Metaanalysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time

Causal effect of video gaming on mental well-being in Japan 2020-2022

The widespread use of video games has raised concerns about their potential negative impact on mental well-being. Nevertheless, the empirical evidence supporting this notion is largely based on correlational studies, warranting further investigation into the causal relationship. Here we identify the causal effect of video gaming on mental well-being in Japan (2020-2022) using game console lotteries as a natural experiment. Employing approaches designed for causal inference on survey data (n = 97,602), we found that game console ownership, along with increased game play, improved mental well-being. The console ownership reduced psychological distress and improved life satisfaction by 0.1-0.6 standard deviations. Furthermore, a causal forest machine learning algorithm revealed divergent impacts between different types of console, with one showing smaller benefits for adolescents and females while the other showed larger benefits for adolescents. These findings highlight the complex impact of digital media on mental well-being and the importance of considering differential screen time effects.

Competitive Video Game Exposure Increases Aggression Through Impulsivity in Chinese Adolescents: Evidence From a Multi-Method Study

It is widely known controversies about the results of violent video game increase aggression. However, the role of competitive video games, has received less research attention, and the underlying mechanisms of their influence are unknown. This study aimed to expand the existing literature by systematically exploring the effects of competitive video game exposure on adolescent aggression and the mediating role of impulsivity. In so doing, three types of studies (collectively N = 2919, mean age varied from 13.75 to 15.44 years, with a balanced gender) combining cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal approaches, were conducted. The findings consistently show that competitive video game exposure increased adolescents' aggression and impulsivity. Also, impulsivity mediated the correlation and long-term effect of competitive video game exposure on aggression. However, the experimental study did not confirm the short-term mediating effect of impulsivity, which may be related to the type of aggression measured in the study. The results indicate that competitive video game exposure is an important antecedent factor for adolescent aggression, and impulsivity is the key underlying mechanism.

The impact of acute violent videogame exposure on neurocognitive markers of empathic concern

Research examining the purported association between violent gaming and aggression remains controversial due to concerns related to methodology, unclear neurocognitive mechanisms, and the failure to adequately consider the role of individual differences in susceptibility. To help address these concerns, we used fMRI and an emotional empathy task to examine whether acute and cumulative violent gaming exposure were associated with abnormalities in emotional empathy as a function of trait-empathy. Emotional empathy was targeted given its involvement in regulating not only aggression, but also other important social functions such as compassion and prosocial behaviour. We hypothesized that violent gaming exposure increases the risk of aberrant social behaviour by altering the aversive value of distress cues. Contrary to expectations, neither behavioural ratings nor empathy-related brain activity varied as a function of violent gaming exposure. Notably, however, activation patterns in somatosensory and motor cortices reflected an interaction between violent gaming exposure and trait empathy. Thus, our results are inconsistent with a straightforward relationship between violent gaming exposure and reduced empathy. Furthermore, they highlight the importance of considering both individual differences in susceptibility and other aspects of cognition related to social functioning to best inform public concern regarding safe gaming practices.

Early-life family and school impacts on adolescent conduct problems: A path analysis

Limited research has been conducted to examine the factors during early childhood that may contribute to conduct problems in later stages of life. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between family and school environments during early childhood and conduct problems in adolescence. In Wave 1 (W1), the study recruited 502 participants, aged 5-6 years, from Hong Kong local kindergartens, with 51.4% boys. One of their parents provided information about family socioeconomic status (SES), parent-child recreational activities, and child screen time, whereas the class teacher rated their school readiness using the Chinese version of the Early Development Instrument. Data on the number of special facilities were obtained from the kindergartens. In Wave 2 (W2), the same parents of 395 participants were asked about their involvement in their children's education. Finally, in Wave 3 (W3), the parents of 206 participants completed the Conduct Problem scale of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire to evaluate the level of conduct problems in the participants. The results of the path analysis revealed that higher W1 family SES was associated with fewer W3 conduct problems through an increase in W1 and W2 parental involvement in children's learning and play activities. Findings have implications for understanding the impact of early-life family and school environments on adolescent conduct problems. Early childhood interventions that promote family resources and positive parent-child interactions have the potential to reduce adolescent conduct problems.

Childhood internalizing, externalizing and attention symptoms predict changes in social and nonsocial screen time

BACKGROUND

While accumulating research has tested the hypothesis that screen time causes psychiatric symptoms in children, less attention has been paid to the hypothesis that children with psychiatric symptoms change their patterns of screen time and digital media use. We aimed to test whether children with psychiatric symptoms subsequently change their patterns of screen time and digital media use.

METHODS

N = 9,066 children primarily aged 9-10 in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study at baseline and 1-year later. Psychiatric symptoms included internalizing, attention, and externalizing symptoms. Screen time was measured as ordinally defined weekday and weekend time on social and nonsocial [e.g., YouTube] digital media). Models assessed psychiatric symptoms as predictors of screen time, and screen time as predictors of psychiatric symptoms, controlled for baseline measures of each, sex, age, race/ethnicity, and income.

RESULTS

Children with psychiatric symptoms spent more time on non-social media one year later compared with peers. Considering total psychiatric problems, clinical levels of problems predicted higher levels of weekday (OR = 1.22, 95% CI 1.22-1.23) and weekend (OR = 1.10, 95% CI 1.09-1.11) nonsocial screen time. For nearly all analyses of psychiatric symptoms predicting screen time, associations were highest for a non-social screen time outcome rather than a social screen time outcome (Highest OR = 1.65, 95% CI 1.63-1.67, clinical rule breaking predicting weekday nonsocial screen time). Comparable magnitude associations were observed for social and nonsocial media use predicting future psychiatric symptoms, suggesting bidirectionality.

CONCLUSION

Children with psychiatric symptoms have different subsequent media use patterns, including higher rates of subsequent nonsocial engagement. Ensuring that ongoing data collection and analysis efforts attend to temporality and transitions in the relation between media use and psychiatric symptoms will accelerate progress in the field.

Gaming motivation and well-being among Norwegian adult gamers: the role of gender and disability

Introduction

Digital gaming is a popular and often social activity, also among adults. However, we need more knowledge of the social dynamics of gaming and its potential benefits for one's well-being. The current study aimed to examine gaming motivation, time spent gaming, and gaming performed together with friends, family, or romantic partner and how these aspects relate to expanded social network and well-being among men and women with and without disability.

Methods

Regular players of the popular game Fortnite Battle Royale (FBR; N = 278, 48.5% women, Mage = 32.38) completed an online questionnaire assessing their motivations for playing FBR (social motivation, achievement motivation, novelty motivation), time spent gaming, whom they usually play with, their psychological well-being, and FBR's impact on their life and social network. Differentiated statistical analyses on gender and disability were performed.

Results and discussion

The results showed that time spent gaming and social motivation to play were associated with larger social networks for all participants (strongest for women). More time spent gaming FBR was also associated with a positive impact on life for those with a disability. Social motivation to play was positively associated with a positive impact on life for men and those without a disability and increased well-being for women. Novelty motivation, which concerns experiencing new features in the game, was associated with a positive impact on life for women and with a decrease in well-being for those with a disability. This study demonstrated that gaming can be an essential social arena associated with positive outcomes for men, women and disabled people, who-when socially motivated-may expand their social networks through gaming.

Annual Research Review: Sex, gender, and internalizing conditions among adolescents in the 21st century - trends, causes, consequences

Internalizing conditions of psychopathology include depressive and anxiety disorders; they most often onset in adolescence, are relatively common, and contribute to significant population morbidity and mortality. In this research review, we present the evidence that internalizing conditions, including depression and anxiety, as well as psychological distress, suicidal thoughts and self-harm, and fatal suicide, are considerably increasing in adolescent populations across many countries. Evidence indicates that increases are currently greatest in female adolescents. We present an epidemiological framework for evaluating the causes of these increases, and synthesize research on whether several established risk factors (e.g., age of pubertal transition and stressful life events) and novel risk factors (e.g., digital technology and social media) meet conditions necessary to be plausible causes of increases in adolescent internalizing conditions. We conclude that there are a multitude of potential causes of increases in adolescent internalizing conditions, outline evidence gaps including the lack of research on nonbinary and gender nonconforming populations, and recommend necessary prevention and intervention foci from a clinical and public health perspective.

The portrayal of gender in Marvel and Star Wars media targeted towards children

An abundance of previous research has investigated how gender has been portrayed within feature length films produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios, particularly those within the Disney princess franchise. However, the Disney corporation acquired the Marvel and Star Wars franchises in 2009 and 2012, respectively, which was likely a strategy for the corporation to obtain characters that would capture the imagination of boys and men. The current qualitative study explored how gender is portrayed by leading protagonists in these texts, utilising thematic analysis, which was necessary considering little is currently known in this domain. The researchers analysed series one of Avengers Assemble and series one of Star Wars Rebels. Interpretation of the data led to the development of several themes and subthemes based on the gendered portrayals within each series. Overall, the findings suggest that there was more overt gender stereotyping in Avengers Assemble when compared with Star Wars Rebels, meaning that the former could be particularly problematic for children who may replicate its messages. The current study has facilitated a greater understanding of the gendered messages that may be consumed by children who engage with Marvel and Star Wars media. Future research is needed to assess the relationship between such messages and children's behaviour.

Games, hormones, and "dark" personalities: Dark tetrad and the effects of violent gaming on aggression, cortisol, and testosterone

We investigated how playing a violent versus non-violent video game affects cortisol and testosterone levels, whether these hormonal changes increase implicit aggressive cognition, and whether so-called Dark Tetrad personality traits (i.e., Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism, everyday sadism) moderate these effects. Fifty-four men played either a violent or a non-violent video game for 25 min. Participants provided salivary samples at the beginning of the experiment (T1), after 25 min of gameplay (T2), and 20 min after gameplay ended (T3). In the violent condition, participants showed a significant decrease in cortisol levels (T1 to T2) and a significant negative trend in cortisol levels from T1 to T3. Moreover, higher Machiavellianism scores were related to a significantly stronger decrease in cortisol (T1 to T2) in this condition. In the non-violent condition, however, participants with higher scores in Machiavellianism had a higher increase in cortisol (T1 to T2). In contrast to changes in hormonal levels, there were no significant effects on implicit aggressive cognition. The present findings illustrate the complex interplay between personality, hormones, and game content, thus further specifying current notions on the effects of violent video games. Playing a violent video game can have a stress-reducing calming effect depending on personality traits such as Machiavellianism and the psychological need satisfaction associated with it. Also, the fact that VVG exposure was not automatically accompanied by an aggression-increasing effect proves that simple cause-effect models are not sufficiently specified without taking the underlying mechanisms into account.

An umbrella review of the benefits and risks associated with youths' interactions with electronic screens

The influence of electronic screens on the health of children and adolescents and their education is not well understood. In this prospectively registered umbrella review (PROSPERO identifier CRD42017076051 ), we harmonized effects from 102 meta-analyses (2,451 primary studies; 1,937,501 participants) of screen time and outcomes. In total, 43 effects from 32 meta-analyses met our criteria for statistical certainty. Meta-analyses of associations between screen use and outcomes showed small-to-moderate effects (range: r = -0.14 to 0.33). In education, results were mixed; for example, screen use was negatively associated with literacy (r = -0.14, 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.20 to -0.09, P ≤ 0.001, k = 38, N = 18,318), but this effect was positive when parents watched with their children (r = 0.15, 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.28, P = 0.028, k = 12, N = 6,083). In health, we found evidence for several small negative associations; for example, social media was associated with depression (r = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.05 to 0.19, P ≤ 0.001, k = 12, N = 93,740). Limitations of our review include the limited number of studies for each outcome, medium-to-high risk of bias in 95 out of 102 included meta-analyses and high heterogeneity (17 out of 22 in education and 20 out of 21 in health with I2 > 50%). We recommend that caregivers and policymakers carefully weigh the evidence for potential harms and benefits of specific types of screen use.

Desensitized gamers? Violent video game exposure and empathy for pain in adolescents - an ERP study

This Event-Related Potential (ERP) study aimed to test how habitual and short-term violent video game exposure (VVGE) may affect empathy for pain responses in adolescents. In a within-subjects design, boys (N = 56; aged 12-16 years) performed a pain judgment task before and immediately after playing a violent video game. In this task, participants judged whether photos of hands depicted on their screen were in a painful situation or not. While both the P3 and the LPP components were not related to habitual violent video game exposure, general exposure to antisocial media content predicted lower P3 amplitudes to painful pictures. Further, 40 min of violent gameplay did not affect the P3 responses; however, it temporarily decreased LPP responses to painful pictures, suggesting a modest short-term desensitization effect. However, this latter interpretation is limited by a strong LPP pain effect - a significant amplitude difference between painful and non-painful pictures - that remained present in the post-game condition. Such persistent LPP effect may relate to the notion that adolescents are still learning how to properly regulate their emotional reactions. This study contributes to the limited literature on violent video games' desensitization in adolescents' brains, opening new avenues for media violence research.

Neuroimaging and behavioral evidence that violent video games exert no negative effect on human empathy for pain and emotional reactivity to violence

Influential accounts claim that violent video games (VVGs) decrease players' emotional empathy by desensitizing them to both virtual and real-life violence. However, scientific evidence for this claim is inconclusive and controversially debated. To assess the causal effect of VVGs on the behavioral and neural correlates of empathy and emotional reactivity to violence, we conducted a prospective experimental study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We recruited 89 male participants without prior VVG experience. Over the course of two weeks, participants played either a highly violent video game or a non-violent version of the same game. Before and after this period, participants completed an fMRI experiment with paradigms measuring their empathy for pain and emotional reactivity to violent images. Applying a Bayesian analysis approach throughout enabled us to find substantial evidence for the absence of an effect of VVGs on the behavioral and neural correlates of empathy. Moreover, participants in the VVG group were not desensitized to images of real-world violence. These results imply that short and controlled exposure to VVGs does not numb empathy nor the responses to real-world violence. We discuss the implications of our findings regarding the potential and limitations of experimental research on the causal effects of VVGs. While VVGs might not have a discernible effect on the investigated subpopulation within our carefully controlled experimental setting, our results cannot preclude that effects could be found in settings with higher ecological validity, in vulnerable subpopulations, or after more extensive VVG play.

Violent video game exposure and bullying perpetration among Chinese adolescents: The moderating role of belief in a just world

Exposure to violent video games is associated with aggressive behaviors among adolescents. However, not all adolescents who play violent video games demonstrate bullying behaviors. Based on the General Aggression Model (GAM), this cross-sectional study examined the interactive effect of individuals (i.e., belief in a just world [BJW]) and situational factors (i.e., violent video game exposure [VVGE]) on bullying perpetration. Using a representative sample of 4250 adolescents from five secondary schools in Southwest China (54.4% males, Mage  = 15.14, SD = 1.5 years old), we examined the moderating role of BJW in the relationship between VVGE and bullying perpetration. The results suggest that VVGE is significantly and positively associated with bullying perpetration. Moreover, after controlling for covariates, general and personal BJW interact with the situational variable (i.e., VVGE) to predict bullying perpetration among Chinese adolescents. The positive effect of VVGE on bullying perpetration is lower among adolescents with high general and personal BJW than among adolescents with low BJW. The findings support the GAM theory and highlight the buffering role of BJW in the effect of VVGE on bullying perpetration.

Systematic Review of Gaming and Neuropsychological Assessment of Social Cognition

Playing video games is associated with cognitive changes and possibly psychosocial difficulties. Problematic gaming occurs upon the loss of control over videogame playing; gaming disorder is considered a behavioral addiction in the 11th version of the International Classification of Diseases. Models used to understand behavioral addictions include cognition as an essential factor in the development, maintenance, and relapse of addiction. Nevertheless, some aspects of cognition, such as social cognition, remain underexplored, despite evidence of alterations in cognitive and social function among patients with problematic gaming. This review aimed to describe the current understanding of social cognition in individuals exposed to videogames. We included all studies assessing social cognition in participants of any age with a wide range of exposure to video games (from simple use of video games (such as at least two exposures) to problematic gaming, defined according to the included study). This wide range of exposure allowed us to explore the whole process from repeated exposure to addiction. We included only studies that used neuropsychological tasks to assess social cognition. Patient-reported outcomes that could be biased by subjective self-report data were not included. The search was conducted from inception to January 2022 in three databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science). The systematic search identified 39 studies that assessed facial emotion processing, empathy, theory of mind, social decision-making, aggressive behavior, and moral competence. In general, results have been mixed, and a number of questions remain unanswered. Nevertheless, several studies showed cerebral changes when processing facial emotion that were linked with problematic gaming, while no link was obtained between nonproblematic gaming and empathy alterations. The influences of cooperation patterns, theory of mind, moral competence, and gaming frequency were highlighted. Finally, there was substantial heterogeneity in the population assessed and the methods used.

Who is Most at Risk for Developing Physical Aggression After Playing Violent Video Games? An Individual Differences Perspective From Early Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood

Many theories of development suggest that playing violent video games would not impact all adolescents the same way, yet empirical research is sparse. To date there have been no within-subjects analyses that examine which adolescents are most at risk for developing aggression after playing violent video games and under what context, and no longitudinal studies encompassing multiple developmental stages (i.e., early adolescence to emerging adulthood) that examine the long-term effects of playing violent video games. To address this gap, the current study used a longitudinal design (spanning 8 years and encompassing multiple developmental periods) with a sample of U.S. adolescents who completed questionnaires on aggression, video gaming, and multiple risk and protective factors for aggression. Participants included 488 adolescents (M age = 13.82, SD = 1.03 at the initial wave, 51% female, with 65% being White, 12% Black, 19% multiethnic, and 4% other). Mixture regression was utilized to model physical aggression over time and to examine how playing violent video games might be related to aggression on an individual level. There were four classes: "Multi-risk", "High Gaming, High Aggression" (both of which had high levels of aggression over time), "Moderate Risk", and "Low Risk, High Privilege" (both of which had lower levels of aggression over time). Individuals were most aggressive with multiple risk factors or higher levels of violent game play and playing violent video games likely increased aggression more in individuals with other gaming problems and in males with low self-regulation. The results are discussed using a balanced perspective and recognize that violent video games do not affect all adolescents the same way. This research has direct implications for designing interventions around reducing aggressive behavior among adolescents.

Childhood Trauma Predicts Sadistic Traits and Violent Behavior in Incarcerated Youth

Childhood trauma exposure is prevalent among incarcerated youth and associated with antisocial traits and behavior. It has been proposed as a risk factor for the development of sadistic traits, which has been shown to predict future violence in youth. Using regression analyses, we examined the association between self-report and expert-rated measures of childhood trauma, sadistic traits (i.e., verbal, physical, vicarious sadism), and violence (i.e., homicide and non-homicide violent acts) in 54 incarcerated juveniles. Expert-rated (but not self-report) severity of physical abuse was associated with physical and vicarious sadistic traits. Other trauma types (e.g., emotional or sexual abuse) were not significantly associated with sadistic traits. Physical abuse coupled with vicarious sadistic traits conferred the highest risk of non-homicide violence. The findings support and clarify links between childhood trauma, sadistic traits, and violent behavior in youth, and are distinct from those found in other antisocial profiles.

The Health Effects of Video Games in Children and Adolescents

Play has always been an essential part of childhood, but it looks different for modern children, who increasingly engage in virtual play. More than 90% of children older than 2 years play video games, and three-quarters of American households own a video game console. Children 8 to 17 years of age spend an average of 1.5 to 2 hours daily playing video games. Recent developments framed by decades of research have provided insight into how games influence children's physical health, mental health, social behaviors, and cognitive development. Anticipatory guidance surrounding media use is often centered on screen time, but pediatricians should have some knowledge of the unique benefits and risks associated with this nearly ubiquitous activity. In light of the recent addition of gaming disorder to the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision, this review includes a discussion of the epidemiology, clinical features, and diagnosis of gaming disorder, including the use of existing screening tools. As games become more popular while ever-increasing in scope and complexity, this review aims to educate the modern pediatric provider about what is known, what is uncertain, and how to use this knowledge in the management of both healthy and unhealthy video gaming in children.

Adverse childhood experiences and deviant behaviors among Chinese rural emerging adults: the role of social support

BACKGROUND

ACEs hurt subsequent physical and mental health outcomes. However, still little has been known about the rate of ACEs among rural Chinese emerging adults and the different buffering effects of the three types of social support on different kinds of ACEs. This study described the rate of ACEs among Chinese rural emerging adults, examined the relationship between ACEs and deviant behaviors, and tested the moderating effect of three different sources of perceived social support on this relationship. We hope these results will be helpful in further interventions.

METHODS

We used the second wave of a longitudinal survey that included ACEs variables in 2018. A total of 1031 emerging adults aged 18 to 25 participated in the current study.

RESULTS

we found that (1) the rate of abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction was 10.0, 30.0, and 24.9%, respectively among Chinese rural emerging adults; (2) abuse and household dysfunction experience were significantly and positively associated with deviant behaviors; (3) friend support moderated the relationship between three types of ACEs and deviant behaviors. Other support moderated the relationship between abuse/household dysfunction and deviant behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

ACEs could increase the risk of deviant behaviors. Perceived friend support could reduce the negative effect of three types of ACEs. Other support could reduce the negative impact of abuse and household dysfunction. These results suggest that reducing ACEs to make children's family environments safer and enhancing social support for emerging adults from rural areas are beneficial, which could prevent or reduce their deviant behaviors.

Children's mobile-gaming preferences, online risks, and mental health

This study examined the relationships between children's mobile gaming preferences, online risks, and mental health. Data were obtained from a sample of 2,702 third and fourth grade students from 16 elementary schools in Taiwan and 9 schools in China. A self-administered questionnaire was used. The mental state of the children who participated in the study was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), while mobile gaming addiction was assessed using the short form of the Internet Gaming Disorders Scale (IGDS9-SF). The results showed that about 54% of children played mobile games with others (multi-player), while 31% played mobile games alone, and 15% did not play mobile games. Multiple logistic regression results indicated that behaviors such as participating in multi-player games, playing violent games, a poor parent-child relationship, and living in a rural area were associated with a greater risk of mobile gaming addiction. Involvement in multi-player games, playing violent games, mobile gaming addiction, and exposure to mobile violence/pornography were associated with greater risks of cyber aggression/victimization. Multiple regression results showed that being a multi-player, playing violent games, mobile gaming addiction, exposure to violence/pornography, exposure to cyber aggression/victimization, and having a poor parent-child relationship were associated with emotional and behavioral problems.

Emotion Recognition and Inhibitory Control in Adolescent Players of Violent Video Games

Developmental changes during adolescence may make youth susceptible to violent media effects. Two studies with male adolescents (N₁  = 241; N₂  = 161; aged 12-17) examined how habitual and short-term violent video gaming may affect emotion recognition and inhibitory control. We found that not habitual exposure to violent video games, but to antisocial media content predicted worse emotion recognition. Furthermore, higher habitual exposure to violent games predicted better inhibitory control over emotional stimuli in a stop signal task. However, short-term causal effects of violent gameplay on adolescents were not found. While these results do not indicate a negative impact of violent video games on young players, future research may further investigate possible effects of antisocial media content on adolescents.

Violent Video Game Exposure and Problem Behaviors among Children and Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Deviant Peer Affiliation for Gender and Grade Differences

Based on problem behavior theory, a mediation model for gender and grade differences is explored in this study. The study examined gender and grade differences in the effects of violent video games and deviant peer affiliation on problem behaviors among children and adolescents. A total of 2118 children and adolescents from four primary and middle schools in China (M age = 13.08, SD = 2.17) were surveyed using an anonymous questionnaire on basic information, exposure to violent video games, deviant peer affiliation, and problem behaviors. The results showed that exposure to violent video games significantly positively predicted problem behaviors, and deviant peer affiliation played a mediating role. Significant gender and grade differences were found in the mediating effect. This finding helps understand the individual differences in the influencing factors of problem behaviors. Further, it has important implications for interventions to reduce problem behaviors among children and adolescents.

Association of Video Gaming With Cognitive Performance Among Children

IMPORTANCE

Although most research has linked video gaming to subsequent increases in aggressive behavior in children after accounting for prior aggression, findings have been divided with respect to video gaming's association with cognitive skills.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between video gaming and cognition in children using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this case-control study, cognitive performance and blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal were compared in video gamers (VGs) and non-video gamers (NVGs) during response inhibition and working memory using task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in a large data set of 9- and 10-year-old children from the ABCD study, with good control of demographic, behavioral, and psychiatric confounding effects. A sample from the baseline assessment of the ABCD 2.0.1 release in 2019 was largely recruited across 21 sites in the US through public, private, and charter elementary schools using a population neuroscience approach to recruitment, aiming to mirror demographic variation in the US population. Children with valid neuroimaging and behavioral data were included. Some exclusions included common MRI contraindications, history of major neurologic disorders, and history of traumatic brain injury.

EXPOSURES

Participants completed a self-reported screen time survey including an item asking children to report the time specifically spent on video gaming. All fMRI tasks were performed by all participants.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Video gaming time, cognitive performance, and BOLD signal assessed with n-back and stop signal tasks on fMRI. Collected data were analyzed between October 2019 and October 2020.

RESULTS

A total of 2217 children (mean [SD] age, 9.91 [0.62] years; 1399 [63.1%] female) participated in this study. The final sample used in the stop signal task analyses consisted of 1128 NVGs (0 gaming hours per week) and 679 VGs who played at least 21 hours per week. The final sample used in the n-back analyses consisted of 1278 NVGs who had never played video games (0 hours per week of gaming) and 800 VGs who played at least 21 hours per week. The VGs performed better on both fMRI tasks compared with the NVGs. Nonparametric analyses of fMRI data demonstrated a greater BOLD signal in VGs in the precuneus during inhibitory control. During working memory, a smaller BOLD signal was observed in VGs in parts of the occipital cortex and calcarine sulcus and a larger BOLD signal in the cingulate, middle, and frontal gyri and the precuneus.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this study, compared with NVGs, VGs were found to exhibit better cognitive performance involving response inhibition and working memory as well as altered BOLD signal in key regions of the cortex responsible for visual, attention, and memory processing. The findings are consistent with videogaming improving cognitive abilities that involve response inhibition and working memory and altering their underlying cortical pathways.

Stress and Violence in Video Games: Their Influence on Aggression

This study investigated whether stress or violent content in video games plays a greater role in aggressiveness towards a cooperative partner while playing a video game. It was hypothesized that participants, when exposed to stress, would demonstrate greater aggressiveness toward an incompetent partner than a competent partner. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that participants, when exposed to a violent video game, would demonstrate greater aggression toward an incompetent partner than those exposed to a non-violent video game. Stress was provoked in half of the participants using the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT), while others took a simple math quiz. Participants were then assigned to a video game condition, violent or non-violent with a competent or incompetent confederate and completed a reaction time task to measure aggression. Results indicated that provoked stress and violent content are not linked to aggression in this context.

Linear correlation is insufficient as the sole measure of associations: The case of technology use and mental health

It is common for psychology studies to rely solely on linear correlation (r) or similar statistics and not include other measures of association (such as relative risk, which examines differences in the number of people affected). For example, the association between smoking and lung cancer (r = 0.06) could be dismissed as "small" if only linear r is examined, even though 30 times more smokers than non-smokers get lung cancer. Many studies concluding that associations between technology use and well-being as too small to be of practical importance relied solely on linear r. We show that, across five datasets, "small" correlations between technology use and mental health exist alongside practically important risk associations. As there are several valid types of association, and characterizing an association based on a single type of a measure - such as linear r or r² - can be misleading.

The Association between Video Game Type and Aggressive Behaviors in Saudi Youth: A Pilot Study

Video gaming is a popular source of entertainment among children and adolescents. Although the Middle East is home to one of the fastest growing communities of video game users, most of the research established on this topic has been carried out through small scale studies. Our aim in this study is to assess the prevalence of video game use and its association with aggressive behaviors among adolescents in Saudi Arabia. This is a cross-sectional study involving boys and girls (aged 15−18 years) in both private and public secondary high schools in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Each participant completed a self-administered modified version of the aggression questionnaire, which consisted of 29 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale. This questionnaire assessed aggressive behaviors domains: physical aggression, anger, hostility, and verbal aggression and types of videogames and time of use. A total of 485 students were included in this study. The mean age of participants was 16.5 ± 0.9 years; 48% were boys. Adolescents who participated in action games had higher mean verbal (p < 0.01) and physical aggression (p < 0.01) scores. Adventure game players had significantly higher mean scores in all four types of aggressive behavior (p < 0.01). Participants who played simulation games had higher mean verbal aggressiveness (p < 0.01). Adolescents who participated in sports games had greater mean levels of anger (p = 0.01) and physical aggression (p = 0.01). Those who played strategy/puzzle games reported significantly higher mean scores of anger (p < 0.01), hostility (p = 0.01), and verbal aggression (p = 0.01). Females were more likely to show higher mean anger (p < 0.01) scores, whereas males were more likely to show higher mean physical aggression scores (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Our results do suggest that playing video games increases adolescent aggressive behaviors, which has been supported by other studies. We recommend educating parents on the pros and cons of playing video games and that parents schedule and limit the time their children spend playing video games.

Dissociable effects of acute versus cumulative violent video game exposure on the action simulation circuit in university students

There is an ongoing debate as to whether violent video game exposure (VGE) has a negative impact on social functioning. This debate continues in part because of methodological concerns and the paucity of identifiable neurocognitive mechanisms. Also, little attention has been given to how specific personality characteristics may influence susceptibility to the purported effects. Using a combined experimental and cross-sectional approach, we examined the impact of VGE on action simulation as a function of trait coldheartedness in a sample of university students. Healthy adults played a violent or nonviolent version of Grand Theft Auto V before completing an fMRI measure of action simulation circuit (ASC) activity. Simulation-related activity was not significantly different between groups; however, greater overall activation was observed in left inferior frontal gyrus for those in the violent condition. Contrary to predictions, no evidence was observed that trait coldheartedness significantly interacts with violent gaming to influence ASC activation. However, prior cumulative VGE was negatively correlated with simulation-related activity in a subsection of the ASC. This study highlights a potential dissociation between the effects of acute versus cumulative violent gaming and may challenge assumptions that the directionality of effects for cross-sectional associations always mirror those of acute exposure.

Where, when, and to whom gaming motives may be harmful? A systematic review

The alarming growth in online gaming activities in recent years calls for an understanding of the determinants of gaming behaviors among adolescents and young adults. A systematic review was conducted to collate and review all the research studies concerning the understanding of the gaming motives. Relevant published articles were identified through the electronic search from PubMed, Medline, PsycInfo, Sciencedirect, and APA databases. The review identified four major topics of gaming motives, namely gaming behavior, gaming usage pattern, gaming demographics, and associated psychopathology. The review highlighted the role of motives in gaming use and psychopathology. The age of the player was associated with the expression of these motives. Further insights were drawn into the role of motive in the recreational and problematic use of gaming. The study findings emphasize the need to develop adequate interventions to prevent the occurrence of psychological impairments that would result from potentially problematic video gaming.

Mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between leisure experience and aggression

Previous research has shown that both the daily experiences and personal traits of adolescents are linked to aggression. Our aim was to further investigate the relationship between leisure experience, self-esteem, and aggression according to the general aggression model. In addition, within frustration-aggression theory, we proposed that leisure experience and aggression have a negative correlation. Furthermore, based on broaden-and-build theory, we explored the mediating role of self-esteem between leisure experience and aggression. The participants included 660 Chinese teenagers with an average age of 14.3. Among them, male students accounted for 310 (49.4%) and female students accounted for 318 (50.6%). The results showed that leisure experience was positively correlated with self-esteem and negatively correlated with aggression, while self-esteem was also negatively correlated with aggression. Additionally, self-esteem fully mediated the relationship between leisure experience and aggression. Our study could enrich research on leisure and provide a basis for protective factors of aggression in adolescents.

The association of problematic use of social media and online videogames with aggression is mediated by insomnia severity: A cross-sectional study in a sample of 18- to 24-year-old individuals

One of the worrying concomitants of problematic use of Internet (PUI) is aggression. Although the mechanisms underlying such link have not been completely clarified, it has been suggested that problematic use of social media and online videogames (i.e., two common forms of PUI among young adults) lead to increased sleep disturbances which, in turn, represent a relevant trigger for aggression. We have tested this hypothesis in a sample (N = 480) of young individuals (351 females and 129 males; mean age: 21.76 ± 1.92 years; range: 18-24). Self-report measures investigating symptoms related to social media addiction (SMA), Internet gaming disorder (IGD), insomnia severity, and aggression were used. Mediational models analyzing the direct and indirect associations of SMA- and IGD-related symptoms on aggression severity through insomnia-related symptoms were performed controlling for confounding factors. The models showed that the total effects of SMA-related symptoms (B = 0.018; p = .010) and of IGD-related symptoms (B = 0.018; p = .041) on aggression severity were significant and that these associations were mediated by insomnia-related symptoms (respectively, p < .001 and p = .003). Our findings support the potential mediating role of insomnia severity in the association of SMA- and IGD-related disturbances with levels of aggression.

The Role of Socioeconomic Factors on Women's Risk of Being Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence

The most important thing learned about intimate partner violence (IPV) over the last 20 years is that violence is gendered and can be learned after faced and can only be understood in the context of gender inequality. To promote gender equality, a number of legal reforms and policies have been put in place over the last decade. The main problem is that there is relationship between all the socioeconomic and demographic factors. This begs the question, does the high educational level, social and economic status of a woman put her at lower risk of experiencing domestic violence? The study hypothesizes that those socioeconomic factors such as literacy, political rights, urbanization, laws against violence, the annual income of women, and the number of women in the labor force can affect IPV prevalence. The study uses secondary data concerning socioeconomic factors from 26 predominantly Muslim countries in Asia-Pacific and North Africa. Findings from the study show that socioeconomic factors such as literacy, political rights, a higher level of urbanization, and the laws against violence have significant impacts and may decrease the prevalence of IPV. However, other socioeconomic factors such as the annual income of women and increased women in the labor force produced unclear results. The test for collinearity on the impacts of each socioeconomic factor against one another was found to be insignificant.

How We Tell Apart Fiction from Reality

The human ability to tell apart reality from fiction is intriguing. Through a range of media, such as novels and movies, we are able to readily engage in fictional worlds and experience alternative realities. Yet even when we are completely immersed and emotionally engaged within these worlds, we have little difficulty in leaving the fictional landscapes and getting back to the day-to-day of our own world. How are we able to do this? How do we acquire our understanding of our real world? How is this similar to and different from the development of our knowledge of fictional worlds? In exploring these questions, this article makes the case for a novel multilevel explanation (called BLINCS) of our implicit understanding of the reality–fiction distinction, namely that it is derived from the fact that the worlds of fiction, relative to reality, are bounded, inference-light, curated, and sparse.

Why do habitual violent video game players believe in the cathartic effects of violent video games? A misinterpretation of mood improvement as a reduction in aggressive feelings

Previous research found that violent video game play leads to increased aggression, but many people (mainly habitual violent video game players) still believe that playing violent games releases aggressive feelings and in turn reduces aggressive behavior. Other research has shown that video game play can have a positive impact on the player's mood. Based on the General Aggression Model and mood management theory, we thus hypothesized that habitual violent video game players misinterpret their better mood after game play as a reduction of aggressive feelings and hence believe in the cathartic effects of violent video games. Two studies examined this reasoning in the player's natural habitat. Habitual video game players were surveyed multiple times for a period of 2 weeks before and after each gaming session. Results showed that playing video games improved the participant's mood, which in turn was positively associated with the belief in the cathartic effect of violent video game play. Importantly, this relation held when controlling for the player's actual level of aggressive feelings. Study 1 further showed that playing a violent game tended to lead to a higher level of reported aggressive feelings after playing. In contrast, in Study 2, level of reported aggressive feelings was not related to the violence of the game. Taken together, habitual violent video game players (erroneously) believe in the cathartic effects of violent video games, because they are in a better mood after playing.

Promoting Social Relationships Using a Couch Cooperative Video Game

Social relationships are a fundamental aspect of human existence. Unsurprisingly, policymakers are incessantly devising strategies that accentuate the benefits of social relationships and diminish the risks of social isolation. The natural manifestation of player-to-player interaction in a video game context poses a unique opportunity to study the effects of co-playing on social relationship formation. However, most studies recruited players with existing relationships (e.g., family and friendship), utilized random commercial video games, or experimented in an online environment. These research gaps warrant further investigation on the utility of video games for promoting social relationships among unacquainted players while in the same physical space. Thus, this study presents the development and evaluation of a couch cooperative video game grounded on sequential team-building mechanics. The findings of this study offer empirical evidence that would have significant practical implications for any organization seeking to increase teamwork and cooperation among its members.

Desensitization and Violent Video Games: Mechanisms and Evidence

Desensitization, the reduction of cognitive, emotional, and/or behavioral responses to a stimulus, is an automatic and unconscious phenomenon often experienced in everyday life. Exposure to violent media, especially violent video games, may cause desensitization to real-life violence. Desensitization to violence blocks empathy which is needed to trigger the moral reasoning process that triggers prosocial responding. Representative research was reviewed to examine links between exposure to violent video games and desensitization to violence in children and adolescents. It was concluded that exposure to violent video games increases the risk of desensitization to violence, which in turn may increase aggression and decrease prosocial behavior. Parents should be counseled to discuss the differences between real and screen violence, to encourage nonviolent problem-solving, and to provide empathy-building experiences for their children.

Reliability, and Convergent and Discriminant Validity of Gaming Disorder Scales: A Meta-Analysis

Background: An association between gaming disorder (GD) and the symptoms of common mental disorders is unraveled yet. In this preregistered study, we quantitatively synthesized reliability, convergent and discriminant validity of GD scales to examine association between GD and other constructs. Methods: Five representative GD instruments (GAS-7, AICA, IGDT-10, Lemmens IGD-9, and IGDS9-SF) were chosen based on recommendations by the previous systematic review study to conduct correlation meta-analyses and reliability generalization. A systematic literature search was conducted through Pubmed, Proquest, Embase, and Google Scholar to identify studies that reported information on either reliability or correlation with related variables. 2,124 studies were full-text assessed as of October 2020, and 184 were quantitatively synthesized. Conventional Hedges two-level meta-analytic method was utilized. Results: The result of reliability generalization reported a mean coefficient alpha of 0.86 (95% CI = 0.85-0.87) and a mean test-retest estimate of 0.86 (95% CI = 0.81-0.89). Estimated effect sizes of correlation between GD and the variables were as follows: 0.33 with depression (k = 45; number of effect sizes), 0.29 with anxiety (k = 37), 0.30 with aggression (k = 19), -0.22 with quality of life (k = 18), 0.29 with loneliness (k = 18), 0.56 with internet addiction (k = 20), and 0.40 with game playtime (k = 53), respectively. The result of moderator analyses, funnel and forest plots, and publication bias analyses were also presented. Discussion and Conclusion: All five GD instruments have good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Relatively few studies reported the test-retest reliability. The result of correlation meta-analysis revealed that GD scores were only moderately associated with game playtime. Common psychological problems such as depression and anxiety were found to have a slightly smaller association with GD than the gaming behavior. GD scores were strongly correlated with internet addiction. Further studies should adopt a rigorous methodological procedure to unravel the bidirectional relationship between GD and other psychopathologies. Limitations: The current study did not include gray literature. The representativeness of the five tools included in the current study could be questioned. High heterogeneity is another limitation of the study. Systematic Review Registration: [https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/], identifier [CRD42020219781].

Violent media use and aggression: Two longitudinal network studies

Exposure to violent media has been widely linked to increased aggression. In the present research, we examined whether violent media exposure would be associated with increased aggression, which would then spread within social networks like a contagious disease. Two groups of first year psychology students completed a questionnaire three times over the course of a year, measuring their media exposure, aggression, personality, and social relations within the group. Cross-sectional analysis provided mixed results in regards to the link between violent media and aggression. Siena analysis found no evidence of homophily (i.e., participants were not more likely to be friends with others similar to themselves) nor of social influence (i.e., participant's behavior did not predict a change in their friends' behavior). However, given the relatively small sample sizes and the weak ties between participants, more work is needed to assess the spread of violent media effects.

Designing Video Games for Nutrition Education: A Participatory Approach

OBJECTIVE

To describe the participatory approach used to inform the development of a video game designed to increase children's nutrition knowledge. The objectives were to (1) assess children's nutrition areas of focus, (2) explore parents' and children's perceptions of video games for nutrition education, and (3) collect information on children's video game preferences.

DESIGN

Qualitative research design using 10 focus group interviews and 5 workshops. Children's nutrition knowledge and game player type were assessed by questionnaires.

SETTING

South Island, New Zealand.

PARTICIPANTS

Sixty-two primary school children, aged 7-11 years. Ten parents completed an online questionnaire.

PHENOMENON OF INTEREST

Participatory approach in designing digital nutrition education resources.

ANALYSIS

A general inductive approach was used to develop the themes.

RESULTS

The following 3 themes were identified through thematic analysis: (1) positive impacts associated with video games for nutrition education, (2) factors for engagement, and (3) barriers for sustained use.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Both children and parents perceived that video games offered an avenue to increase nutrition knowledge. However, negative views such as screen time usage need to be addressed before widespread adoption. The participatory design approach provided information about game mechanics that will inspire the game design and enhance engagement of video games for nutrition education.

Online violent video games and online aggressive behavior among Chinese college students: The role of anger rumination and self-control

Online aggressive behavior (OAB) has received increasing attention in recent years, and that playing online violent video games (OVVG) is an important predictor of OAB. However, little is known of the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relationship. This study aims to investigate (a) the mediating role of anger rumination in the association between OVVG and OAB and (b) the moderating role of self-control in the relationship between anger rumination and OAB. A total of 595 Chinese college students (M age = 19.59 years, SD age = 1.40) completed measurements regarding OVVG, anger rumination, self-control, and OAB. The correlation analyses showed that OVVG was significantly positively associated with anger rumination and OAB. Mediation analyses revealed anger rumination partially mediated the link between OVVG and OAB. Moderated mediation further indicated that anger rumination was not associated with OAB for individuals with high levels of self-control. However, for those with low levels of self-control, anger rumination was significantly associated with OAB. These findings suggest that the improvement of self-control and the decline of anger rumination could be a practicable way to address the issue of OAB effectively.

Gaming to relieve tension or anxiety and associations with health functioning, substance use and physical violence in high school students

Gaming is popular among youth and gaming disorders have been introduced recently into psychiatric nomenclature systems. Motivations underlying gaming may include involvement to reduce negative emotional states and thus may link to psychiatric and overall health. Thus, the extent to which adolescents engage in gaming to relieve anxiety warrants additional investigation. Data from 2005 Connecticut high-school students were used to examine how adolescents who reported gaming to relieve tension or anxiety differed from those who reported gaming but not to relieve tension or anxiety on measures of demographics, academic performance, general health, extracurricular activities, dysphoria/depression symptoms, substance use, and aggressive or violent behaviors. Chi-square analyses and binomial and multinomial logistic regression models were conducted. Gaming to relieve anxiety was more prevalent in boys and Hispanic and Asian adolescents and associated with less extracurricular involvement, poorer academic performance, increased cigarette and other drug use, problematic internet use, and depression. Participants with gaming to relieve tension or anxiety were also more likely to report weapon-carrying, missing school because they felt unsafe, having been threatened with a weapon, having engaged in physical fights, and having experienced injuries from fights. As gaming to relieve anxiety was related to mental-health- and functioning-related measures, additional research is needed to examine the precise natures of these relationships and to translate the information into improved intervention strategies.

Associations Between Adolescent Depression and Self-Harm Behaviors and Screen Media Use in a Nationally Representative Time-Diary Study

Screen media use is associated with mental health problems among adolescents. However, few studies have examined screen media use using contemporaneous time diaries (rather than retrospective reports), compared associations across specific screen media activities or by gender, or examined associations with self-harm behaviors. Participants were 13- to 15-year-old adolescents completing time diaries (n = 4,252) for one weekday and one weekend day in the 2015 administration of the Millennium Cohort Study, a nationally representative birth cohort study of UK adolescents. Participants also completed a measure of depressive symptoms and reported whether they had engaged in self-harm in the last year. Girls who spent 2 + hrs/day, compared to < 2 h/day, on digital media were more likely to self-harm (for social media use, adjusted relative risk [ARR] for self-harm = 1.46, 95% CI = 1.17, 1.82; for internet use, ARR = 1.80 [1.20, 2.70]). Girls spending more time on digital media were also more likely to be depressed (for social media, ARR = 1.29 [1.03, 1.63]; for internet use, ARR = 1.75 [1.19, 2.59]). Associations with gaming, texting/e-mailing, and TV/video watching among girls were mostly not significant. Associations for boys were mostly not significant. Girls who use digital media (especially social media and the internet) more hrs/day are more likely to have clinically significant levels of depressive symptoms and prior history of self-harm, though gaming, texting/e-mailing, and TV/video watching showed few associations. Screen media use was mostly not significantly associated with self-harm or depression among boys.

Psychopathy and violent video game playing: Multiple associations in a juvenile justice system involved sample

Violent video game playing is a consistent risk factor for aggression, but research on its psychopathology and trait underpinnings are primarily based on community or university student samples, thus the ecological validity to adjudicated and juvenile justice system-involved youth lacks clarity. This is an important void in the literature because relative to youth in the general population, adjudicated and detained youth evince greater psychopathology, more severe delinquency and violence histories, and clinical psychopathic features. Negative binomial regression models using data from 252 youth in residential placements found that several psychopathic features are significantly associated with violent video gaming. The role of psychopathy operated differently across gender and arrest chronicity, and across models remorselessness emerged as an important correlate. Given the desensitization that can occur with violent video game play, it is of particular concern among delinquent youth with psychopathic personality features.

The Influence of Action Video Games on Attentional Functions Across Visual and Auditory Modalities

Attention can help an individual efficiently find a specific target among multiple distractors and is proposed to consist of three functions: alerting, orienting, and executive control. Action video games (AVGs) have been shown to enhance attention. However, whether AVG can affect the attentional functions across different modalities remains to be determined. In the present study, a group of action video game players (AVGPs) and a group of non-action video game players (NAVGPs) selected by a video game usage questionnaire successively participated in two tasks, including an attention network task-visual version (ANT-V) and an attention network task-auditory version (ANT-A). The results indicated that AVGPs showed an advantage in orienting under the effects of conflicting stimuli (executive control) in both tasks, and NAVGPs may have a reduced ability to disengage when conflict occurs in visual task, suggesting that the AVGs can improve guidance toward targets and inhibition of distractors with the function of executive control. AVGPs also showed more correlations among attentional functions. Importantly, the alerting functions of AVGPs in visual and auditory tasks were significantly related, indicating that the experience of AVGs could help us to generate a supramodal alerting effect across visual and auditory modalities.