4β2 nAChR PMs is an important finding, and they may serve as novel molecular tools for future nAChR-related investigations.

Nicotine and energy balance: A review examining the effect of nicotine on hormonal appetite regulation and energy expenditure

Nicotine has been shown to decrease appetite, food intake (FI) and body weight, but the mechanisms are unclear. The purpose of this review was to examine research on the effects of nicotine on energy balance by exploring physiological mechanisms and hormone regulation related to FI, subjective appetite and energy expenditure (EE). We searched PubMed and MEDLINE, and included articles investigating the effects of nicotine on central appetite regulation, FI, leptin, peptide-YY (PYY), ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), adiponectin, cholecystokinin (CCK), orexin, and EE. A total of 65 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis and review. Our findings suggest that the decrease in appetite and FI may be attributed to nicotinic alterations of neuropeptide Y (NPY) and pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) but the effect of nicotine on FI remains unclear. Furthermore, nicotine increases resting EE (REE) and physical activity EE (PAEE) in both smokers and non-smokers; and these increases may be a result of the catecholaminergic effect of nicotine. Decreases in body weight and appetite experienced by nicotine users results from increased EE and changes in the central hypothalamic regulation of appetite. There is not enough evidence to implicate a relationship between peripheral hormones and changes in appetite or FI after nicotine use. Although nicotine increases REE and PAEE, the effect of nicotine on other components of EE warrants further research. We conclude that further research evaluating the effect of nicotine on appetite hormones, FI and EE in humans is warranted.

Interactions between Chemesthesis and Taste: Role of TRPA1 and TRPV1

In addition to the sense of taste and olfaction, chemesthesis, the sensation of irritation, pungency, cooling, warmth, or burning elicited by spices and herbs, plays a central role in food consumption. Many plant-derived molecules demonstrate their chemesthetic properties via the opening of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels. TRPA1 and TRPV1 are structurally related thermosensitive cation channels and are often co-expressed in sensory nerve endings. TRPA1 and TRPV1 can also indirectly influence some, but not all, primary taste qualities via the release of substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) from trigeminal neurons and their subsequent effects on CGRP receptor expressed in Type III taste receptor cells. Here, we will review the effect of some chemesthetic agonists of TRPA1 and TRPV1 and their influence on bitter, sour, and salt taste qualities.

Taste Receptor Signaling

All organisms have the ability to detect chemicals in the environment, which likely evolved out of organisms' needs to detect food sources and avoid potentially harmful compounds. The taste system detects chemicals and is used to determine whether potential food items will be ingested or rejected. The sense of taste detects five known taste qualities: bitter, sweet, salty, sour, and umami, which is the detection of amino acids, specifically glutamate. These different taste qualities encompass a wide variety of chemicals that differ in their structure and as a result, the peripheral taste utilizes numerous and diverse mechanisms to detect these stimuli. In this chapter, we will summarize what is currently known about the signaling mechanisms used by taste cells to transduce stimulus signals.

Impacts of Nicotine and Flavoring on the Sensory Perception of E-Cigarette Aerosol

INTRODUCTION

To examine the interaction between an added flavoring (cherry) and nicotine on the perception of electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) aerosol and how this impacts the appeal of flavored liquids for e-cigarette (e-liquids).

METHODS

A total of 19 subjects (13 male, 6 female) vaped six commercially available e-liquids with varying contents of nicotine (0, 6, 12 mg/mL) and cherry flavor (4.7% or 9.3% vol/vol). For each e-liquid, subjects first rated overall liking/disliking of the aerosol using the Labeled Hedonic Scale, followed by perceived intensities of sweetness, bitterness, harshness (irritation), and cherry flavor of the aerosol using the general version of Labeled Magnitude Scale.

RESULTS

The main findings were that (1) added nicotine increased perceived irritation and bitterness, and decreased the perceived sweetness of the e-cigarette aerosol; (2) cherry flavoring added a characteristic "cherry flavor" and an increase in the flavoring concentration from 4.7% to 9.3% tended to increase perceived intensities of sweetness, harshness, and bitterness; and (3) hedonic ratings of the e-cigarette aerosol decreased as nicotine level increased, but were not affected by flavor level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the appeal of the e-cigarette aerosol decreases as nicotine concentration increases. Conversely, perceived sweetness improved liking. An increase in the concentration of cherry flavoring did not appear to impact any of the measured attributes to a significant degree.

IMPLICATIONS

This work demonstrates that the perception of specific sensory attributes of e-cigarettes and their overall appeal are affected by the e-liquid constituents. Most significantly, the results suggest that nicotine decreases the sensory appeal of e-cigarettes by contributing to the perceived irritation and bitterness of the aerosol. These data have implications for the role that nicotine plays in the sensory perception and appeal of e-cigarettes aerosol and further how these sensory factors can be modulated by sweet flavoring.

Molecular sensor of nicotine in taste of Drosophila melanogaster

Nicotine is an alkaloid and potent parasympathomimetic stimulant found in the leaves of many plants including Nicotiana tabacum, which functions as an anti-herbivore chemical and an insecticide. Chemoreceptors embedded in the gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) enable animals to judge the quality of bitter compounds and respond to them. Various taste receptors such as gustatory receptors (GRs), ionotropic receptors (IRs), transient receptor potential channels (TRPs), and pickpocket channels (PPKs) have been shown to have important roles in taste sensation. However, the mechanism underlying nicotine taste sensation has not been resolved in the insect model. Here we identify molecular receptors to detect the taste of nicotine and provide electrophysiological and behavioral evidence that gustatory receptors are required for avoiding nicotine-laced foods. Our results demonstrate that gustatory receptors are reasonable targets to develop new pesticides that maximize the insecticidal effects of nicotine.

The Functional and Neurobiological Properties of Bad Taste

The gustatory system serves as a critical line of defense against ingesting harmful substances. Technological advances have fostered the characterization of peripheral receptors and have created opportunities for more selective manipulations of the nervous system, yet the neurobiological mechanisms underlying taste-based avoidance and aversion remain poorly understood. One conceptual obstacle stems from a lack of recognition that taste signals subserve several behavioral and physiological functions which likely engage partially segregated neural circuits. Moreover, although the gustatory system evolved to respond expediently to broad classes of biologically relevant chemicals, innate repertoires are often not in register with the actual consequences of a food. The mammalian brain exhibits tremendous flexibility; responses to taste can be modified in a specific manner according to bodily needs and the learned consequences of ingestion. Therefore, experimental strategies that distinguish between the functional properties of various taste-guided behaviors and link them to specific neural circuits need to be applied. Given the close relationship between the gustatory and visceroceptive systems, a full reckoning of the neural architecture of bad taste requires an understanding of how these respective sensory signals are integrated in the brain.

Heightened olfactory dysfunction and oral irritation among chronic smokers and heightened propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness among menthol smokers

Chronic cigarette smoking may influence chemosensory function, which in turn, may affect cigarette usage. Because menthol in cigarettes can attenuate nicotine bitterness, choice of menthol/nonmenthol cigarettes may be influenced by ability to perceive bitterness. We examined chemosensory function of chronic smokers, hypothesizing they would show altered function in comparison to non-smokers and by menthol cigarette preference. In laboratory-based measures, chronic smokers (N = 135; 84 menthol smokers) self-reported their chemosensory function and participated in smell (identification task with perceived intensity) and taste (quinine and NaCl intensity on tongue-tip and whole mouth) testing. A taste genetics probe (propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness) also was assessed. Self-reported and measured chemosensory function were compared with nationally-representative 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data generated with similar measures. The taste measures also were compared between smokers and age- and sex-matched non-smokers from a laboratory database. Frequencies of self-reported smell and taste alterations among smokers exceeded NHANES prevalence estimates for non-smokers. The rate of measured smell dysfunction also exceeded NHANES prevalence for hyposmia. Compared to non-smokers, smokers reported elevated tongue-tip and whole mouth intensities from 1 M NaCl, with no significant differences in whole mouth quinine or 0.32 M NaCl. Inconsistent with previous hypotheses, smokers were not more likely to report depressed PROP bitterness than non-smokers. However, as expected, menthol smokers reported greater PROP bitterness than non-menthol smokers. In conclusion, chemosensory alterations were more frequent among chronic smokers, including hyposmia and heightened intensity from NaCl at an oral-irritant concentration. PROP supertasters were most likely to prefer mentholated cigarettes.

Chemosensory bitter taste receptors (T2Rs) are activated by multiple antibiotics

Many medications including antibiotics taste bitter. The potency of these antibiotics on the 25 bitter taste receptors (T2Rs) in humans remains poorly understood. Here we characterize by sensory and structure-function analyses how antibiotics frequently used to treat airway infections in cystic fibrosis activate multiple human T2Rs. The potency of the broad-spectrum antibiotics, tobramycin, levofloxacin, and azithromycin on the highly expressed T2Rs in airways, T2R4, T2R14, and T2R20 was pursued. The amino acids and structural features of T2R4, T2R14, and T2R20 important for antibiotic binding were characterized by mutational analysis in heterologous cell-based assays. Strikingly, extracellular loop 2 in T2Rs performs a key function in binding to antibiotics with contribution from residues in transmembrane helices. Our results suggest that different antibiotics activate multiple T2Rs with different potencies. An understanding of the nonantibiotic and physiologic effects mediated through T2Rs on the host cells is much needed.-Jaggupilli, A., Singh, N., De Jesus, V. C., Gounni, M. S., Dhanaraj, P., Chelikani, P. Chemosensory bitter taste receptors (T2Rs) are activated by multiple antibiotics.

Natural product modulators of human sensations and mood: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Humans perceive physical information about the surrounding environment through their senses. This physical information is registered by a collection of highly evolved and finely tuned molecular sensory receptors. A multitude of bioactive, structurally diverse ligands have evolved in nature that bind these molecular receptors. The complex, dynamic interactions between the ligands and the receptors lead to changes in our sensory perception or mood. Here, we review our current knowledge of natural products and their derived analogues that interact specifically with human G protein-coupled receptors, ion channels, and nuclear hormone receptors to modulate the sensations of taste, smell, temperature, pain, and itch, as well as mood and its associated behaviour. We discuss the molecular and structural mechanisms underlying such interactions and highlight cases where subtle differences in natural product chemistry produce drastic changes in functional outcome. We also discuss cases where a single compound triggers complex sensory or behavioural changes in humans through multiple mechanistic targets. Finally, we comment on the therapeutic potential of the reviewed area of research and draw attention to recent technological developments in genomics, metabolomics, and metabolic engineering that allow us to tap the medicinal properties of natural product chemistry without taxing nature.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (CHRN) expression and function in cultured human adult fungiform (HBO) taste cells

In rodents, CHRNs are involved in bitter taste transduction of nicotine and ethanol. Currently, it is not clear if CHRNs are expressed in human taste cells and if they play a role in transducing the bitter taste of nicotine and ethanol or in the synthesis and release of neurohumoral peptides. Accordingly, we investigated the expression and functional role of CHRNs in HBO cells. Using molecular techniques, we demonstrate that a subset of HBO cells express CHRNs that also co-express TRPM5, T1R3 or T2R38. Exposing HBO cells to nicotine or ethanol acutely or to nicotine chronically induced a differential increase in the expression of CHRN mRNA and protein in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Acutely exposing HBO cells to a mixture containing nicotine plus ethanol induced a smaller increase in CHRN mRNAs relative to nicotine or ethanol treatment alone. A subset of HBO cells responded to nicotine, acetylcholine and ATP with a transient increase in [Ca2+]i. Nicotine effects on [Ca2+]i were mecamylamine sensitive. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein was detected in HBO cells using ELISA. Acute nicotine exposure decreased BDNF in HBO cells and increased BDNF release in the medium. CHRNs were also detected in HEK293 cells by RT-PCR. Unlike HBO cells, CHRNs were localized in most of HEK293 cells and majority of HEK293 cells responded to nicotine and ethanol stimulation with a transient increase in [Ca2+]i. BDNF levels in HEK293 cells were significantly higher than in HBO cells but the nicotine induced release of BDNF in the media was a fraction of the BDNF cellular content. We conclude that CHRNs are expressed in TRPM5 positive HBO cells. CHRN mRNA expression is modulated by exposure to nicotine and ethanol in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Nicotine induces the synthesis and release of BDNF in HBO cells.

Brief Exposures to the Taste of Ethanol (EtOH) and Quinine Promote Subsequent Acceptance of EtOH in a Paradigm that Minimizes Postingestive Consequences

BACKGROUND

Aversion to the orosensory properties of concentrated ethanol (EtOH) solutions is often cited as a primary barrier to initiation of drinking and may contribute to abstention. These aversive properties include gustatory processes which encompass both bitter-like taste qualities and trigeminal-mediated irritation. Chronic intermittent EtOH access (CIA) results in substantial and persistent increases in EtOH consumption, but the degree to which this facilitation involves sensory responding to EtOH and other bitter stimuli is currently undetermined.

METHODS

Long-Evans rats were given brief-access licking tests designed to examine the immediate, taste-guided assessment of the palatability of EtOH and quinine solutions. Rats were assessed once in a naïve state and again following previous brief-access exposure, or following 4 weeks of CIA. The relationship between the sensitivity to the aversive orosensory properties of EtOH and quinine following EtOH access and the impact of antecedent quinine exposure on the acceptance of EtOH were determined in 2 parallel studies.

RESULTS

Both brief access to EtOH and 4-week CIA resulted in substantial rightward shifts in the concentration-response function of brief-access EtOH licking, indicating that EtOH exposure increased acceptance of the taste of EtOH. The initial sensitivity to the aversive orosensory properties of EtOH and quinine was positively correlated in naïve rats, such that rats that were initially more accepting of quinine were also more accepting of EtOH. Rats that sampled quinine immediately prior to tasting EtOH exhibited successive positive contrast in that they were more accepting of highly concentrated EtOH, relative to a water-control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased EtOH acceptance following exposure is, at least in part, facilitated by a decrease in its aversive sensory properties. Both long- and short-term access increase the palatability of the taste of EtOH in brief-access licking tests. Moreover, the sensitivity to the bitterness of quinine was predictive of acceptance of EtOH indicating some commonality in the sensory mechanisms that mediate the initial acceptance of the 2 stimuli. Accordingly, immediate prior exposure to quinine results in increased acceptance of EtOH, suggesting that successive positive contrast between oral stimuli may contribute to increased alcohol consumption.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are expressed in Trpm5 positive taste receptor cells (TRCs)

Nicotine evokes chorda tympani (CT) taste nerve responses and an aversive behavior in Trpm5 knockout (KO) mice. The agonists and antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) modulate neural and behavioral responses to nicotine in wildtype (WT) mice, Trpm5 KO mice and rats. This indicates that nicotine evokes bitter taste by activating a Trpm5-dependent pathway and a Trpm5-independent but nAChR-dependent pathway. Rat CT responses to ethanol are also partially inhibited by nAChR blockers, mecamylamine and dihydro-β-erythroidine. This indicates that a component of the bitter taste of ethanol is also nAChR-dependent. However, at present the expression and localization of nAChR subunits has not been investigated in detail in taste receptor cells (TRCs). To this end, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry and q-RT-PCR techniques were utilized to localize nAChR subunits in fungiform and circumvallate TRCs in WT mice, Trpm5-GFP transgenic mice, nAChR KO mice, and rats. The expression of mRNAs for α7, β2 and β4 nAChR subunits was observed in a subset of rat and WT mouse circumvallate and fungiform TRCs. Specific α3, α4, α7, β2, and β4 antibodies localized to a subset of WT mouse circumvallate and fungiform TRCs. In Trpm5-GFP mice α3, α4, α7, and β4 antibody binding was observed in a subset of Trpm5-positive circumvallate TRCs. Giving nicotine (100 μg/ml) in drinking water to WT mice for 3 weeks differentially increased the expression of α3, α4, α5, α6, α7, β2 and β4 mRNAs in circumvallate TRCs to varying degrees. Giving ethanol (5%) in drinking water to WT mice induced an increase in the expression of α5 and β4 mRNAs in circumvallate TRCs with a significant decrease in the expression of α3, α6 and β2 mRNAs. We conclude that nAChR subunits are expressed in Trpm5-positive TRCs and their expression levels are differentially altered by chronic oral exposure to nicotine and ethanol.

Effects of nicotine on homeostatic and hedonic components of food intake

Chronic tobacco use leads to nicotine addiction that is characterized by exaggerated urges to use the drug despite the accompanying negative health and socioeconomic burdens. Interestingly, nicotine users are found to be leaner than the general population. Review of the existing literature revealed that nicotine affects energy homeostasis and food consumption via altering the activity of neurons containing orexigenic and anorexigenic peptides in the brain. Hypothalamus is one of the critical brain areas that regulates energy balance via the action of these neuropeptides. The equilibrium between these two groups of peptides can be shifted by nicotine leading to decreased food intake and weight loss. The aim of this article is to review the existing literature on the effect of nicotine on food intake and energy homeostasis and report on the changes that nicotine brings about in the level of these peptides and their receptors that may explain changes in food intake and body weight induced by nicotine. Furthermore, we review the effect of nicotine on the hedonic aspect of food intake. Finally, we discuss the involvement of different subtypes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the regulatory action of nicotine on food intake and energy homeostasis.

Taste buds: cells, signals and synapses

The past decade has witnessed a consolidation and refinement of the extraordinary progress made in taste research. This Review describes recent advances in our understanding of taste receptors, taste buds, and the connections between taste buds and sensory afferent fibres. The article discusses new findings regarding the cellular mechanisms for detecting tastes, new data on the transmitters involved in taste processing and new studies that address longstanding arguments about taste coding.

Increased expression of bitter taste receptors in human allergic nasal mucosa and their contribution to the shrinkage of human nasal mucosa

OBJECTIVE

Bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs) are expressed in the extraoral tissues, where they possess various physiological functions. This study is to characterize TAS2Rs expression in normal and allergic nasal mucosa and analyse nasal symptom after challenge with bitter tastes to evaluate their pathophysiological function in normal and allergic nasal mucosa.

METHODS

The expression levels of TAS2Rs (TAS2R4, 5, 7, 10, 14, 39, and 43) in nasal mucosa were investigated by real-time PCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry. The expression levels of TAS2Rs and Ca(2+) imaging in cultured epithelial cells were measured after stimulation with type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) or bitter tastes. Nasal symptoms in control subjects and allergic rhinitis patients using visual analogue score and acoustic rhinometry were evaluated before and after stimulation with bitter tastes. Vascular diameter of rat nasal septum was measured before and after treatment with bitter tastes.

RESULTS

TAS2Rs tested here were expressed in nasal mucosa where they were commonly distributed in superficial epithelium, submucosal glands, and endothelium. Their expression levels are increased in allergic nasal mucosa and up-regulated in cultured epithelial cells simulated with type 2 cytokines. After treatment with bitter tastes, intracellular Ca(2+) signalling was increased in cultured epithelial cells, and vascular constriction was found in rat nasal septum. Increased nasal patency was observed in human nasal mucosa without pain or sneezing.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

TAS2Rs are constitutively expressed in human nasal mucosa and their expression levels are increased in allergic nasal mucosa, where they could potentially contribute to shrinkage of normal and allergic nasal mucosa.

Stimulus-Dependent Effects of Temperature on Bitter Taste in Humans

This study investigated the effects of temperature on bitter taste in humans. The experiments were conducted within the context of current understanding of the neurobiology of bitter taste and recent evidence of stimulus-dependent effects of temperature on sweet taste. In the first experiment, the bitterness of caffeine and quinine sampled with the tongue tip was assessed at 4 different temperatures (10°, 21°, 30°, and 37 °C) following pre-exposure to the same solution or to water for 0, 3, or 10 s. The results showed that initial bitterness (0-s pre-exposure) followed an inverted U-shaped function of temperature for both stimuli, but the differences across temperature were statistically significant only for quinine. Conversely, temperature significantly affected adaptation to the bitterness of quinine but not caffeine. A second experiment used the same procedure to test 2 additional stimuli, naringin and denatonium benzoate. Temperature significantly affected the initial bitterness of both stimuli but had no effect on adaptation to either stimulus. These results confirm that like sweet taste, temperature affects bitter taste sensitivity and adaptation in stimulus-dependent ways. However, the thermal effect on quinine adaptation, which increased with warming, was opposite to what had been found previously for adaptation to sweetness. The implications of these results are discussed in relation to findings from prior studies of temperature and bitter taste in humans and the possible neurobiological mechanisms of gustatory thermal sensitivity.

Kissing bugs can generalize and discriminate between different bitter compounds

Animals make use of contact chemoreception structures to examine the quality of potential food sources. During this evaluation they can detect nutritious compounds that promote feeding and recognize toxins that trigger evasive behaviors. Although animals can easily distinguish between stimuli of different gustatory qualities (bitter, salty, sweet, etc.), their ability to discriminate between compounds of the same quality may be limited. Numerous plants produce alkaloids, compounds that elicit aversive behaviors in phytophagous insects and almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste for man. In hematophagous insects, however, the effect of feeding deterrent molecules has been barely studied. Recent studies showed that feeding in Rhodnius prolixus can be negatively modulated by the presence of alkaloids such as quinine (QUI) and caffeine (CAF), compounds that elicit similar aversive responses. Here, we applied associative and non-associative learning paradigms to examine under two behavioral contexts the ability of R. prolixus to distinguish, discriminate and/or generalize between these two bitter compounds, QUI and CAF. Our results show that bugs innately repelled by bitter compounds can change their behavior from avoidance to indifference or even to preference according to their previous experiences. After an aversive operant conditioning with QUI or CAF, R. prolixus modified its behavior in a direct but also in a cross-compound manner, suggesting the occurrence of a generalization process between these two alkaloids. Conversely, after a long pre-exposure to each alkaloid, bugs decreased their avoidance to the compound used during pre-exposure but still expressed an avoidance of the novel compound, proving that QUI and CAF are detected separately. Our results suggest that R. prolixus is able to discriminate between QUI and CAF, although after an associative conditioning they express a symmetrical cross-generalization. This kind of studies adds insight into the gustatory sense of a blood-sucking model but also into the learning abilities of hematophagous insects.

Nicotine-Induced Effects on Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors (nAChRs), Ca2+ and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in STC-1 Cells

In addition to the T2R bitter taste receptors, neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have recently been shown to be involved in the bitter taste transduction of nicotine, acetylcholine and ethanol. However, at present it is not clear if nAChRs are expressed in enteroendocrine cells other than beta cells of the pancreas and enterochromaffin cells, and if they play a role in the synthesis and release of neurohumoral peptides. Accordingly, we investigated the expression and functional role of nAChRs in enteroendocrine STC-1 cells. Our studies using RT-PCR, qRT-PCR, immunohistochemical and Western blotting techniques demonstrate that STC-1 cells express several α and β nAChR subunits. Exposing STC-1 cells to nicotine acutely (24h) or chronically (4 days) induced a differential increase in the expression of nAChR subunit mRNA and protein in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. Mecamylamine, a non-selective antagonist of nAChRs, inhibited the nicotine-induced increase in mRNA expression of nAChRs. Exposing STC-1 cells to nicotine increased intracellular Ca²⁺ in a dose-dependent manner that was inhibited in the presence of mecamylamine or dihydro-β-erythroidine, a α4β2 nAChR antagonist. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and protein were detected in STC-1 cells using RT-PCR, specific BDNF antibody, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Acute nicotine exposure (30 min) decreased the cellular content of BDNF in STC-1 cells. The nicotine-induced decrease in BDNF was inhibited in the presence of mecamylamine. We also detected α3 and β4 mRNA in intestinal mucosal cells and α3 protein expression in intestinal enteroendocrine cells. We conclude that STC-1 cells and intestinal enteroendocrine cells express nAChRs. In STC-1 cells nAChR expression is modulated by exposure to nicotine in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Nicotine interacts with nAChRs and inhibits BDNF expression in STC-1 cells.

Nicotine and ethanol co-use in Long-Evans rats: Stimulatory effects of perinatal exposure to a fat-rich diet

Clinical studies demonstrate frequent co-existence of nicotine and alcohol abuse and suggest that this may result, in part, from the ready access to and intake of fat-rich diets. Whereas animal studies show that high-fat diet intake in adults can enhance the consumption of either nicotine or ethanol and that maternal consumption of a fat-rich diet during pregnancy increases operant responding for nicotine in offspring, little is known about the impact of dietary fat on the co-abuse of these two drugs. The goal of this study was to test in Long-Evans rats the effects of perinatal exposure to fat on the co-use of nicotine and ethanol, using a novel paradigm that involves simultaneous intravenous (IV) self-administration of these two drugs. Fat- vs. chow-exposed offspring were characterized and compared, first in terms of their nicotine self-administration behavior, then in terms of their nicotine/ethanol self-administration behavior, and lastly in terms of their self-administration of ethanol in the absence of nicotine. The results demonstrate that maternal consumption of fat compared to low-fat chow during gestation and lactation significantly stimulates nicotine self-administration during fixed-ratio testing. It also increases nicotine/ethanol self-administration during fixed-ratio and dose-response testing, with BEC elevated to 120 mg/dL, and causes an increase in breakpoint during progressive ratio testing. Of particular note is the finding that rats perinatally exposed to fat self-administer significantly more of the nicotine/ethanol mixture as compared to nicotine alone, an effect not evident in the chow-control rats. After removal of nicotine from the nicotine/ethanol mixture, this difference between the fat- and chow-exposed rats was lost, with both groups failing to acquire the self-administration of ethanol alone. Together, these findings suggest that perinatal exposure to a fat-rich diet, in addition to stimulating self-administration of nicotine, causes an even greater vulnerability to the excessive co-use of nicotine and ethanol.

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) Dependent Chorda Tympani Taste Nerve Responses to Nicotine, Ethanol and Acetylcholine

Nicotine elicits bitter taste by activating TRPM5-dependent and TRPM5-independent but neuronal nAChR-dependent pathways. The nAChRs represent common targets at which acetylcholine, nicotine and ethanol functionally interact in the central nervous system. Here, we investigated if the nAChRs also represent a common pathway through which the bitter taste of nicotine, ethanol and acetylcholine is transduced. To this end, chorda tympani (CT) taste nerve responses were monitored in rats, wild-type mice and TRPM5 knockout (KO) mice following lingual stimulation with nicotine free base, ethanol, and acetylcholine, in the absence and presence of nAChR agonists and antagonists. The nAChR modulators: mecamylamine, dihydro-β-erythroidine, and CP-601932 (a partial agonist of the α3β4* nAChR), inhibited CT responses to nicotine, ethanol, and acetylcholine. CT responses to nicotine and ethanol were also inhibited by topical lingual application of 8-chlorophenylthio (CPT)-cAMP and loading taste cells with [Ca²⁺]_i by topical lingual application of ionomycin + CaCl₂. In contrast, CT responses to nicotine were enhanced when TRC [Ca²⁺]_i was reduced by topical lingual application of BAPTA-AM. In patch-clamp experiments, only a subset of isolated rat fungiform taste cells exposed to nicotine responded with an increase in mecamylamine-sensitive inward currents. We conclude that nAChRs expressed in a subset of taste cells serve as common receptors for the detection of the TRPM5-independent bitter taste of nicotine, acetylcholine and ethanol.

Genetic Vulnerability to Menthol Cigarette Preference in Women

BACKGROUND

Smokers may prefer menthol cigarettes to mask the bitter taste of nicotine. Variation in the taste receptor gene, TAS2R38, may contribute to preference for menthol cigarettes.

AIMS

To determine whether two common haplotypes of TAS2R38 (proline-alanine-valine [PAV] and alanine-valine-isoleucine [AVI]), which have been associated, respectively, with bitter taste or a lack of bitter taste produced by propylthiouracil, are associated with preference for menthol cigarettes.

METHODS

Data on smoking and blood for DNA extraction and genotyping were obtained from 323 pregnant non-Hispanic or Hispanic Caucasian smokers. We genotyped three TAS2R38 single nucleotide polymorphisms (rs713598, rs1726866, and rs10246939) and constructed haplotypes. We examined associations between menthol preference and the frequency and distribution of the AVI and PAV haplotypes among study participants.

RESULTS

Participants smoked an average of 16 cigarettes per day before pregnancy. The PAV and AVI haplotype frequencies were 48% and 45%, respectively. Non-Hispanic women were less likely than Hispanic women to smoke menthol cigarettes. As hypothesized, the frequency of the PAV haplotype was greater in menthol than non-menthol smokers in both non-Hispanics (54% vs. 30%; χ(2) = 13.04, P < .001) and Hispanics (53% vs. 25%; χ(2) = 5.77, P = .016). This effect persisted after controlling for potential confounders in multivariate logistic regression. Menthol smokers had a greater number of PAV haplotypes/individual than non-menthol smokers [non-Hispanics odds ratio (OR) = 3.02 (1.56-5.85); P = .001; Hispanics OR = 3.60 (1.23-10.56); P = .020].

CONCLUSIONS

These preliminary data support the hypothesis that a genetic propensity to experience heightened bitter taste perception increases the preference for menthol cigarettes.

TRPs in taste and chemesthesis

TRP channels are expressed in taste buds, nerve fibers, and keratinocytes in the oronasal cavity. These channels play integral roles in transducing chemical stimuli, giving rise to sensations of taste, irritation, warmth, coolness, and pungency. Specifically, TRPM5 acts downstream of taste receptors in the taste transduction pathway. TRPM5 channels convert taste-evoked intracellular Ca(2+) release into membrane depolarization to trigger taste transmitter secretion. PKD2L1 is expressed in acid-sensitive (sour) taste bud cells but is unlikely to be the transducer for sour taste. TRPV1 is a receptor for pungent chemical stimuli such as capsaicin and for several irritants (chemesthesis). It is controversial whether TRPV1 is present in the taste buds and plays a direct role in taste. Instead, TRPV1 is expressed in non-gustatory sensory afferent fibers and in keratinocytes of the oronasal cavity. In many sensory fibers and epithelial cells lining the oronasal cavity, TRPA1 is also co-expressed with TRPV1. As with TRPV1, TRPA1 transduces a wide variety of irritants and, in combination with TRPV1, assures that there is a broad response to noxious chemical stimuli. Other TRP channels, including TRPM8, TRPV3, and TRPV4, play less prominent roles in chemesthesis and no known role in taste, per se. The pungency of foods and beverages is likely highly influenced by the temperature at which they are consumed, their acidity, and, for beverages, their carbonation. All these factors modulate the activity of TRP channels in taste buds and in the oronasal mucosa.

Comparison of nicotine oral soluble film and nicotine lozenge on efficacy in relief of smoking cue-provoked acute craving after a single dose of treatment in low dependence smokers

RATIONALE

Pilot study results suggested that a new form of nicotine oral soluble film relieved smoking cue-provoked acute craving faster than nicotine lozenge or gum. The new nicotine film may provide smokers another choice to relieve acute craving.

OBJECTIVES

This study compared the efficacy of the 2.5 mg nicotine oral soluble film to 2 mg nicotine lozenge for acute relief of smoking cue-provoked craving.

METHODS

A randomized, open label, active comparator controlled, parallel group study was conducted with 322 smokers enrolled. After 4 h of abstinence from smoking, eligible subjects were exposed to smoking cues as provocation. Immediately after the post-provocation baseline craving assessment using a 0-100 mm visual analogue scale (VAS), subjects took a randomized single dose of either the 2.5 mg nicotine film or the 2 mg nicotine lozenge. Craving assessments were completed at 50 s, 3 min, 5 min, 7 min, 15 min, 20 min, 25 min and 30 min after drug administration.

RESULTS

Both treatments reduced cue-induced craving and had similar maximum effects on craving relief. However, the 2.5 mg nicotine film relieved cue-induced craving to a greater degree than the 2 mg nicotine lozenge at 50 s (mean difference: -4.9, p = 0.014), 3 min (mean difference: -6.7, p = 0.011), and 5 min (mean difference: -5.6, p = 0.049) post-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The study confirmed the results from the pilot study. The 2.5 mg nicotine film relieved cue-provoked craving much quicker than the 2 mg nicotine lozenge while both having similar maximum effects. Nicotine film could be useful to provide quick craving relief for low dependence smokers.

Amiloride-sensitive sodium currents in fungiform taste cells of rats chronically exposed to nicotine

Many studies have demonstrated that chronic exposure to nicotine, one of the main components of tobacco smoke, has profound effects on the functionality of the mammalian taste system. However, the mechanisms underlying nicotine action are poorly understood. In particular no information is available on the chronic effect of nicotine on the functioning of taste cells, the peripheral detectors which transduce food chemicals into electrical signals to the brain. To address this issue, I studied the membrane properties of rat fungiform taste cells and evaluated the effect of long-term exposure to nicotine on the amiloride-sensitive sodium currents (ASSCs). These currents are mediated by the epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) thought to be important, at least in part, in the transduction of salty stimuli. Patch-clamp recording data indicated that ASSCs in taste cells from rats chronically treated with nicotine had a reduced amplitude compared to controls. The pharmacological and biophysical analysis of ASSCs revealed that amplitude reduction was not dependent on changes in amiloride sensitivity or channel ionic permeability, but likely derived from a decrease in the activity of ENaCs. Since these channels are considered to be sodium receptors in taste cells, my results suggest that chronic exposure to nicotine hampers the capability of these cells to respond to sodium ions. This might represent a possible cellular mechanism underlying the reduced taste sensitivity to salt typically found in smokers.

Prenatal alcohol exposure increases postnatal acceptability of nicotine odor and taste in adolescent rats

Human studies indicate that alcohol exposure during gestation not only increases the chance for later alcohol abuse, but also nicotine dependence. The flavor attributes of both alcohol and nicotine can be important determinants of their initial acceptance and they both share the component chemosensory qualities of an aversive odor, bitter taste and oral irritation. There is a growing body of evidence demonstrating epigenetic chemosensory mechanisms through which fetal alcohol exposure increases adolescent alcohol acceptance, in part, by decreasing the aversion to alcohol's bitter and oral irritation qualities, as well as its odor. Given that alcohol and nicotine have noteworthy chemosensory qualities in common, we investigated whether fetal exposure to alcohol increased the acceptability of nicotine's odor and taste in adolescent rats. Study rats were alcohol-exposed during fetal development via the dams' liquid diet. Control animals received ad lib access to an iso-caloric, iso-nutritive diet throughout gestation. Odorant-induced innate behavioral responses to nicotine odor (Experiment 1) or orosensory-mediated responses to nicotine solutions (Experiment 2) were obtained, using whole-body plethysmography and brief access lick tests, respectively. Compared to controls, rats exposed to fetal alcohol showed an enhanced nicotine odor response that was paralleled by increased oral acceptability of nicotine. Given the common aversive component qualities imbued in the flavor profiles of both drugs, our findings demonstrate that like postnatal alcohol avidity, fetal alcohol exposure also influences nicotine acceptance, at a minimum, by decreasing the aversion of both its smell and taste. Moreover, they highlight potential chemosensory-based mechanism(s) by which fetal alcohol exposure increases the later initial risk for nicotine use, thereby contributing to the co-morbid expression with enhanced alcohol avidity. Where common chemosensory mechanisms are at play, our results suggest broader implications related to the consequence of fetal exposure with one substance of abuse and initial acceptability of others.

A Pilot Study to Investigate the Efficacy of Nicotine Oral Soluble Film, Lozenge and Gum in Relief of Acute Smoking Cue-provoked Craving for Cigarette in Low Dependence Smokers

Introduction: A new nicotine film that releases nicotine quickly may lead to faster craving relief.

Aims: This study compares the efficacy of 2.5 mg nicotine film with 2 mg nicotine lozenge and 2 mg nicotine gum on relieving provoked craving in low dependence smokers.

Methods: A randomised, open-label, active comparators controlled study was conducted in 120 subjects. Subjects were abstinent from smoking for 4 hours prior to being provoked with smoking cues. After post-provocation craving assessment, subjects were administered one dose of the 3 treatments: nicotine film, lozenge, or gum. Craving intensity was then assessed at 50 seconds, 3, 5, 7, 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes after administration.

Results/Findings: Three treatments reduced craving with similar maximum effects. The effect was maintained up to 30 minutes. Nicotine film significantly reduced more craving than lozenge at 50 seconds, 3 and 5 minutes. It also significantly reduced more craving than gum at 50 seconds and 3 minutes. There was no significant difference between lozenge and gum.

Conclusions: Nicotine film, lozenge and gum have similar maximum craving relief. Nicotine film significantly reduced more craving than lozenge and gum at early time points. Nicotine film may be particularly useful to provide acute craving relief.

Explaining human recreational use of 'pesticides': The neurotoxin regulation model of substance use vs. the hijack model and implications for age and sex differences in drug consumption

Most globally popular drugs are plant neurotoxins or their close chemical analogs. These compounds evolved to deter, not reward or reinforce, consumption. Moreover, they reliably activate virtually all toxin defense mechanisms, and are thus correctly identified by human neurophysiology as toxins. Acute drug toxicity must therefore play a more central role in drug use theory. We accordingly challenge the popular idea that the rewarding and reinforcing properties of drugs "hijack" the brain, and propose instead that the brain evolved to carefully regulate neurotoxin consumption to minimize fitness costs and maximize fitness benefits. This perspective provides a compelling explanation for the dramatic changes in substance use that occur during the transition from childhood to adulthood, and for pervasive sex differences in substance use: because nicotine and many other plant neurotoxins are teratogenic, children, and to a lesser extent women of childbearing age, evolved to avoid ingesting them. However, during the course of human evolution many adolescents and adults reaped net benefits from regulated intake of plant neurotoxins.

Dysfunctional chemosensation in myasthenia gravis: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Myasthenia gravis has traditionally been viewed as a disorder that solely affects the neuromuscular junction within the peripheral nervous system. However, there is now evidence that the cholinergic dysfunction of this disorder may be more widespread than previously believed. This article provides a systematic review of the studies that examined smell and taste function in myasthenia gravis.

METHODS

We analyzed studies that reported chemosensory function alterations in patients with myasthenia gravis. PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, EMBASE, and SciELO, searched to identify articles published from January 1950 through December 2012, were supplemented by relevant articles. The following information was identified from each article: the number of patients, number of controls (if any), clinical stage of patients, neurological involvement, serological state, taste or smell involvement, chemosensory test used, and country of publication.

RESULTS

Ten studies reporting smell and taste function and dysfunction in patients with myasthenia gravis were identified, most of which were case reports commenting on apparent abnormalities in the taste system. The sole empirical study that investigated taste function, however, was negative, suggesting that some reports of taste loss may reflect olfactory loss. One study clearly documented olfactory dysfunction in patients with myasthenia gravis, dysfunction most likely attributable to altered central nervous system cholinergic function.

CONCLUSIONS

Chemosensory dysfunction has been reported in a number of patients with myasthenia gravis. Given the close association between complaints of taste dysfunction and loss of flavor sensations secondary to olfactory system damage, quantitative testing should be used to accurately assess the nature and degree of the dysfunction present in this debilitating disorder.

TRPM5-dependent amiloride- and benzamil-insensitive NaCl chorda tympani taste nerve response

Transient receptor potential (TRP) subfamily M member 5 (TRPM5) cation channel is involved in sensing sweet, bitter, umami, and fat taste stimuli, complex-tasting divalent salts, and temperature-induced changes in sweet taste. To investigate if the amiloride- and benzamil (Bz)-insensitive NaCl chorda tympani (CT) taste nerve response is also regulated in part by TRPM5, CT responses to 100 mM NaCl + 5 μM Bz (NaCl + Bz) were monitored in Sprague-Dawley rats, wild-type (WT) mice, and TRP vanilloid subfamily member 1 (TRPV1) and TRPM5 knockout (KO) mice in the presence of resiniferatoxin (RTX), a TRPV1 agonist. In rats, NaCl + Bz + RTX CT responses were also monitored in the presence of triphenylphosphine oxide, a specific TRPM5 blocker, and capsazepine and N-(3-methoxyphenyl)-4-chlorocinnamid (SB-366791), specific TRPV1 blockers. In rats and WT mice, RTX produced biphasic effects on the NaCl + Bz CT response, enhancing the response at 0.5-1 μM and inhibiting it at >1 μM. The NaCl + Bz + SB-366791 CT response in rats and WT mice and the NaCl + Bz CT response in TRPV1 KO mice were inhibited to baseline level and were RTX-insensitive. In rats, blocking TRPV1 by capsazepine or TRPM5 by triphenylphosphine oxide inhibited the tonic NaCl + Bz CT response and shifted the relationship between RTX concentration and the magnitude of the tonic CT response to higher RTX concentrations. TRPM5 KO mice elicited no constitutive NaCl + Bz tonic CT response. The relationship between RTX concentration and the magnitude of the tonic NaCl + Bz CT response was significantly attenuated and shifted to higher RTX concentrations. The results suggest that pharmacological or genetic alteration of TRPM5 activity modulates the Bz-insensitive NaCl CT response and its modulation by TRPV1 agonists.

Pathway analysis of smoking quantity in multiple GWAS identifies cholinergic and sensory pathways

Cigarette smoking is a common addiction that increases the risk for many diseases, including lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have successfully identified and validated several susceptibility loci for nicotine consumption and dependence. However, the trait variance explained by these genes is only a small fraction of the estimated genetic risk. Pathway analysis complements single marker methods by including biological knowledge into the evaluation of GWAS, under the assumption that causal variants lie in functionally related genes, enabling the evaluation of a broad range of signals. Our approach to the identification of pathways enriched for multiple genes associated with smoking quantity includes the analysis of two studies and the replication of common findings in a third dataset. This study identified pathways for the cholinergic receptors, which included SNPs known to be genome-wide significant; as well as novel pathways, such as genes involved in the sensory perception of smell, that do not contain any single SNP that achieves that stringent threshold.

Changes in taste receptor cell [Ca2+]i modulate chorda tympani responses to bitter, sweet, and umami taste stimuli

The relationship between taste receptor cell (TRC) intracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](i)) and rat chorda tympani (CT) nerve responses to bitter (quinine and denatonium), sweet (sucrose, glycine, and erythritol), and umami [monosodium glutamate (MSG) and MSG + inosine 5'-monophosphate (IMP)] taste stimuli was investigated before and after lingual application of ionomycin (Ca(2+) ionophore) + Ca(2+), 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid acetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA-AM; Ca(2+) chelator), U73122 (phospholipase C blocker), thapsigargin (Ca(2+)-ATPase blocker), and diC8-PIP(2) (synthetic phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate). The phasic CT response to quinine was indifferent to changes in [Ca(2+)](i). However, a decrease in [Ca(2+)](i) inhibited the tonic part of the CT response to quinine. The CT responses to sweet and umami stimuli were indifferent to changes in TRC [Ca(2+)](i). However, a decrease in [Ca(2+)](i) attenuated the synergistic effects of ethanol on the CT response to sweet stimuli and of IMP on the glutamate CT response. U73122 and thapsigargin inhibited the phasic and tonic CT responses to bitter, sweet, and umami stimuli. Although diC8-PIP(2) increased the CT response to bitter and sweet stimuli, it did not alter the CT response to glutamate but did inhibit the synergistic effect of IMP on the glutamate response. The results suggest that bitter, sweet, and umami taste qualities are transduced by [Ca(2+)](i)-dependent and [Ca(2+)](i)-independent mechanisms. Changes in TRC [Ca(2+)](i) in the BAPTA-sensitive cytosolic compartment regulate quality-specific taste receptors and ion channels that are involved in the neural adaptation and mixture interactions. Changes in TRC [Ca(2+)](i) in a separate subcompartment, sensitive to inositol trisphosphate and thapsigargin but inaccessible to BAPTA and ionomycin + Ca(2+), are associated with neurotransmitter release.

Nicotinic regulation of energy homeostasis

INTRODUCTION

The ability of nicotine, the primary psychoactive substance in tobacco smoke, to regulate appetite and body weight is one of the factors cited by smokers that prevents them from quitting and is the primary reason for smoking initiation in teenage girls. The regulation of feeding and metabolism by nicotine is complex, and recent studies have begun to identify nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes and circuits or cell types involved in this regulation.

DISCUSSION

We will briefly describe the primary anatomical and functional features of the input, output, and central integration structures of the neuroendocrine systems that regulate energy homeostasis. Then, we will describe the nAChR subtypes expressed in these structures in mammals to identify the possible molecular targets for nicotine. Finally, we will review the effects of nicotine and its withdrawal on feeding and energy metabolism and attribute them to potential central and peripheral cellular targets.

Bitter taste stimuli induce differential neural codes in mouse brain

A growing literature suggests taste stimuli commonly classified as “bitter” induce heterogeneous neural and perceptual responses. Here, the central processing of bitter stimuli was studied in mice with genetically controlled bitter taste profiles. Using these mice removed genetic heterogeneity as a factor influencing gustatory neural codes for bitter stimuli. Electrophysiological activity (spikes) was recorded from single neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarius during oral delivery of taste solutions (26 total), including concentration series of the bitter tastants quinine, denatonium benzoate, cycloheximide, and sucrose octaacetate (SOA), presented to the whole mouth for 5 s. Seventy-nine neurons were sampled; in many cases multiple cells (2 to 5) were recorded from a mouse. Results showed bitter stimuli induced variable gustatory activity. For example, although some neurons responded robustly to quinine and cycloheximide, others displayed concentration-dependent activity (p<0.05) to quinine but not cycloheximide. Differential activity to bitter stimuli was observed across multiple neurons recorded from one animal in several mice. Across all cells, quinine and denatonium induced correlated spatial responses that differed (p<0.05) from those to cycloheximide and SOA. Modeling spatiotemporal neural ensemble activity revealed responses to quinine/denatonium and cycloheximide/SOA diverged during only an early, at least 1 s wide period of the taste response. Our findings highlight how temporal features of sensory processing contribute differences among bitter taste codes and build on data suggesting heterogeneity among “bitter” stimuli, data that challenge a strict monoguesia model for the bitter quality.