GPR37 and GPR37L1 are receptors for the neuroprotective and glioprotective factors prosaptide and prosaposin

Prefrontal cortex astrocytes in major depressive disorder: exploring pathogenic mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a prevalent mental health condition characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness, affecting millions globally. The precise molecular mechanisms underlying MDD remain elusive, necessitating comprehensive investigations. Our study integrates transcriptomic analysis, functional assays, and computational modeling to explore the molecular landscape of MDD, focusing on the DLPFC. We identify key genomic alterations and co-expression modules associated with MDD, highlighting potential therapeutic targets. Functional enrichment and protein-protein interaction analyses emphasize the role of astrocytes in MDD progression. Machine learning is employed to develop a predictive model for MDD risk assessment. Single-cell and spatial transcriptomic analyses provide insights into cell type-specific expression patterns, particularly regarding astrocytes. We have identified significant genomic alterations and co-expression modules associated with MDD in the DLPFC. Key genes involved in neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathways, notably in astrocytes, have been highlighted. Additionally, we developed a predictive model for MDD risk assessment based on selected key genes. Single-cell and spatial transcriptomic analyses underscored the role of astrocytes in MDD. Virtual screening of compounds targeting GPR37L1, KCNJ10, and PPP1R3C proteins has identified potential therapeutic candidates. In summary, our comprehensive approach enhances the understanding of MDD's molecular underpinnings and offers promising opportunities for advancing therapeutic interventions, ultimately aiming to alleviate the burden of this debilitating mental health condition. KEY MESSAGES: Our investigation furnishes insightful revelations concerning the dysregulation of astrocyte-associated processes in MDD. We have pinpointed specific genes, namely KCNJ10, PPP1R3C, and GPR37L1, as potential candidates warranting further exploration and therapeutic intervention. We incorporate a virtual screening of small molecule compounds targeting KCNJ10, PPP1R3C, and GPR37L1, presenting a promising trajectory for drug discovery in MDD.

A Gene Cluster of Mitochondrial Complexes Contributes to the Cognitive Decline of COVID-19 Infection

"Brain fog," a persistent cognitive impairment syndrome, stands out as a significant neurological aftermath of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Yet, the underlying mechanisms by which COVID-19 induces cognitive deficits remain elusive. In our study, we observed an upregulation in the expression of genes linked to the inflammatory response and oxidative stress, whereas genes associated with cognitive function were downregulated in the brains of patients infected with COVID-19. Through single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) analysis, we found that COVID-19 infection triggers the immune responses in microglia and astrocytes and exacerbates oxidative stress in oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte progenitors (OPCs), and neurons. Further investigations revealed that COVID-19 infection elevates LUC7L2 expression, which inhibits mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and suppresses the expression of mitochondrial complex genes such as MT-ND1, MT-ND2, MT-ND3, MT-ND4L, MT-CYB, MT-CO3, and MT-ATP6. A holistic approach to protect mitochondrial complex function, rather than targeting a single molecular, should be an effective therapeutic strategy to prevent and treat the long-term consequences of "long COVID."

Emerging roles of the G-protein-coupled receptor 37 in neurological diseases and pain

Neurological disorders and pain are prevalent clinical issues that severely impact patients' quality of life and daily functioning. With the advancing exploration of these disease mechanisms, G protein-coupled receptor 37 (GPR37) has emerged as a critical protein, garnering widespread attention in the scientific community. As a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family, GPR37 features a seven-transmembrane helix structure and is widely expressed in various brain regions, including the substantia nigra and striatum. In addition to neurons, GPR37 is also detected in immune cells within the nervous system, indicating its potential role in neuron-immune cell interactions. Research has shown that the expression level of GPR37 in neurological disorders can affect neuron survival, cellular signaling, and overall neurological health. Abnormal expression of GPR37 is often associated with disease progression and symptom exacerbation in neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and stroke. In the context of pain, GPR37 alleviates pain and inflammatory responses by regulating the phagocytic activity and polarization state of macrophages. This article aims to delve into the mechanistic roles of GPR37 in neurological disorders and pain. Through a comprehensive literature review, we summarize the latest research on GPR37's involvement in neurological diseases and pain, highlighting its critical roles in neural signaling, inflammatory responses, and neuroprotection. This understanding expands the comprehension of GPR37's biological functions and provides new perspectives for improving the clinical outcomes of patients with neurological disorders and pain.

Role of orphan G-protein coupled receptors in tissue ischemia: A comprehensive review

Ischemic events lead to many diseases and deaths worldwide. Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) occurs due to reduced blood circulation in tissues followed by blood reflow. Reoxygenation of ischemic tissues is characterized by oxidative stress, inflammation, energy distress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. There are still no adequate clinical protocols or pharmacological approaches to address the consequences of I/R damage. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important therapeutic targets. They compose a large family of seven transmembrane-spanning proteins that are involved in many biological functions. Orphan GPCRs are a large subgroup of these receptors expressed in different organs. In the present review, we summarized the literature regarding the role of orphan GPCRs in I/R in different organs. We focused on the effect of these receptors on modulating cellular and molecular processes underlying ischemia including apoptosis, inflammation, and autophagy. The study showed that GPR3, GPR4, GPR17, GPR30, GPR31, GPR35, GPR37, GPR39, GPR55, GPR65, GPR68, GPR75, GPR81, and GPR91 are involved in ischemic events, mainly in the brain and heart. These receptors offer new possibilities for treating I/R injuries in the body.

Gz Enhanced Signal Transduction assaY (GZESTY) for GPCR deorphanization

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key pharmacological targets, yet many remain underutilized due to unknown activation mechanisms and ligands. Orphan GPCRs, lacking identified natural ligands, are a high priority for research, as identifying their ligands will aid in understanding their functions and potential as drug targets. Most GPCRs, including orphans, couple to Gi/o/z family members, however current assays to detect their activation are limited, hindering ligand identification efforts. We introduce GZESTY, a highly sensitive, cell-based assay developed in an easily deliverable format designed to study the pharmacology of Gi/o/z-coupled GPCRs and assist in deorphanization. We optimized assay conditions and developed an all-in-one vector employing novel cloning methods to ensure the correct expression ratio of GZESTY components. GZESTY successfully assessed activation of a library of ligand-activated GPCRs, detecting both full and partial agonism, as well as responses from endogenous GPCRs. Notably, with GZESTY we established the presence of endogenous ligands for GPR176 and GPR37 in brain extracts, validating its use in deorphanization efforts. This assay enhances the ability to find ligands for orphan GPCRs, expanding the toolkit for GPCR pharmacologists.

Exploring orphan GPCRs in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative disorders represent a significant and growing health burden worldwide. Unfortunately, limited therapeutic options are currently available despite ongoing efforts. Over the past decades, research efforts have increasingly focused on understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying these devastating conditions. Orphan receptors, a class of receptors with no known endogenous ligands, emerge as promising druggable targets for diverse diseases. This review aims to direct attention to a subgroup of orphan GPCRs, in particular class A orphans that have roles in neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Multiple sclerosis. We highlight the diverse roles orphan receptors play in regulating critical cellular processes such as synaptic transmission, neuronal survival and neuro-inflammation. Moreover, we discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting orphan receptors for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, emphasizing recent advances in drug discovery and preclinical studies. Finally, we outline future directions and challenges in orphan receptor research.

Selective prosaposin expression in Langerhans islets of the mouse pancreas

The islets of Langerhans are clusters of endocrine cells surrounded by exocrine acinar cells in the pancreas. Prosaposin is a housekeeping protein required for normal lysosomal function, but its expression level is significantly different among tissues. Prosaposin also exists in various body fluids including serum. Intracellularly, prosaposin activates lysosomes and may support autophagy, and extracellularly, prosaposin promotes survival of neurons via G protein-coupled receptors. In this study, prosaposin and its mRNA expression were examined in endocrine cells of the islets as well as in exocrine acinar cells in the pancreas of mice by in situ hybridization and immunostaining. High expression levels of prosaposin were found in Alpha, Beta and Delta cells in the islets, whereas prosaposin mRNA expression was faint or negative and prosaposin immunoreactivity was negative in exocrine acinar cells. The high expression levels of prosaposin in endocrine cells may indicate that prosaposin plays a crucial role in crinophagy, which is a characteristic autophagy in peptide-secreting endocrine cells, and/or that prosaposin is secreted from pancreatic islets. Since prosaposin has been reported in serum, this study suggests a new possible function of the Langerhans islets.

Generation of a Deep Mouse Brain Spectral Library for Transmembrane Proteome Profiling in Mental Disease Models

Transmembrane (TM) proteins constitute over 30% of the mammalian proteome and play essential roles in mediating cell-cell communication, synaptic transmission, and plasticity in the central nervous system. Many of these proteins, especially the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), are validated or candidate drug targets for therapeutic development for mental diseases, yet their expression profiles are underrepresented in most global proteomic studies. Herein, we establish a brain TM protein-enriched spectral library based on 136 data-dependent acquisition runs acquired from various brain regions of both naïve mice and mental disease models. This spectral library comprises 3043 TM proteins including 171 GPCRs, 231 ion channels, and 598 transporters. Leveraging this library, we analyzed the data-independent acquisition data from different brain regions of two mouse models exhibiting depression- or anxiety-like behaviors. By integrating multiple informatics workflows and library sources, our study significantly expanded the mental stress-perturbed TM proteome landscape, from which a new GPCR regulator of depression was verified by in vivo pharmacological testing. In summary, we provide a high-quality mouse brain TM protein spectral library to largely increase the TM proteome coverage in specific brain regions, which would catalyze the discovery of new potential drug targets for the treatment of mental disorders.

Rare GPR37L1 Variants Reveal Potential Association between GPR37L1 and Disorders of Anxiety and Migraine

GPR37L1 is an orphan receptor that couples through heterotrimeric G-proteins to regulate physiological functions. Since its role in humans is not fully defined, we used an unbiased computational approach to assess the clinical significance of rare G-protein-coupled receptor 37-like 1 (GPR37L1) genetic variants found among 51,289 whole-exome sequences from the DiscovEHR cohort. Rare GPR37L1 coding variants were binned according to predicted pathogenicity and analyzed by sequence kernel association testing to reveal significant associations with disease diagnostic codes for epilepsy and migraine, among others. Since associations do not prove causality, rare GPR37L1 variants were functionally analyzed in SK-N-MC cells to evaluate potential signaling differences and pathogenicity. Notably, receptor variants exhibited varying abilities to reduce cAMP levels, activate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, and/or upregulate receptor expression in response to the agonist prosaptide (TX14(A)), as compared with the wild-type receptor. In addition to signaling changes, knock-out (KO) of GPR37L1 or expression of certain rare variants altered cellular cholesterol levels, which were also acutely regulated by administration of the agonist TX14(A) via activation of the MAPK pathway. Finally, to simulate the impact of rare nonsense variants found in the large patient cohort, a KO mouse line lacking Gpr37l1 was generated. Although KO animals did not recapitulate an acute migraine phenotype, the loss of this receptor produced sex-specific changes in anxiety-related disorders often seen in chronic migraineurs. Collectively, these observations define the existence of rare GPR37L1 variants associated with neuropsychiatric conditions in the human population and identify the signaling changes contributing to pathological processes.

Gpr37 modulates the severity of inflammation-induced GI dysmotility by regulating enteric reactive gliosis

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is contained within two layers of the gut wall and is made up of neurons, immune cells, and enteric glia cells (EGCs) that regulate gastrointestinal (GI) function. EGCs in both inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) change in response to inflammation, referred to as reactive gliosis. Whether EGCs restricted to a specific layer or region within the GI tract alone can influence intestinal immune response is unknown. Using bulk RNA-sequencing and in situ hybridization, we identify G-protein coupled receptor Gpr37 , as a gene expressed only in EGCs of the myenteric plexus, one of the two layers of the ENS. We show that Gpr37 contributes to key components of LPS-induced reactive gliosis including activation of NF-kB and IFN-y signaling and response genes, lymphocyte recruitment, and inflammation-induced GI dysmotility. Targeting Gpr37 in EGCs presents a potential avenue for modifying inflammatory processes in the ENS.

Cellular architecture of evolving neuroinflammatory lesions and multiple sclerosis pathology

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurological disease characterized by multifocal lesions and smoldering pathology. Although single-cell analyses provided insights into cytopathology, evolving cellular processes underlying MS remain poorly understood. We investigated the cellular dynamics of MS by modeling temporal and regional rates of disease progression in mouse experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). By performing single-cell spatial expression profiling using in situ sequencing (ISS), we annotated disease neighborhoods and found centrifugal evolution of active lesions. We demonstrated that disease-associated (DA)-glia arise independently of lesions and are dynamically induced and resolved over the disease course. Single-cell spatial mapping of human archival MS spinal cords confirmed the differential distribution of homeostatic and DA-glia, enabled deconvolution of active and inactive lesions into sub-compartments, and identified new lesion areas. By establishing a spatial resource of mouse and human MS neuropathology at a single-cell resolution, our study unveils the intricate cellular dynamics underlying MS.

Senktide blocks aberrant RTN3 interactome to retard memory decline and tau pathology in social isolated Alzheimer's disease mice

Sporadic or late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) accounts for more than 95% of Alzheimer's disease (AD) cases without any family history. Although genome-wide association studies have identified associated risk genes and loci for LOAD, numerous studies suggest that many adverse environmental factors, such as social isolation, are associated with an increased risk of dementia. However, the underlying mechanisms of social isolation in AD progression remain elusive. In the current study, we found that 7 days of social isolation could trigger pattern separation impairments and presynaptic abnormalities of the mossy fibre-CA3 circuit in AD mice. We also revealed that social isolation disrupted histone acetylation and resulted in the downregulation of 2 dentate gyrus (DG)-enriched miRNAs, which simultaneously target reticulon 3 (RTN3), an endoplasmic reticulum protein that aggregates in presynaptic regions to disturb the formation of functional mossy fibre boutons (MFBs) by recruiting multiple mitochondrial and vesicle-related proteins. Interestingly, the aggregation of RTN3 also recruits the PP2A B subunits to suppress PP2A activity and induce tau hyperphosphorylation, which, in turn, further elevates RTN3 and forms a vicious cycle. Finally, using an artificial intelligence-assisted molecular docking approach, we determined that senktide, a selective agonist of neurokinin3 receptors (NK3R), could reduce the binding of RTN3 with its partners. Moreover, application of senktide in vivo effectively restored DG circuit disorders in socially isolated AD mice. Taken together, our findings not only demonstrate the epigenetic regulatory mechanism underlying mossy fibre synaptic disorders orchestrated by social isolation and tau pathology but also reveal a novel potential therapeutic strategy for AD.

Satellite glial GPR37L1 and its ligand maresin 1 regulate potassium channel signaling and pain homeostasis

G protein-coupled receptor 37-like 1 (GPR37L1) is an orphan GPCR with largely unknown functions. Here, we report that Gpr37l1/GRP37L1 ranks among the most highly expressed GPCR transcripts in mouse and human dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and is selectively expressed in satellite glial cells (SGCs). Peripheral neuropathy induced by streptozotoxin (STZ) and paclitaxel (PTX) led to reduced GPR37L1 expression on the plasma membrane in mouse and human DRGs. Transgenic mice with Gpr37l1 deficiency exhibited impaired resolution of neuropathic pain symptoms following PTX- and STZ-induced pain, whereas overexpression of Gpr37l1 in mouse DRGs reversed pain. GPR37L1 is coexpressed with potassium channels, including KCNJ10 (Kir4.1) in mouse SGCs and both KCNJ3 (Kir3.1) and KCNJ10 in human SGCs. GPR37L1 regulates the surface expression and function of the potassium channels. Notably, the proresolving lipid mediator maresin 1 (MaR1) serves as a ligand of GPR37L1 and enhances KCNJ10- or KCNJ3-mediated potassium influx in SGCs through GPR37L1. Chemotherapy suppressed KCNJ10 expression and function in SGCs, which MaR1 rescued through GPR37L1. Finally, genetic analysis revealed that the GPR37L1-E296K variant increased chronic pain risk by destabilizing the protein and impairing the protein's function. Thus, GPR37L1 in SGCs offers a therapeutic target for the protection of neuropathy and chronic pain.

Intranasal administration of recombinant prosaposin attenuates neuronal apoptosis through GPR37/PI3K/Akt/ASK1 pathway in MCAO rats

Studies have reported that Prosaposin (PSAP) is neuroprotective in cerebrovascular diseases. We hypothesized that PSAP would reduce infarct volume by attenuating neuronal apoptosis and promoting cell survival through G protein-coupled receptor 37(GPR37)/PI3K/Akt/ASK1 pathway in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats. Two hundred and thirty-five male and eighteen female Sprague-Dawley rats were used. Recombinant human PSAP (rPSAP) was administered intranasally 1 h (h) after reperfusion. PSAP small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA), GPR37 siRNA, and PI3K specific inhibitor LY294002 were administered intracerebroventricularly 48 h before MCAO. Infarct volume, neurological score, immunofluorescence staining, Western blot, Fluoro-Jade C (FJC) and TUNEL staining were examined. The expression of endogenous PSAP and GPR37 were increased after MCAO. Intranasal administration of rPSAP reduced brain infarction, neuronal apoptosis, and improved both short- and long-term neurological function. Knockdown of endogenous PSAP aggravated neurological deficits. Treatment with exogenous rPSAP increased PI3K expression, Akt and ASK1 phosphorylation, and Bcl-2 expression; phosphorylated-JNK and Bax levels were reduced along with the number of FJC and TUNEL positive neurons. GPR37 siRNA and LY294002 abolished the anti-apoptotic effect of rPSAP at 24 h after MCAO. In conclusion, rPSAP attenuated neuronal apoptosis and improved neurological function through GPR37/PI3K/Akt/ASK1 pathway after MCAO in rats. Therefore, further exploration of PSAP as a potential treatment option in ischemic stroke is warranted.

The aminosteroid U73122 promotes oligodendrocytes generation and myelin formation

Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are glial cells that ensheath neuronal axons and form myelin in the central nervous system (CNS). OLs are differentiated from oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) during development and myelin repair, which is often insufficient in the latter case in demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Many factors have been reported to regulate OPC-to-OL differentiation, including a number of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In an effort to search pathways downstream of GPCRs that might be involved in OPC differentiation, we discover that U73122, a phosphoinositide specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) inhibitor, dramatically promotes OPC-to-OL differentiation and myelin regeneration in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model. Unexpectedly, U73343, a close analog of U73122 which lacks PI-PLC inhibitory activity also promotes OL differentiation, while another reported PI-PLC inhibitor edelfosine does not have such effect, suggesting that U73122 and U73343 enhance OPC differentiation independent of PLC. Although the structures of U73122 and U73343 closely resemble 17β-estradiol, and both compounds do activate estrogen receptors Erα and Erβ with low efficacy and potency, further study indicates that these compounds do not act through Erα and/or Erβ to promote OPC differentiation. RNA-Seq and bioinformatic analysis indicate that U73122 and U73343 may regulate cholesterol biosynthesis. Further study shows both compounds increase 14-dehydrozymostenol, a steroid reported to promote OPC differentiation, in OPC culture. In conclusion, the aminosteroids U73122 and U73343 promote OPC-to-OL generation and myelin formation by regulating cholesterol biosynthesis pathway.

Reactive Amine Functionalized Microelectrode Arrays Provide Short-Term Benefit but Long-Term Detriment to In Vivo Recording Performance

Intracortical microelectrode arrays (MEAs) are used for recording neural signals. However, indwelling devices result in chronic neuroinflammation, which leads to decreased recording performance through degradation of the device and surrounding tissue. Coating the MEAs with bioactive molecules is being explored to mitigate neuroinflammation. Such approaches often require an intermediate functionalization step such as (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES), which serves as a linker. However, the standalone effect of this intermediate step has not been previously characterized. Here, we investigated the effect of coating MEAs with APTES by comparing APTES-coated to uncoated controls in vivo and ex vivo. First, we measured water contact angles between silicon uncoated and APTES-coated substrates to verify the hydrophilic characteristics of the APTES coating. Next, we implanted MEAs in the motor cortex (M1) of Sprague-Dawley rats with uncoated or APTES-coated devices. We assessed changes in the electrochemical impedance and neural recording performance over a chronic implantation period of 16 weeks. Additionally, histology and bulk gene expression were analyzed to understand further the reactive tissue changes arising from the coating. Results showed that APTES increased the hydrophilicity of the devices and decreased electrochemical impedance at 1 kHz. APTES coatings proved detrimental to the recording performance, as shown by a constant decay up to 16 weeks postimplantation. Bulk gene analysis showed differential changes in gene expression between groups that were inconclusive with regard to the long-term effect on neuronal tissue. Together, these results suggest that APTES coatings are ultimately detrimental to chronic neural recordings. Furthermore, interpretations of studies using APTES as a functionalization step should consider the potential consequences if the final functionalization step is incomplete.

Mass spectrometry-based proteomics of cerebrospinal fluid in pediatric central nervous system malignancies: a systematic review with meta-analysis of individual patient data

BACKGROUND

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) proteome could offer important insights into central nervous system (CNS) malignancies. To advance proteomic research in pediatric CNS cancer, the current study aims to (1) evaluate past mass spectrometry-based workflows and (2) synthesize previous CSF proteomic data, focusing on both qualitative summaries and quantitative re-analysis. MAIN: In our analysis of 11 studies investigating the CSF proteome in pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) or primary brain tumors, we observed significant methodological variability. This variability negatively affects comparative analysis of the included studies, as per GRADE criteria for quality of evidence. The qualitative summaries covered 161 patients and 134 non-tumor controls, while the application of validation cohort varied among the studies. The quantitative re-analysis comprised 15 B-ALL vs 6 "healthy" controls and 15 medulloblastoma patients vs 22 non-tumor controls. Certain CSF proteins were identified as potential indicators of specific malignancies or stages of neurotoxicity during chemotherapy, yet definitive conclusions were impeded by inconsistent data. There were no proteins with statistically significant differences when comparing cases versus controls that were corroborated across studies where quantitative reanalysis was feasible. From a gene ontology enrichment, we observed that age disparities between unmatched case and controls may mislead to protein correlations more indicative of age-related CNS developmental stages rather than neuro-oncological disease. Despite efforts to batch correct (HarmonizR) and impute missing values, merging of dataset proved unfeasible and thereby limited meaningful data integration across different studies.

CONCLUSION

Infrequent publications on rare pediatric cancer entities, which often involve small sample sizes, are inherently prone to result in heterogeneous studies-particularly when conducted within a rapidly evolving field like proteomics. As a result, obtaining clear evidence, such as CSF proteome biomarkers for CNS dissemination or early-stage neurotoxicity, is currently impractical. Our general recommendations comprise the need for standardized methodologies, collaborative efforts, and improved data sharing in pediatric CNS malignancy research. We specifically emphasize the possible importance of considering natural age-related variations in CSF due to different CNS development stages when matching cases and controls in future studies.

Cell States and Interactions of CD8 T Cells and Disease-Enriched Microglia in Human Brains with Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multi-stage neurodegenerative disorder characterized by beta-amyloid accumulation, hyperphosphorylated Tau deposits, neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, and cognitive impairment. Recent studies implicate CD8 T cells as neuroimmune responders to the accumulation of AD pathology in the brain and potential contributors to toxic neuroinflammation. However, more evidence is needed to understand lymphocytes in disease, including their functional states, molecular mediators, and interacting cell types in diseased brain tissue. The scarcity of lymphocytes in brain tissue samples has limited the unbiased profiling of disease-associated cell types, cell states, drug targets, and relationships to common AD genetic risk variants based on transcriptomic analyses. However, using recent large-scale, high-quality single-nuclear sequencing datasets from over 84 Alzheimer's disease and control cases, we leverage single-nuclear RNAseq data from 800 lymphocytes collected from 70 individuals to complete unbiased molecular profiling. We demonstrate that effector memory CD8 T cells are the major lymphocyte subclass enriched in the brain tissues of individuals with AD dementia. We define disease-enriched interactions involving CD8 T cells and multiple brain cell subclasses including two distinct microglial disease states that correlate, respectively, to beta-amyloid and tau pathology. We find that beta-amyloid-associated microglia are a major hub of multicellular cross-talk gained in disease, including interactions involving both vulnerable neuronal subtypes and CD8 T cells. We reproduce prior reports that amyloid-response microglia are depleted in APOE4 carriers. Overall, these human-based studies provide additional support for the potential relevance of effector memory CD8 T cells as a lymphocyte population of interest in AD dementia and provide new candidate interacting partners and drug targets for further functional study.

Brief Electrical Stimulation Promotes Recovery after Surgical Repair of Injured Peripheral Nerves

Injured peripheral nerves regenerate their axons in contrast to those in the central nervous system. Yet, functional recovery after surgical repair is often disappointing. The basis for poor recovery is progressive deterioration with time and distance of the growth capacity of the neurons that lose their contact with targets (chronic axotomy) and the growth support of the chronically denervated Schwann cells (SC) in the distal nerve stumps. Nonetheless, chronically denervated atrophic muscle retains the capacity for reinnervation. Declining electrical activity of motoneurons accompanies the progressive fall in axotomized neuronal and denervated SC expression of regeneration-associated-genes and declining regenerative success. Reduced motoneuronal activity is due to the withdrawal of synaptic contacts from the soma. Exogenous neurotrophic factors that promote nerve regeneration can replace the endogenous factors whose expression declines with time. But the profuse axonal outgrowth they provoke and the difficulties in their delivery hinder their efficacy. Brief (1 h) low-frequency (20 Hz) electrical stimulation (ES) proximal to the injury site promotes the expression of endogenous growth factors and, in turn, dramatically accelerates axon outgrowth and target reinnervation. The latter ES effect has been demonstrated in both rats and humans. A conditioning ES of intact nerve days prior to nerve injury increases axonal outgrowth and regeneration rate. Thereby, this form of ES is amenable for nerve transfer surgeries and end-to-side neurorrhaphies. However, additional surgery for applying the required electrodes may be a hurdle. ES is applicable in all surgeries with excellent outcomes.

Unraveling the intercellular communication disruption and key pathways in Alzheimer's disease: an integrative study of single-nucleus transcriptomes and genetic association

BACKGROUND

Recently, single-nucleus RNA-seq (snRNA-seq) analyses have revealed important cellular and functional features of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a prevalent neurodegenerative disease. However, our knowledge regarding intercellular communication mediated by dysregulated ligand-receptor (LR) interactions remains very limited in AD brains.

METHODS

We systematically assessed the intercellular communication networks by using a discovery snRNA-seq dataset comprising 69,499 nuclei from 48 human postmortem prefrontal cortex (PFC) samples. We replicated the findings using an independent snRNA-seq dataset of 56,440 nuclei from 18 PFC samples. By integrating genetic signals from AD genome-wide association studies (GWAS) summary statistics and whole genome sequencing (WGS) data, we prioritized AD-associated Gene Ontology (GO) terms containing dysregulated LR interactions. We further explored drug repurposing for the prioritized LR pairs using the Therapeutic Targets Database.

RESULTS

We identified 190 dysregulated LR interactions across six major cell types in AD PFC, of which 107 pairs were replicated. Among the replicated LR signals, we found globally downregulated communications in the astrocytes-to-neurons signaling axis, characterized, for instance, by the downregulation of APOE-related and Calmodulin (CALM)-related LR interactions and their potential regulatory connections to target genes. Pathway analyses revealed 44 GO terms significantly linked to AD, highlighting Biological Processes such as 'amyloid precursor protein processing' and 'ion transmembrane transport,' among others. We prioritized several drug repurposing candidates, such as cromoglicate, targeting the identified dysregulated LR pairs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our integrative analysis identified key dysregulated LR interactions in a cell type-specific manner and the associated GO terms in AD, offering novel insights into potential therapeutic targets involved in disrupted cell-cell communication in AD.

Satellite glial GPR37L1 regulates maresin and potassium channel signaling for pain control

G protein coupled receptor 37-like 1 (GPR37L1) is an orphan GPCR and its function remains largely unknown. Here we report that GPR37L1 transcript is highly expressed compared to all known GPCRs in mouse and human dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and selectively expressed in satellite glial cells (SGCs). Peripheral neuropathy following diabetes and chemotherapy by streptozotocin and paclitaxel resulted in downregulations of surface GPR37L1 in mouse and human DRGs. Transgenic mice with Gpr37l1 deficiency exhibited impaired resolution of neuropathic pain symptom (mechanical allodynia), whereas overexpression of Gpr37l1 in mouse DRGs can reverse neuropathic pain. Notably, GPR37L1 is co-expressed and coupled with potassium channels in SGCs. We found striking species differences in potassium channel expression in SGCs, with predominant expression of KCNJ10 and KCNJ3 in mouse and human SGCs, respectively. GPR37L1 regulates the surface expression and function of KCNJ10 and KCNJ3. We identified the pro-resolving lipid mediator maresin 1 (MaR1) as a GPR37L1 ligand. MaR1 increases KCNJ10/KCNJ3-mediated potassium influx in SGCs via GPR37L1. MaR1 protected chemotherapy-induced suppression of KCNJ13/KCNJ10 expression and function in SGCs. Finally, genetic analysis revealed that the GPR37L1-E296K variant is associated with increased chronic pain risk by destabilizing the protein. Thus, GPR37L1 in SGCs offers a new target for neuropathy protection and pain control.

Single-cell analysis of spinal cord injury reveals functional heterogeneity of oligodendrocyte lineage cells

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a traumatic condition that causes myelin destruction and neuronal death, making it challenging to reverse. In spinal cord tissue, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells and oligodendrocytes are essential for maintaining myelin morphology and axon regeneration. The decrease in oligodendrocyte lineage cells after SCI is a major factor contributing to the difficulty in restoring spinal cord function. However, there is still a lack of research on the status and intercellular communication between oligodendrocyte lineage cells after injury. The development of single-cell sequencing technology has enabled researchers to obtain highly accurate cellular transcriptional information, facilitating detailed studies of cellular subpopulations. This study delved into the cellular heterogeneity of oligodendrocyte lineage cells using a single-cell transcriptomic approach to uncover functional changes and cellular interactions during different time points after SCI. Our findings highlighted the critical roles of Psap (Prosaposin)/Gpr37l1 and Psap/Gpr37 ligand-receptor pairs among oligodendrocyte lineage cells. Furthermore, we predicted the transcription factors that may play a key regulatory role. We demonstrated for the first time that Junb acts almost exclusively in mature oligodendrocytes, which provides a potential target for the study of oligodendrocyte transcriptional mechanisms.

Single-cell analysis of dorsal root ganglia reveals metalloproteinase signaling in satellite glial cells and pain

Satellite glial cells (SGCs) are among the most abundant non-neuronal cells in dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and closely envelop sensory neurons that detect painful stimuli. However, little is still known about their homeostatic activities and their contribution to pain. Using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), we were able to obtain a unique transcriptional profile for SGCs. We found enriched expression of the tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase 3 (TIMP3) and other metalloproteinases in SGCs. Small interfering RNA and neutralizing antibody experiments revealed that TIMP3 modulates somatosensory stimuli. TIMP3 expression decreased after paclitaxel treatment, and its rescue by delivery of a recombinant TIMP3 protein reversed and prevented paclitaxel-induced pain. We also established that paclitaxel directly impacts metalloproteinase signaling in cultured SGCs, which may be used to identify potential new treatments for pain. Therefore, our results reveal a metalloproteinase signaling pathway in SGCs for proper processing of somatosensory stimuli and potential discovery of novel pain treatments.

Orphan G Protein-Coupled Receptor GPR37 as an Emerging Therapeutic Target

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are successful druggable targets, making up around 35% of all FDA-approved medications. However, a large number of receptors remain orphaned, with no known endogenous ligand, representing a challenging but untapped area to discover new therapeutic targets. Among orphan GPCRs (oGPCRs) of interest, G protein-coupled receptor 37 (GPR37) is highly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS), particularly in the spinal cord and oligodendrocytes. While its cellular signaling mechanisms and endogenous receptor ligands remain elusive, GPR37 has been implicated in several important neurological conditions, including Parkinson's disease (PD), inflammation, pain, autism, and brain tumors. GPR37 structure, signaling, emerging physiology, and pharmacology are reviewed while integrating a discussion on potential therapeutic indications and opportunities.

Unraveling the intercellular communication disruption and key pathways in Alzheimer's disease: An integrative study of single-nucleus transcriptomes and genetic association

Background

Recently, single-nucleus RNA-seq (snRNA-seq) analyses have revealed important cellular and functional features of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a prevalent neurodegenerative disease. However, our knowledge regarding intercellular communication mediated by dysregulated ligand-receptor (LR) interactions remains very limited in AD brains.

Methods

We systematically assessed the intercellular communication networks by using a discovery snRNA-seq dataset comprising 69,499 nuclei from 48 human postmortem prefrontal cortex (PFC) samples. We replicated the findings using an independent snRNA-seq dataset of 56,440 nuclei from 18 PFC samples. By integrating genetic signals from AD genome-wide association studies (GWAS) summary statistics and whole genome sequencing (WGS) data, we prioritized AD-associated Gene Ontology (GO) terms containing dysregulated LR interactions. We further explored drug repurposing for the prioritized LR pairs using the Therapeutic Targets Database.

Results

We identified 316 dysregulated LR interactions across six major cell types in AD PFC, of which 210 pairs were replicated. Among the replicated LR signals, we found globally downregulated communications in astrocytes-to-neurons signaling axis, characterized, for instance, by the downregulation of APOE-related and Calmodulin (CALM)-related LR interactions and their potential regulatory connections to target genes. Pathway analyses revealed 60 GO terms significantly linked to AD, highlighting Biological Processes such as 'amyloid precursor protein processing' and 'ion transmembrane transport', among others. We prioritized several drug repurposing candidates, such as cromoglicate, targeting the identified dysregulated LR pairs.

Conclusions

Our integrative analysis identified key dysregulated LR interactions in a cell type-specific manner and the associated GO terms in AD, offering novel insights into potential therapeutic targets involved in disrupted cell-cell communication in AD.

GPR37L1 controls maturation and organization of cortical astrocytes during development

Astrocyte maturation is crucial to proper brain development and function. This maturation process includes the ramification of astrocytic morphology and the establishment of astrocytic domains. While this process has been well-studied, the mechanisms by which astrocyte maturation is initiated are not well understood. GPR37L1 is an astrocyte-specific G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is predominantly expressed in mature astrocytes and has been linked to the modulation of seizure susceptibility in both humans and mice. To investigate the role of GPR37L1 in astrocyte biology, RNA-seq analyses were performed on astrocytes immunopanned from P7 Gpr37L1-/- knockout (L1KO) mouse cortex and compared to those from wild-type (WT) mouse cortex. These RNA-seq studies revealed that pathways involved in central nervous system development were altered and that L1KO cortical astrocytes express lower amounts of mature astrocytic genes compared to WT astrocytes. Immunohistochemical studies of astrocytes from L1KO mouse brain revealed that these astrocytes exhibit overall shorter total process length, and are also less complex and spaced further apart from each other in the mouse cortex. This work sheds light on how GPR37L1 regulates cellular processes involved in the control of astrocyte biology and maturation.

Efferocytes release extracellular vesicles to resolve inflammation and tissue injury via prosaposin-GPR37 signaling

Macrophages release soluble mediators following efferocytic clearance of apoptotic cells to facilitate intercellular communication and promote the resolution of inflammation. However, whether inflammation resolution is modulated by extracellular vesicles (EVs) and vesicular mediators released by efferocytes is not known. We report that efferocyte-derived EVs express prosaposin, which binds to macrophage GPR37 to increase expression of the efferocytosis receptor Tim4 via an ERK-AP1-dependent signaling axis, leading to increased macrophage efferocytosis efficiency and accelerated resolution of inflammation. Neutralization and knockdown of prosaposin or blocking GRP37 abrogates the pro-resolution effects of efferocyte-derived EVs in vivo. Administration of efferocyte-derived EVs in a murine model of atherosclerosis is associated with an increase in lesional macrophage efferocytosis efficiency and a decrease in plaque necrosis and lesional inflammation. Thus, we establish a critical role for efferocyte-derived vesicular mediators in increasing macrophage efferocytosis efficiency and accelerating the resolution of inflammation and tissue injury.

Rare GPR37L1 variants reveal potential roles in anxiety and migraine disorders

GPR37L1 is an orphan receptor that couples through heterotrimeric G-proteins to regulate physiological functions. Since its role in humans is not fully defined, we used an unbiased computational approach to assess the clinical significance of rare GPR37L1 genetic variants found among 51,289 whole exome sequences from the DiscovEHR cohort. Briefly, rare GPR37L1 coding variants were binned according to predicted pathogenicity, and analyzed by Sequence Kernel Association testing to reveal significant associations with disease diagnostic codes for epilepsy and migraine, among others. Since associations do not prove causality, rare GPR37L1 variants were then functionally analyzed in SK-N-MC cells to evaluate potential signaling differences and pathogenicity. Notably, receptor variants exhibited varying abilities to reduce cAMP levels, activate MAPK signaling, and/or upregulate receptor expression in response to the agonist prosaptide (TX14(A)), as compared to the wild-type receptor. In addition to signaling changes, knockout of GPR37L1 or expression of certain rare variants altered cellular cholesterol levels, which were also acutely regulated by administration of the agonist TX14(A) via activation of the MAPK pathway. Finally, to simulate the impact of rare nonsense variants found in the large patient cohort, a knockout (KO) mouse line lacking Gpr37L1 was generated, revealing loss of this receptor produced sex-specific changes implicated in migraine-related disorders. Collectively, these observations define the existence of rare GPR37L1 variants in the human population that are associated with neuropsychiatric conditions and identify the underlying signaling changes that are implicated in the in vivo actions of this receptor in pathological processes leading to anxiety and migraine.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent a diverse group of membrane receptors that contribute to a wide range of diseases and serve as effective drug targets. However, a number of these receptors have no identified ligands or functions, i.e., orphan receptors. Over the past decade, advances have been made, but there is a need for identifying new strategies to reveal their roles in health and disease. Our results highlight the utility of rare variant analyses of orphan receptors for identifying human disease associations, coupled with functional analyses in relevant cellular and animal systems, to ultimately reveal their roles as novel drug targets for treatment of neurological disorders that lack wide-spread efficacy.

Expression patterns of prosaposin and neurotransmitter-related molecules in the chick paratympanic organ

The paratympanic organ (PTO) is a small sense organ in the middle ear of birds that contains hair cells similar to those found in vestibuloauditory organs and receives afferent fibers from the geniculate ganglion. To consider the histochemical similarities between the PTO and vestibular hair cells, we examined the expression patterns of representative molecules in vestibular hair cells, including prosaposin, G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 37 and GPR37L1 as prosaposin receptors, vesicular glutamate transporter (vGluT) 2 and vGluT3, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit α9 (nAChRα9), and glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) 65 and GAD67, in the postnatal day 0 chick PTO and geniculate ganglion by in situ hybridization. Prosaposin mRNA was observed in PTO hair cells, supporting cells, and geniculate ganglion cells. vGluT3 mRNA was observed in PTO hair cells, whereas vGluT2 was observed in a small number of ganglion cells. nAChRα9 mRNA was observed in a small number of PTO hair cells. The results suggest that the histochemical character of PTO hair cells is more similar to that of vestibular hair cells than that of auditory hair cells in chicks.

Central Facial Nervous System Biomolecules Involved in Peripheral Facial Nerve Injury Responses and Potential Therapeutic Strategies

Peripheral facial nerve injury leads to changes in the expression of various neuroactive substances that affect nerve cell damage, survival, growth, and regeneration. In the case of peripheral facial nerve damage, the injury directly affects the peripheral nerves and induces changes in the central nervous system (CNS) through various factors, but the substances involved in these changes in the CNS are not well understood. The objective of this review is to investigate the biomolecules involved in peripheral facial nerve damage so as to gain insight into the mechanisms and limitations of targeting the CNS after such damage and identify potential facial nerve treatment strategies. To this end, we searched PubMed using keywords and exclusion criteria and selected 29 eligible experimental studies. Our analysis summarizes basic experimental studies on changes in the CNS following peripheral facial nerve damage, focusing on biomolecules that increase or decrease in the CNS and/or those involved in the damage, and reviews various approaches for treating facial nerve injury. By establishing the biomolecules in the CNS that change after peripheral nerve damage, we can expect to identify factors that play an important role in functional recovery from facial nerve damage. Accordingly, this review could represent a significant step toward developing treatment strategies for peripheral facial palsy.

An epigenome-wide analysis of socioeconomic position and tumor DNA methylation in breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Disadvantaged socioeconomic position (SEP), including lower educational attainment and household income, may influence cancer risk and outcomes. We hypothesized that DNA methylation could function as an intermediary epigenetic mechanism that internalizes and reflects the biological impact of SEP.

METHODS

Based on tumor DNA methylation data from the Illumina 450 K array from 694 breast cancer patients in the Women's Circle of Health Study, we conducted an epigenome-wide analysis in relation to educational attainment and household income. Functional impact of the identified CpG sites was explored in silico using data from publicly available databases.

RESULTS

We identified 25 CpG sites associated with household income at an array-wide significance level, but none with educational attainment. Two of the top CpG sites, cg00452016 and cg01667837, were in promoter regions of NNT and GPR37, respectively, with multiple epigenetic regulatory features identified in each region. NNT is involved in β-adrenergic stress signaling and inflammatory responses, whereas GPR37 is involved in neurological and immune responses. For both loci, gene expression was inversely correlated to the levels of DNA methylation. The associations were consistent between Black and White women and did not differ by tumor estrogen receptor (ER) status.

CONCLUSIONS

In a large breast cancer patient population, we discovered evidence of the significant biological impact of household income on the tumor DNA methylome, including genes in the β-adrenergic stress and immune response pathways. Our findings support biological effects of socioeconomic status on tumor tissues, which might be relevant to cancer development and progression.

Expression patterns of prosaposin and its receptors, G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 37 and GPR37L1, in the mouse olfactory organ

Prosaposin is a glycoprotein conserved widely in vertebrates, because it is a precursor for saposins that are required for normal lysosomal function and thus for autophagy, and acts as a neurotrophic factor. Most tetrapods possess two kinds of olfactory neuroepithelia, namely, the olfactory epithelium (OE) and the vomeronasal epithelium (VNE). This study examined the expression patterns of prosaposin and its candidate receptors, G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 37 and GPR37L1, in mouse OE and VNE by immunofluorescence and in situ hybridization. Prosaposin immunoreactivity was observed in the olfactory receptor neurons, vomeronasal receptor neurons, Bowman's gland (BG), and Jacobson's gland (JG). Prosaposin expression was mainly observed in mature neurons. Prosaposin mRNA expression was observed not only in these cells but also in the apical region of the VNE. GPR37 and GPR37L1 immunoreactivities were found only in the BG and/or the JG. Prosaposin was suggested to secrete and facilitate the autophagic activities of the neurons and modulate the mucus secretion in mouse olfactory organ.

Expression of prosaposin and its G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 37 in mouse cochlear and vestibular nuclei

Prosaposin is a precursor of lysosomal hydrolases activator proteins, saposins, and also acts as a secretory protein that is not processed into saposins. Prosaposin elicits neurotrophic function via G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 37, and prosaposin deficiency causes abnormal vestibuloauditory end-organ development. In this study, immunohistochemistry was used to examine prosaposin and GPR37 expression patterns in the mouse cochlear and vestibular nuclei. Prosaposin immunoreactivity was observed in neurons and glial cells in both nuclei. GPR37 immunoreactivity was observed in only some neurons, and its immunoreactivity in the vestibular nucleus was weaker than that in the cochlear nucleus. This study suggests a possibility that prosaposin deficiency affects not only the end-organs but also the first center of the vestibuloauditory system.

Self-renewing macrophages in dorsal root ganglia contribute to promote nerve regeneration

Sensory neurons located in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) convey sensory information from peripheral tissue to the brain. After peripheral nerve injury, sensory neurons switch to a regenerative state to enable axon regeneration and functional recovery. This process is not cell autonomous and requires glial and immune cells. Macrophages in the DRG (DRGMacs) accumulate in response to nerve injury, but their origin and function remain unclear. Here, we mapped the fate and response of DRGMacs to nerve injury using macrophage depletion, fate-mapping, and single-cell transcriptomics. We identified three subtypes of DRGMacs after nerve injury in addition to a small population of circulating bone-marrow-derived precursors. Self-renewing macrophages, which proliferate from local resident macrophages, represent the largest population of DRGMacs. The other two subtypes include microglia-like cells and macrophage-like satellite glial cells (SGCs) (Imoonglia). We show that self-renewing DRGMacs contribute to promote axon regeneration. Using single-cell transcriptomics data and CellChat to simulate intercellular communication, we reveal that macrophages express the neuroprotective and glioprotective ligand prosaposin and communicate with SGCs via the prosaposin receptor GPR37L1. These data highlight that DRGMacs have the capacity to self-renew, similarly to microglia in the Central nervous system (CNS) and contribute to promote axon regeneration. These data also reveal the heterogeneity of DRGMacs and their potential neuro- and glioprotective roles, which may inform future therapeutic approaches to treat nerve injury.

Single-cell transcriptomic profile of satellite glial cells in trigeminal ganglion

Satellite glial cells (SGCs) play an important role in regulating the function of trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons. Multiple mediators are involved in the bidirectional communication between SGCs and neurons in different physiological and pathological states. However, molecular insights into the transcript characteristics of SGCs are limited. Moreover, little is known about the heterogeneity of SGCs in TG, and a more in-depth understanding of the interactions between SGCs and neuron subtypes is needed. Here we show the single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) profile of SGCs in TG under physiological conditions. Our results demonstrate TG includes nine types of cell clusters, such as neurons, SGCs, myeloid Schwann cells (mSCs), non-myeloid Schwann cells (nmSCs), immune cells, etc., and the corresponding markers are also presented. We reveal the signature gene expression of SGCs, mSCs and nmSCs in the TG, and analyze the ligand-receptor pairs between neuron subtypes and SGCs in the TG. In the heterogeneity analysis of SGCs, four SGCs subtypes are identified, including subtypes enriched for genes associated with extracellular matrix organization, immediate early genes, interferon beta, and cell adhesion molecules, respectively. Our data suggest the molecular characteristics, heterogeneity of SGCs, and bidirectional interactions between SGCs and neurons, providing a valuable resource for studying SGCs in the TG.

The astroglial and stem cell functions of adult rat folliculostellate cells

The mammalian pituitary gland is a complex organ consisting of hormone-producing cells, anterior lobe folliculostellate cells (FSCs), posterior lobe pituicytes, vascular pericytes and endothelial cells, and Sox2-expressing stem cells. We present single-cell RNA sequencing and immunohistofluorescence analyses of pituitary cells of adult female rats with a focus on the transcriptomic profiles of nonhormonal cell types. Samples obtained from whole pituitaries and separated anterior and posterior lobe cells contained all expected pituitary resident cell types and lobe-specific vascular cell subpopulations. FSCs and pituicytes expressed S100B, ALDOC, EAAT1, ALDH1A1, and VIM genes and proteins, as well as other astroglial marker genes, some common and some cell type-specific. We also found that the SOX2 gene and protein were expressed in ~15% of pituitary cells, including FSCs, pituicytes, and a fraction of hormone-producing cells, arguing against its stem cell specificity. FSCs comprised two Sox2-expressing subclusters; FS1 contained more cells but lower genetic diversity, while FS2 contained proliferative cells, shared genes with hormone-producing cells, and expressed genes consistent with stem cell niche formation, regulation of cell proliferation and stem cell pluripotency, including the Hippo and Wnt pathways. FS1 cells were randomly distributed in the anterior and intermediate lobes, while FS2 cells were localized exclusively in the marginal zone between the anterior and intermediate lobes. These data indicate the identity of the FSCs as anterior pituitary-specific astroglia, with FS1 cells representing differentiated cells equipped for classical FSC roles and FS2 cells exhibiting additional stem cell-like features.

G Protein-Coupled Receptor 37L1 Modulates Epigenetic Changes in Human Renal Proximal Tubule Cells

Renal luminal sodium transport is essential for physiological blood pressure control, and abnormalities in this process are strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of essential hypertension. Renal G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are critical for the regulation of the reabsorption of essential nutrients, ions, and water from the glomerular filtrate. Recently, we showed that GPCR 37L1 (GPR37L1) is expressed on the apical membrane of renal proximal tubules (RPT) and regulates luminal sodium transport and blood pressure by modulating the function of the sodium proton exchanger 3 (NHE3). However, little is known about GPR37L1 intracellular signaling. Here, we show that GPR37L1 is localized to the nuclear membrane, in addition to the plasma membrane in human RPT cells. Furthermore, GPR37L1 signals via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway to decrease the expression of DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and enhance NHE3 transcription. Overall, we demonstrate the direct role of a nuclear membrane GPCR in the regulation of renal sodium through epigenetic gene regulation.

Inflammation and Infection in Pain and the Role of GPR37

Inflammation is known to cause pain, and pain is of one of the cardinal signs of inflammation. Mounting evidence suggests that acute inflammation also resolves pain through specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) and macrophage signaling. GPR37 is expressed by neurons and oligodendrocytes in the brain and has been implicated in multiple disorders, such as demyelination, Parkinson's disease, stroke, and cancer. Recent studies have demonstrated that GPR37 is expressed by macrophages and confers protection against infection by bacteria and parasites. Furthermore, GPR37 promotes the resolution of inflammatory pain and infection-induced pain, as the duration of pain after tissue injury and infection is prolonged in mice lacking Gpr37. Mechanistically, activation of GPR37 enhances macrophage phagocytosis, and Gpr37-deficient macrophages exhibit dysregulations of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, switching from M2- to M1-like phenotypes. We also discuss novel ligands of GPR37, including neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), a SPM derived from docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and bone-derived hormone osteocalcin (OCN), which can suppress oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination. NPD1 stimulates macrophage phagocytosis via GPR37 and exhibits potent analgesic actions in various animal models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Targeting GPR37 may lead to novel therapeutics for treating inflammation, infection, pain, and neurological diseases.

Impaired Aversive Memory Formation in GPR37L1KO Mice

GPR37L1 is an orphan G-protein-coupled receptor, which is implicated in neurological disorders, but its normal physiological role is poorly understood. Its close homologue, GPR37, is implicated in Parkinson's disease and affective disorders. In this study, we set out to characterize adult and middle-aged global GPR37L1 knock-out (KO) mice regarding emotional behaviors. Our results showed that GPR37L1KO animals, except adult GPR37L1KO males, exhibited impaired retention of aversive memory formation as assessed by the shorter retention latency in a passive avoidance task. Interestingly, the viral-mediated deletion of GPR37L1 in conditional knockout mice in the hippocampus of middle-aged mice also showed impaired retention in passive avoidance tasks, similar to what was observed in global GPR37L1KO mice, suggesting that hippocampal GPR37L1 is involved in aversive learning processes. We also observed that middle-aged GPR37L1KO male and female mice exhibited a higher body weight than their wild-type counterparts. Adult and middle-aged GPR37L1KO female mice exhibited a reduced level of serum corticosterone and middle-aged GPR37L1KO females showed a reduced level of epinephrine in the dorsal hippocampus in the aftermath of passive avoidance task, with no such effects observed in GPR37L1KO male mice, suggesting that lack of GPR37L1 influences behavior and biochemical readouts in age- and sex-specific manners.

Role of Prosaposin and Extracellular Sulfatase Sulf-1 Detection in Pleural Effusions as Diagnostic Biomarkers of Malignant Mesothelioma

Malignant pleural mesothelioma is an aggressive malignancy with poor prognosis. Unilateral pleural effusion is frequently the initial clinical sign requiring therapeutic thoracentesis, which also offers a diagnostic opportunity. Detection of soluble biomarkers can support diagnosis, but few show good diagnostic accuracy. Here, we studied the expression levels and discriminative power of two putative biomarkers, prosaposin and extracellular sulfatase SULF-1, identified by proteomic and transcriptomic analysis, respectively. Pleural effusions from a total of 44 patients (23 with mesothelioma, 8 with lung cancer, and 13 with non-malignant disease) were analyzed for prosaposin and SULF-1 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Pleural effusions from mesothelioma patients had significantly higher levels of prosaposin and SULF-1 than those from non-malignant disease patients. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that both biomarkers have good discriminating power as pointed out by an AUC value of 0.853 (p = 0.0005) and 0.898 (p < 0.0001) for prosaposin and SULF-1, respectively. Combining data ensued a model predicting improvement of the diagnostic performance (AUC = 0.916, p < 0.0001). In contrast, prosaposin couldn’t discriminate mesothelioma patients from lung cancer patients while ROC analysis of SULF-1 data produced an AUC value of 0.821 (p = 0.0077) but with low sensitivity. In conclusion, prosaposin and SULF-1 levels determined in pleural effusion may be promising biomarkers for differential diagnosis between mesothelioma and non-malignant pleural disease. Instead, more patients need to be enrolled before granting the possible usefulness of these soluble proteins in differentiating mesothelioma pleural effusions from those linked to lung cancer.

Hepatic Transcriptomic Responses to Ethinylestradiol in Two Life Stages of Japanese Quail

Chemical risk assessment for avian species typically depends on information from toxicity tests performed in adult birds. Early-life stage (ELS) toxicity tests have been proposed as an alternative, but incorporation of these data into existing frameworks will require knowledge about the similarities/differences between ELS and adult responses. The present study uses transcriptomics to assess hepatic gene expression in ELS and adult Japanese quail following exposure to ethinylestradiol (EE2). Prior to incubation, ELS quail were dosed with measured EE2 concentrations of 0.54, 6.3, and 54.2 µg/g egg weight via air cell injection. Adult quail were fed a single dose of EE2 at nominal concentrations of 0, 0.5, and 5 mg/kg body weight by gavage. Liver tissue was collected from five to six individuals per dose group at mid-incubation for ELS quail and 4 days after dosing for adults. A total of 283 and 111 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected in ELS and adult quail, respectively, 16 of which were shared across life stages. Shared DEGs included estrogenic biomarkers such as vitellogenin genes and apovitellenin-1. For the dose groups that resulted in the highest number of DEGs (ELS, 6.3 µg/g; adult, 5 mg/kg), 21 and 35 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways were enriched, respectively. Ten of these pathways were shared between life stages, including pathways involved with signaling molecules and interaction and the endocrine system. Taken together, our results suggest conserved mechanisms of action following estrogenic exposure across two life stages, with evidence from differential expression of key biomarker genes and enriched pathways. The present study contributes to the development and evaluation of ELS tests and toxicogenomic approaches and highlights their combined potential for screening estrogenic chemicals. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2769-2781. © 2022 SETAC.

Prosaposin Reduces α-Synuclein in Cells and Saposin C Dislodges it from Glucosylceramide-enriched Lipid Membranes

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting over 1% of the 65 + age population. Saposin C, a lysosomal protein required for the normal activity of glucocerebrosidase (GCase), may serve as a disease modifier in PD. Saposin C is cleaved from its precursor, Prosaposin (PSAP), which is secreted as an uncleaved protein and exerts neuroprotective effects. In this study, we aim to elucidate the neuroprotective roles of PSAP and saposin C in PD by evaluating their effects on α-synuclein accumulation in human neuroblastoma cells. Stable overexpression of PSAP reduced monomeric α-synuclein levels in SH-SY5Y cells, while PSAP knockdown by small interfering RNA led to the opposite effect, and those effects were independent of GCase activity. Autophagy flux was decreased by stable PSAP overexpression. Furthermore, a flow-through assay revealed that recombinant saposin C was able to detach α-synuclein from artificial glucosylceramide-enriched lipid membranes at the lysosomal pH. Taken together, our findings provide further evidence that PSAP and saposin C as key proteins involved in α-synuclein clearance by dislodging it from lipid membranes.

Microglia coordinate cellular interactions during spinal cord repair in mice

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers a neuro-inflammatory response dominated by tissue-resident microglia and monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs). Since activated microglia and MDMs are morphologically identical and express similar phenotypic markers in vivo, identifying injury responses specifically coordinated by microglia has historically been challenging. Here, we pharmacologically depleted microglia and use anatomical, histopathological, tract tracing, bulk and single cell RNA sequencing to reveal the cellular and molecular responses to SCI controlled by microglia. We show that microglia are vital for SCI recovery and coordinate injury responses in CNS-resident glia and infiltrating leukocytes. Depleting microglia exacerbates tissue damage and worsens functional recovery. Conversely, restoring select microglia-dependent signaling axes, identified through sequencing data, in microglia depleted mice prevents secondary damage and promotes recovery. Additional bioinformatics analyses reveal that optimal repair after SCI might be achieved by co-opting key ligand-receptor interactions between microglia, astrocytes and MDMs.

The orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR149 is a negative regulator of myelination and remyelination

Myelin sheath, formed by oligodendrocytes (OLs) in the central nervous system (CNS) and Schwann cells in periphery, plays a critical role in supporting neuronal functions. OLs, differentiated from oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), are important for myelination during development and myelin repair in CNS demyelinating disease. To identify mechanisms of myelin development and remyelination after myelin damage is of great clinical interest. Here we show that the orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR149, enriched in OPCs, negatively regulate OPC to OL differentiation, myelination, as well as remyelination. The expression of GPR149 is downregulated during OPCs differentiation into OLs. GPR149 deficiency does not affect the number of OPCs, but promotes OPC to OL differentiation which results in earlier development of myelin. In cuprizone-induced demyelination model, GPR149 deficiency significantly enhances myelin regeneration. Further study indicates that GPR149 may regulate OL differentiation and myelin formation via MAPK/ERK pathway. Our study suggests that deleting or blocking GPR149 might be an intriguing way to promote myelin repair in demyelinating diseases.

GPR37 Receptors and Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy with Subcortical Cysts

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is a rare type of vacuolating leukodystrophy (white matter disorder), which is mainly caused by defects in MLC1 or glial cell adhesion molecule (GlialCAM) proteins. In addition, autoantibodies to GlialCAM are involved in the pathology of multiple sclerosis. MLC1 and GLIALCAM genes encode for membrane proteins of unknown function, which has been linked to the regulation of different ion channels and transporters, such as the chloride channel VRAC (volume regulated anion channel), ClC-2 (chloride channel 2), and connexin 43 or the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump. However, the mechanisms by which MLC proteins regulate these ion channels and transporters, as well as the exact function of MLC proteins remain obscure. It has been suggested that MLC proteins might regulate signalling pathways, but the mechanisms involved are, at present, unknown. With the aim of answering these questions, we have recently described the brain GlialCAM interactome. Within the identified proteins, we could validate the interaction with several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including the orphan GPRC5B and the proposed prosaposin receptors GPR37L1 and GPR37. In this review, we summarize new aspects of the pathophysiology of MLC disease and key aspects of the interaction between GPR37 receptors and MLC proteins.

Osteocalcin Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Inflammation via Activation of GPR37 in Macrophages

The G protein-coupled receptor 37 (GPR37) has been reported to be expressed in macrophages and the activation of GPR37 by its ligand/agonist, and it can regulate macrophage-associated functions and inflammatory responses. Since our previous work identified that osteocalcin (OCN) acts as an endogenous ligand for GPR37 and can elicit various intracellular signals by interacting with GPR37, we thus hypothesized that OCN may also play a functional role in macrophage through the activation of GPR37. To verify the hypothesis, we conducted a series of in vivo and in vitro studies in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged mice and primary cultured macrophages. Our results reveal that the OCN gene deletion (OCN−/−) and wild type (WT) mice showed comparable death rates and inflammatory cytokines productions in response to a lethal dose of LPS exposure. However, the detrimental effects caused by LPS were significantly ameliorated by exogenous OCN treatments in both WT and OCN−/− mice. Notably, the protective effects of OCN were absent in GPR37−/− mice. In coordination with the in vivo results, our in vitro studies further illustrated that OCN triggered intracellular responses via GPR37 in peritoneal macrophages by regulating the release of inflammatory factors and macrophage phagocytic function. Finally, we exhibited that the adoptive transfer of OCN-treated macrophages from WT mice significantly inhibits the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in GPR37−/− mice exposed to LPS. Taken together, these findings suggest a protective role of OCN against LPS-caused acute inflammation, by the activation of GPR37 in macrophages, and provide a potential application of the activation of the OCN/GPR37 regulatory axis as a therapeutic strategy for inflammatory diseases.

Mouse Mutants of Gpr37 and Gpr37l1 Receptor Genes: Disease Modeling Applications

The vertebrate G protein–coupled receptor 37 and G protein–coupled receptor 37-like 1 (GPR37 and GPR37L1) proteins have amino acid sequence homology to endothelin and bombesin-specific receptors. The prosaposin glycoprotein, its derived peptides, and analogues have been reported to interact with and activate both putative receptors. The GPR37 and GPR37L1 genes are highly expressed in human and rodent brains. GPR37 transcripts are most abundant in oligodendrocytes and in the neurons of the substantia nigra and hippocampus, while the GPR37L1 gene is markedly expressed in cerebellar Bergmann glia astrocytes. The human GPR37 protein is a substrate of parkin, and its insoluble form accumulates in brain samples from patients of inherited juvenile Parkinson’s disease. Several Gpr37 and Gpr37l1 mouse mutant strains have been produced and applied to extensive in vivo and ex vivo analyses of respective receptor functions and involvement in brain and other organ pathologies. The genotypic and phenotypic characteristics of the different mouse strains so far published are reported and discussed, and their current and proposed applications to human disease modeling are highlighted.

Disrupted myelination network in the cingulate cortex of Parkinson's disease

The cingulate cortex is part of the conserved limbic system, which is considered as a hub of emotional and cognitive control. Accumulating evidence suggested that involvement of the cingulate cortex is significant for cognitive impairment of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, mechanistic studies of the cingulate cortex in PD pathogenesis are limited. Here, transcriptomic and regulatory network analyses were conducted for the cingulate cortex in PD. Enrichment and clustering analyses showed that genes involved in regulation of membrane potential and glutamate receptor signalling pathway were upregulated. Importantly, myelin genes and the oligodendrocyte development pathways were markedly downregulated, indicating disrupted myelination in PD cingulate cortex. Cell‐type‐specific signatures revealed that myelinating oligodendrocytes were the major cell type damaged in the PD cingulate cortex. Furthermore, downregulation of myelination pathways in the cingulate cortex were shared and validated in another independent RNAseq cohort of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). In combination with ATACseq data, gene regulatory networks (GRNs) were further constructed for 32 transcription factors (TFs) and 466 target genes among differentially expressed genes (DEGs) using a tree‐based machine learning algorithm. Several transcription factors, including Olig2, Sox8, Sox10, E2F1, and NKX6‐2, were highlighted as key nodes in a sub‐network, which control many overlapping downstream targets associated with myelin formation and gliogenesis. In addition, the authors have validated a subset of DEGs by qPCRs in two PD mouse models. Notably, seven of these genes,TOX3, NECAB2 NOS1, CAPN3, NR4A2, E2F1 and FOXP2, have been implicated previously in PD or neurodegeneration and are worthy of further studies as novel candidate genes. Together, our findings provide new insights into the role of remyelination as a promising new approach to treat PD after demyelination.

Emerging Roles for the Orphan GPCRs, GPR37 and GPR37 L1, in Stroke Pathophysiology

Recent studies have shed light on the diverse and complex roles of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the pathophysiology of stroke. These receptors constitute a large family of seven transmembrane-spanning proteins that play an intricate role in cellular communication mechanisms which drive both tissue injury and repair following ischemic stroke. Orphan GPCRs represent a unique sub-class of GPCRs for which no natural ligands have been found. Interestingly, the majority of these receptors are expressed within the central nervous system where they represent a largely untapped resource for the treatment of neurological diseases. The focus of this review will thus be on the emerging roles of two brain-expressed orphan GPCRs, GPR37 and GPR37 L1, in regulating various cellular and molecular processes underlying ischemic stroke.

Metabolic Enzyme Alterations and Astrocyte Dysfunction in a Murine Model of Alexander Disease With Severe Reactive Gliosis

Alexander disease (AxD) is a rare and fatal neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). In this report, a mouse model of AxD (GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H) was analyzed that contains a heterozygous R236H point mutation in murine Gfap as well as a transgene with a GFAP promoter to overexpress human GFAP. Using label-free quantitative proteomic comparisons of brain tissue from GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H versus wild-type mice confirmed upregulation of the glutathione metabolism pathway and indicated proteins were elevated in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway, which had not been reported previously in AxD. Relative protein-level differences were confirmed by a targeted proteomics assay, including proteins related to astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Of particular interest was the decreased level of the oligodendrocyte protein, 2-hydroxyacylsphingosine 1-beta-galactosyltransferase (Ugt8), since Ugt8-deficient mice exhibit a phenotype similar to GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H mice (e.g., tremors, ataxia, hind-limb paralysis). In addition, decreased levels of myelin-associated proteins were found in the GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H mice, consistent with the role of Ugt8 in myelin synthesis. Fabp7 upregulation in GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H mice was also selected for further investigation due to its uncharacterized association to AxD, critical function in astrocyte proliferation, and functional ability to inhibit the anti-inflammatory PPAR signaling pathway in models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Within Gfap+ astrocytes, Fabp7 was markedly increased in the hippocampus, a brain region subjected to extensive pathology and chronic reactive gliosis in GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H mice. Last, to determine whether the findings in GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H mice are present in the human condition, AxD patient and control samples were analyzed by Western blot, which indicated that Type I AxD patients have a significant fourfold upregulation of FABP7. However, immunohistochemistry analysis showed that UGT8 accumulates in AxD patient subpial brain regions where abundant amounts of Rosenthal fibers are located, which was not observed in the GFAPTg;Gfap+/R236H mice.