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Wang X, Kong DK, Zhang HR, Zou Y. Discovery of a polyketide carboxylate phytotoxin from a polyketide glycoside hybrid by β-glucosidase mediated ester bond hydrolysis. Chem Sci 2024:d4sc05256k. [PMID: 39360009 PMCID: PMC11441467 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc05256k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2024] [Accepted: 09/23/2024] [Indexed: 10/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Fungal phytotoxins cause significant harm to agricultural production or lead to plant diseases. Discovering new phytotoxins, dissecting their formation mechanism and understanding their action mode are important for controlling the harmful effects of fungal phytopathogens. In this study, a long-term unsolved cluster (polyketide synthase 16, PKS16 cluster) from Fusarium species was thoroughly investigated and a series of new metabolites including both complex α-pyrone-polyketide glycosides and simple polyketide carboxylates were identified from F. proliferatum. The whole pathway reveals an unusual assembly and inactivation process for phytotoxin biosynthesis, with key points as follows: (1) a flavin dependent monooxygenase catalyzes Baeyer-Villiger oxidation on the linear polyketide side chain of α-pyrone-polyketide glycoside 8 to form ester bond compound 1; (2) a β-glucosidase unexpectedly mediates the ester bond hydrolysis of 1 to generate polyketide carboxylate phytotoxin 2; (3) oxidation occurring on the terminal inert carbons of 2 by intracellular oxidase(s) eliminates its phytotoxicity. Our work identifies the chemical basis of the PKS16 cluster in phytotoxicity, shows that polyketide carboxylate is a new structural type of phytotoxin in Fusarium and importantly uncovers a rare ester bond hydrolysis function of β-glucosidase family enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 P. R. China
| | - De-Kun Kong
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 P. R. China
| | - Hua-Ran Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 P. R. China
| | - Yi Zou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 P. R. China
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2
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Schmey T, Tominello-Ramirez CS, Brune C, Stam R. Alternaria diseases on potato and tomato. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2024; 25:e13435. [PMID: 38476108 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Alternaria spp. cause different diseases in potato and tomato crops. Early blight caused by Alternaria solani and brown spot caused by Alternaria alternata are most common, but the disease complex is far more diverse. We first provide an overview of the Alternaria species infecting the two host plants to alleviate some of the confusion that arises from the taxonomic rearrangements in this fungal genus. Highlighting the diversity of Alternaria fungi on both solanaceous hosts, we review studies investigating the genetic diversity and genomes, before we present recent advances from studies elucidating host-pathogen interactions and fungicide resistances. TAXONOMY Kingdom Fungi, Phylum Ascomycota, Class Dothideomycetes, Order Pleosporales, Family Pleosporaceae, Genus Alternaria. BIOLOGY AND HOST RANGE Alternaria spp. adopt diverse lifestyles. We specifically review Alternaria spp. that cause disease in the two solanaceous crops potato (Solanum tuberosum) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). They are necrotrophic pathogens with no known sexual stage, despite some signatures of recombination. DISEASE SYMPTOMS Symptoms of the early blight/brown spot disease complex include foliar lesions that first present as brown spots, depending on the species with characteristic concentric rings, which eventually lead to severe defoliation and considerable yield loss. CONTROL Good field hygiene can keep the disease pressure low. Some potato and tomato cultivars show differences in susceptibility, but there are no fully resistant varieties known. Therefore, the main control mechanism is treatment with fungicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Schmey
- TUM School of Life Science Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Christopher S Tominello-Ramirez
- Department of Phytopathology and Crop Protection, Institute of Phytopathology, Christian Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Carolin Brune
- TUM School of Life Science Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Remco Stam
- Department of Phytopathology and Crop Protection, Institute of Phytopathology, Christian Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
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3
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Christian N, Perlin MH. Plant-endophyte communication: Scaling from molecular mechanisms to ecological outcomes. Mycologia 2024; 116:227-250. [PMID: 38380970 DOI: 10.1080/00275514.2023.2299658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Diverse communities of fungal endophytes reside in plant tissues, where they affect and are affected by plant physiology and ecology. For these intimate interactions to form and persist, endophytes and their host plants engage in intricate systems of communication. The conversation between fungal endophytes and plant hosts ultimately dictates endophyte community composition and function and has cascading effects on plant health and plant interactions. In this review, we synthesize our current knowledge on the mechanisms and strategies of communication used by endophytic fungi and their plant hosts. We discuss the molecular mechanisms of communication that lead to organ specificity of endophytic communities and distinguish endophytes, pathogens, and saprotrophs. We conclude by offering emerging perspectives on the relevance of plant-endophyte communication to microbial community ecology and plant health and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Christian
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292
| | - Michael H Perlin
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292
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4
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Boccalon E, Gorrasi G. Functional bioplastics from food residual: Potentiality and safety issues. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2022; 21:3177-3204. [PMID: 35768940 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Plastic pollution and food waste are two global issues with much in common. Plastic containers were introduced as a practical and easy remedy to improve food preservation and reduce the risk of creating waste, but ironically, to address one problem, another has been made worse. The spread of single-use containers has dramatically increased the amount of plastic that has to be discarded, and the most urgent task is now to find a solution to what has become part of the problem. An innovative way around it consists of promoting the valorization of food residues by turning them into novel materials for packaging. Although the results are promising, the aim of completely replacing plastics with biodegradable materials still seems far from being achieved. This review illustrates the main strategies adopted thus far to produce new bioplastic materials and composites from waste resources and focuses on the pros and cons of the food recovery process to look for the aspects that represent an obstacle to the development of the circular food economy on an industrial scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Boccalon
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
| | - Giuliana Gorrasi
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
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5
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Barchenger DW, Hsu YM, Ou JY, Lin YP, Lin YC, Balendres MAO, Hsu YC, Schafleitner R, Hanson P. Whole genome resequencing and complementation tests reveal candidate loci contributing to bacterial wilt (Ralstonia sp.) resistance in tomato. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8374. [PMID: 35589778 PMCID: PMC9120091 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-12326-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most economically important vegetable crops worldwide. Bacterial wilt (BW), caused by the Ralstonia solanacearum species complex, has been reported as the second most important plant pathogenic bacteria worldwide, and likely the most destructive. Extensive research has identified two major loci, Bwr-6 and Bwr-12, that contribute to resistance to BW in tomato; however, these loci do not completely explain resistance. Segregation of resistance in two populations that were homozygous dominant or heterozygous for all Bwr-6 and Bwr-12 associated molecular markers suggested the action of one or two resistance loci in addition to these two major QTLs. We utilized whole genome sequence data analysis and pairwise comparison of six BW resistant and nine BW susceptible tomato lines to identify candidate genes that, in addition to Bwr-6 and Bwr-12, contributed to resistance. Through this approach we found 27,046 SNPs and 5975 indels specific to the six resistant lines, affecting 385 genes. One sequence variant on chromosome 3 captured by marker Bwr3.2dCAPS located in the Asc (Solyc03g114600.4.1) gene had significant association with resistance, but it did not completely explain the resistance phenotype. The SNP associated with Bwr3.2dCAPS was located within the resistance gene Asc which was inside the previously identified Bwr-3 locus. This study provides a foundation for further investigations into new loci distributed throughout the tomato genome that could contribute to BW resistance and into the role of resistance genes that may act against multiple pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yu-Ming Hsu
- CNRS, INRAE, Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), Univ Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Jheng-Yang Ou
- Biotechnology Center in Southern Taiwan, Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Tainan, Taiwan
| | | | - Yao-Cheng Lin
- Biotechnology Center in Southern Taiwan, Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Mark Angelo O Balendres
- Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
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6
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Wang H, Guo Y, Luo Z, Gao L, Li R, Zhang Y, Kalaji HM, Qiang S, Chen S. Recent Advances in Alternaria Phytotoxins: A Review of Their Occurrence, Structure, Bioactivity and Biosynthesis. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8020168. [PMID: 35205922 PMCID: PMC8878860 DOI: 10.3390/jof8020168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria is a ubiquitous fungal genus in many ecosystems, consisting of species and strains that can be saprophytic, endophytic, or pathogenic to plants or animals, including humans. Alternaria species can produce a variety of secondary metabolites (SMs), especially low molecular weight toxins. Based on the characteristics of host plant susceptibility or resistance to the toxin, Alternaria phytotoxins are classified into host-selective toxins (HSTs) and non-host-selective toxins (NHSTs). These Alternaria toxins exhibit a variety of biological activities such as phytotoxic, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial properties. Generally, HSTs are toxic to host plants and can cause severe economic losses. Some NHSTs such as alternariol, altenariol methyl-ether, and altertoxins also show high cytotoxic and mutagenic activities in the exposed human or other vertebrate species. Thus, Alternaria toxins are meaningful for drug and pesticide development. For example, AAL-toxin, maculosin, tentoxin, and tenuazonic acid have potential to be developed as bioherbicides due to their excellent herbicidal activity. Like altersolanol A, bostrycin, and brefeldin A, they exhibit anticancer activity, and ATX V shows high activity to inhibit the HIV-1 virus. This review focuses on the classification, chemical structure, occurrence, bioactivity, and biosynthesis of the major Alternaria phytotoxins, including 30 HSTs and 50 NHSTs discovered to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Wang
- Weed Research Laboratory, College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.W.); (Y.G.); (Z.L.); (L.G.); (Y.Z.); (S.Q.)
| | - Yanjing Guo
- Weed Research Laboratory, College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.W.); (Y.G.); (Z.L.); (L.G.); (Y.Z.); (S.Q.)
| | - Zhi Luo
- Weed Research Laboratory, College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.W.); (Y.G.); (Z.L.); (L.G.); (Y.Z.); (S.Q.)
| | - Liwen Gao
- Weed Research Laboratory, College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.W.); (Y.G.); (Z.L.); (L.G.); (Y.Z.); (S.Q.)
| | - Rui Li
- Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Ecology and Resource Protection Center, Ordos Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Bureau, Ordos 017010, China;
| | - Yaxin Zhang
- Weed Research Laboratory, College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.W.); (Y.G.); (Z.L.); (L.G.); (Y.Z.); (S.Q.)
| | - Hazem M. Kalaji
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, 159 Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
- Institute of Technology and Life Sciences—National Research Institute, Falenty, Al. Hrabska 3, 05-090 Raszyn, Poland
| | - Sheng Qiang
- Weed Research Laboratory, College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.W.); (Y.G.); (Z.L.); (L.G.); (Y.Z.); (S.Q.)
| | - Shiguo Chen
- Weed Research Laboratory, College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (H.W.); (Y.G.); (Z.L.); (L.G.); (Y.Z.); (S.Q.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-25-84395117
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7
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Fumagalli F, Ottoboni M, Pinotti L, Cheli F. Integrated Mycotoxin Management System in the Feed Supply Chain: Innovative Approaches. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:572. [PMID: 34437443 PMCID: PMC8402322 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to mycotoxins is a worldwide concern as their occurrence is unavoidable and varies among geographical regions. Mycotoxins can affect the performance and quality of livestock production and act as carriers putting human health at risk. Feed can be contaminated by various fungal species, and mycotoxins co-occurrence, and modified and emerging mycotoxins are at the centre of modern mycotoxin research. Preventing mould and mycotoxin contamination is almost impossible; it is necessary for producers to implement a comprehensive mycotoxin management program to moderate these risks along the animal feed supply chain in an HACCP perspective. The objective of this paper is to suggest an innovative integrated system for handling mycotoxins in the feed chain, with an emphasis on novel strategies for mycotoxin control. Specific and selected technologies, such as nanotechnologies, and management protocols are reported as promising and sustainable options for implementing mycotoxins control, prevention, and management. Further research should be concentrated on methods to determine multi-contaminated samples, and emerging and modified mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Fumagalli
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Matteo Ottoboni
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Luciano Pinotti
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
- CRC I-WE (Coordinating Research Centre: Innovation for Well-Being and Environment), University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Cheli
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
- CRC I-WE (Coordinating Research Centre: Innovation for Well-Being and Environment), University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy
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8
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Shao D, Smith DL, Kabbage M, Roth MG. Effectors of Plant Necrotrophic Fungi. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:687713. [PMID: 34149788 PMCID: PMC8213389 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.687713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plant diseases caused by necrotrophic fungal pathogens result in large economic losses in field crop production worldwide. Effectors are important players of plant-pathogen interaction and deployed by pathogens to facilitate plant colonization and nutrient acquisition. Compared to biotrophic and hemibiotrophic fungal pathogens, effector biology is poorly understood for necrotrophic fungal pathogens. Recent bioinformatics advances have accelerated the prediction and discovery of effectors from necrotrophic fungi, and their functional context is currently being clarified. In this review we examine effectors utilized by necrotrophic fungi and hemibiotrophic fungi in the latter stages of disease development, including plant cell death manipulation. We define "effectors" as secreted proteins and other molecules that affect plant physiology in ways that contribute to disease establishment and progression. Studying and understanding the mechanisms of necrotrophic effectors is critical for identifying avenues of genetic intervention that could lead to improved resistance to these pathogens in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mitchell G. Roth
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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9
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Iqbal N, Czékus Z, Poór P, Ördög A. Plant defence mechanisms against mycotoxin Fumonisin B1. Chem Biol Interact 2021; 343:109494. [PMID: 33915161 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2021.109494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is the most harmful mycotoxin which prevails in several crops and affects the growth and yield as well. Hence, keeping the alarming consequences of FB1 under consideration, there is still a need to seek other more reliable approaches and scientific knowledge for FB1-induced cell death and a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms of plant defence strategies. FB1-induced disturbance in sphingolipid metabolism initiates programmed cell death (PCD) through various modes such as the elevated generation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, cytochrome c release from the mitochondria, and activation of specific proteases and nucleases causing DNA fragmentation. There is a close interaction between sphingolipids and defence phytohormones in response to FB1 exposure regulating PCD and defence. In this review, the model plant Arabidopsis and various crops have been presented with different levels of susceptibility and resistivity exposed to various concentration of FB1. In addition to this, regulation of PCD and defence mechanisms have been also demonstrated at the physiological, biochemical and molecular levels to help the understanding of the role and function of FB1-inducible molecules and genes and their expressions in plants against pathogen attacks which could provide molecular and biochemical markers for the detection of toxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadeem Iqbal
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Szeged, H-6726, Szeged, Közép fasor 52., Hungary; Doctoral School of Environmental Sciences, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zalán Czékus
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Szeged, H-6726, Szeged, Közép fasor 52., Hungary; Doctoral School of Biology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Péter Poór
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Szeged, H-6726, Szeged, Közép fasor 52., Hungary.
| | - Attila Ördög
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Szeged, H-6726, Szeged, Közép fasor 52., Hungary
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10
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Xu D, Xue M, Shen Z, Jia X, Hou X, Lai D, Zhou L. Phytotoxic Secondary Metabolites from Fungi. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:261. [PMID: 33917534 PMCID: PMC8067579 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13040261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal phytotoxic secondary metabolites are poisonous substances to plants produced by fungi through naturally occurring biochemical reactions. These metabolites exhibit a high level of diversity in their properties, such as structures, phytotoxic activities, and modes of toxicity. They are mainly isolated from phytopathogenic fungal species in the genera of Alternaria, Botrytis, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, and Phoma. Phytotoxins are either host specific or non-host specific phytotoxins. Up to now, at least 545 fungal phytotoxic secondary metabolites, including 207 polyketides, 46 phenols and phenolic acids, 135 terpenoids, 146 nitrogen-containing metabolites, and 11 others, have been reported. Among them, aromatic polyketides and sesquiterpenoids are the main phytotoxic compounds. This review summarizes their chemical structures, sources, and phytotoxic activities. We also discuss their phytotoxic mechanisms and structure-activity relationships to lay the foundation for the future development and application of these promising metabolites as herbicides.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Ligang Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (D.X.); (M.X.); (Z.S.); (X.J.); (X.H.); (D.L.)
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11
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Tsuzuki R, Cabrera Pintado RM, Biondi Thorndike JA, Gutiérrez Reynoso DL, Amasifuen Guerra CA, Guerrero Abad JC, Aragón Caballero LM, Huarhua Zaquinaula MH, Ureta Sierra C, Alberca Cruz OI, Elespuru Suna MG, Blas Sevillano RH, Torres Arias IC, Flores Ticona J, de Baldárrago FC, Pérez ER, Hozum T, Saito H, Kotera S, Akagi Y, Kodama M, Komatsu K, Arie T. Mutations Found in the Asc1 Gene That Confer Susceptibility to the AAL-Toxin in Ancestral Tomatoes from Peru and Mexico. PLANTS 2020; 10:plants10010047. [PMID: 33379271 PMCID: PMC7824085 DOI: 10.3390/plants10010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Tomato susceptibility/resistance to stem canker disease caused by Alternaria alternata f. sp. lycopersici and its pathogenic factor AAL-toxin is determined by the presence of the Asc1 gene. Several cultivars of commercial tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum, SLL) are reported to have a mutation in Asc1, resulting in their susceptibility to AAL-toxin. We evaluated 119 ancestral tomato accessions including S. pimpinellifolium (SP), S. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme (SLC) and S. lycopersicum var. lycopersicum “jitomate criollo” (SLJ) for AAL-toxin susceptibility. Three accessions, SP PER018805, SLC PER018894, and SLJ M5-3, were susceptible to AAL-toxin. SLC PER018894 and SLJ M5-3 had a two-nucleotide deletion (nt 854_855del) in Asc1 identical to that found in SLL cv. Aichi-first. Another mutation (nt 931_932insT) that may confer AAL-toxin susceptibility was identified in SP PER018805. In the phylogenetic tree based on the 18 COSII sequences, a clade (S3) is composed of SP, including the AAL-toxin susceptible PER018805, and SLC. AAL-toxin susceptible SLC PER018894 and SLJ M5-3 were in Clade S2 with SLL cultivars. As SLC is thought to be the ancestor of SLL, and SLJ is an intermediate tomato between SLC and SLL, Asc1s with/without the mutation seem to have been inherited throughout the history of tomato domestication and breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rin Tsuzuki
- Bio-Applications and Systems Engineering—BASE, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan;
| | - Rosa María Cabrera Pintado
- National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.M.C.P.); (J.A.B.T.); (D.L.G.R.); (C.A.A.G.); (J.C.G.A.); (M.G.E.S.)
| | - Jorge Andrés Biondi Thorndike
- National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.M.C.P.); (J.A.B.T.); (D.L.G.R.); (C.A.A.G.); (J.C.G.A.); (M.G.E.S.)
| | - Dina Lida Gutiérrez Reynoso
- National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.M.C.P.); (J.A.B.T.); (D.L.G.R.); (C.A.A.G.); (J.C.G.A.); (M.G.E.S.)
| | - Carlos Alberto Amasifuen Guerra
- National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.M.C.P.); (J.A.B.T.); (D.L.G.R.); (C.A.A.G.); (J.C.G.A.); (M.G.E.S.)
| | - Juan Carlos Guerrero Abad
- National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.M.C.P.); (J.A.B.T.); (D.L.G.R.); (C.A.A.G.); (J.C.G.A.); (M.G.E.S.)
| | - Liliana Maria Aragón Caballero
- Plant Pathology Clinic, La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (L.M.A.C.); (M.H.H.Z.); (C.U.S.); (O.I.A.C.)
| | - Medali Heidi Huarhua Zaquinaula
- Plant Pathology Clinic, La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (L.M.A.C.); (M.H.H.Z.); (C.U.S.); (O.I.A.C.)
| | - Cledy Ureta Sierra
- Plant Pathology Clinic, La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (L.M.A.C.); (M.H.H.Z.); (C.U.S.); (O.I.A.C.)
| | - Olenka Ines Alberca Cruz
- Plant Pathology Clinic, La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (L.M.A.C.); (M.H.H.Z.); (C.U.S.); (O.I.A.C.)
| | - Milca Gianira Elespuru Suna
- National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.M.C.P.); (J.A.B.T.); (D.L.G.R.); (C.A.A.G.); (J.C.G.A.); (M.G.E.S.)
| | - Raúl Humberto Blas Sevillano
- Crop Husbandry Department, La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.H.B.S.); (I.C.T.A.); (J.F.T.)
| | - Ines Carolina Torres Arias
- Crop Husbandry Department, La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.H.B.S.); (I.C.T.A.); (J.F.T.)
| | - Joel Flores Ticona
- Crop Husbandry Department, La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM), La Monila 15026, Lima 12, Peru; (R.H.B.S.); (I.C.T.A.); (J.F.T.)
| | - Fátima Cáceres de Baldárrago
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, National University of San Augustín, Santa Catalina, Arequipa 04000, Peru;
| | | | - Takuo Hozum
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Environment and Rural Service, Chapingo Autonomous University, Texcoco, CP 56230, Mexico;
| | - Hiroki Saito
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan; (H.S.); (S.K.); (K.K.)
| | - Shunsuke Kotera
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan; (H.S.); (S.K.); (K.K.)
| | | | - Motoichiro Kodama
- Department of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan;
| | - Ken Komatsu
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan; (H.S.); (S.K.); (K.K.)
| | - Tsutomu Arie
- Bio-Applications and Systems Engineering—BASE, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan;
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan; (H.S.); (S.K.); (K.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-42-367-5691
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12
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Chen J, Li Z, Cheng Y, Gao C, Guo L, Wang T, Xu J. Sphinganine-Analog Mycotoxins (SAMs): Chemical Structures, Bioactivities, and Genetic Controls. J Fungi (Basel) 2020; 6:E312. [PMID: 33255427 PMCID: PMC7711896 DOI: 10.3390/jof6040312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphinganine-analog mycotoxins (SAMs) including fumonisins and A. alternata f. sp. Lycopersici (AAL) toxins are a group of related mycotoxins produced by plant pathogenic fungi in the Fusarium genus and in Alternaria alternata f. sp. Lycopersici, respectively. SAMs have shown diverse cytotoxicity and phytotoxicity, causing adverse impacts on plants, animals, and humans, and are a destructive force to crop production worldwide. This review summarizes the structural diversity of SAMs and encapsulates the relationships between their structures and biological activities. The toxicity of SAMs on plants and animals is mainly attributed to their inhibitory activity against the ceramide biosynthesis enzyme, influencing the sphingolipid metabolism and causing programmed cell death. We also reviewed the detoxification methods against SAMs and how plants develop resistance to SAMs. Genetic and evolutionary analyses revealed that the FUM (fumonisins biosynthetic) gene cluster was responsible for fumonisin biosynthesis in Fusarium spp. Sequence comparisons among species within the genus Fusarium suggested that mutations and multiple horizontal gene transfers involving the FUM gene cluster were responsible for the interspecific difference in fumonisin synthesis. We finish by describing methods for monitoring and quantifying SAMs in food and agricultural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Chen
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Zhimin Li
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Yi Cheng
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Chunsheng Gao
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Litao Guo
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Tuhong Wang
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Jianping Xu
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
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13
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Pradhan A, Ghosh S, Sahoo D, Jha G. Fungal effectors, the double edge sword of phytopathogens. Curr Genet 2020; 67:27-40. [PMID: 33146780 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-020-01118-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Phyto-pathogenic fungi can cause huge damage to crop production. During millions of years of coexistence, fungi have evolved diverse life-style to obtain nutrients from the host and to colonize upon them. They deploy various proteinaceous as well as non-proteinaceous secreted molecules commonly referred as effectors to sabotage host machinery during the infection process. The effectors are important virulence determinants of pathogenic fungi and play important role in successful pathogenesis, predominantly by avoiding host-surveillance system. However, besides being important for pathogenesis, the fungal effectors end-up being recognized by the resistant cultivars of the host, which mount a strong immune response to ward-off pathogens. Various recent studies involving different pathosystem have revealed the virulence/avirulence functions of fungal effectors and their involvement in governing the outcome of host-pathogen interactions. However, the effectors and their cognate resistance gene in the host remain elusive for several economically important fungal pathogens. In this review, using examples from some of the biotrophic, hemi-biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens, we elaborate the double-edged functions of fungal effectors. We emphasize that knowledge of effector functions can be helpful in effective management of fungal diseases in crop plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrita Pradhan
- Plant Microbe Interactions Laboratory, National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Srayan Ghosh
- Plant Microbe Interactions Laboratory, National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Debashis Sahoo
- Plant Microbe Interactions Laboratory, National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Gopaljee Jha
- Plant Microbe Interactions Laboratory, National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India.
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14
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Zeng HY, Li CY, Yao N. Fumonisin B1: A Tool for Exploring the Multiple Functions of Sphingolipids in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:600458. [PMID: 33193556 PMCID: PMC7652989 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.600458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Fumonisin toxins are produced by Fusarium fungal pathogens. Fumonisins are structural analogs of sphingosine and potent inhibitors of ceramide synthases (CerSs); they disrupt sphingolipid metabolism and cause disease in plants and animals. Over the past three decades, researchers have used fumonisin B1 (FB1), the most common fumonisin, as a probe to investigate sphingolipid metabolism in yeast and animals. Although the physiological effects of FB1 in plants have yet to be investigated in detail, forward and reverse genetic approaches have revealed many genes involved in these processes. In this review, we discuss the intricate network of signaling pathways affected by FB1, including changes in sphingolipid metabolism and the effects of these changes, with a focus on our current understanding of the multiple effects of FB1 on plant cell death and plant growth. We analyze the major findings that highlight the connections between sphingolipid metabolism and FB1-induced signaling, and we point out where additional research is needed to fill the gaps in our understanding of FB1-induced signaling pathways in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yun Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resource, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chun-Yu Li
- Institution of Fruit Tree Research, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nan Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resource, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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15
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El-Garawani IM, El-Sabbagh SM, Abbas NH, Ahmed HS, Eissa OA, Abo-Atya DM, Khalifa SAM, El-Seedi HR. A newly isolated strain of Halomonas sp. (HA1) exerts anticancer potential via induction of apoptosis and G 2/M arrest in hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14076. [PMID: 32826930 PMCID: PMC7443142 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70945-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine bacterial strains are of great interest for their ability to produce secondary metabolites with anticancer potentials. Isolation, identification, characterization and anticancer activities of isolated bacteria from El-Hamra Lake, Wadi El-Natrun (Egypt) were the objectives of this study. The isolated bacteria were identified as a moderately halophilic alkaliphilic strain. Ethyl acetate extraction was performed and identified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (LC-MS-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis (NMR). Cytotoxicity of the extract was assessed on the HepG2 cell line and normal human peripheral lymphocytes (HPBL) in vitro. Halomonas sp. HA1 extract analyses revealed anticancer potential. Many compounds have been identified including cyclo-(Leu-Leu), cyclo-(Pro-Phe), C17-sphinganine, hexanedioic acid, bis (2-ethylhexyl) ester, surfactin C14 and C15. The extract exhibited an IC50 of 68 ± 1.8 μg/mL and caused marked morphological changes in treated HepG2 cells. For mechanistic anticancer evaluation, 20 and 40 µg/mL of bacterial extract were examined. The up-regulation of apoptosis-related genes' expression, P53, CASP-3, and BAX/BCL-2 at mRNA and protein levels proved the involvement of P53-dependant mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. The anti-proliferative properties were confirmed by significant G2/M cell cycle arrest and PCNA down-regulation in the treated cells. Low cytotoxicity was observed in HPBL compared to HepG2 cells. In conclusion, results suggest that the apoptotic and anti-proliferative effects of Halomonas sp. HA1 extract on HepG2 cells can provide it as a candidate for future pharmaceutical industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Islam M El-Garawani
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt.
| | - Sabha M El-Sabbagh
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt
| | - Nasser H Abbas
- Department of Molecular BiologyGenetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, University of Sadat City, Sadat City, 32958, Egypt
| | - Hany S Ahmed
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt
| | - Omaima A Eissa
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt
| | - Doaa M Abo-Atya
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt
| | - Shaden A M Khalifa
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, 10691, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hesham R El-Seedi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Menoufia, 32511, Egypt.
- Pharmacognosy Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Biomedical Centre, 75 123, Uppsala, Sweden.
- International Research Center for Food Nutrition and Safety, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China.
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16
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Li J, Cornelissen B, Rep M. Host-specificity factors in plant pathogenic fungi. Fungal Genet Biol 2020; 144:103447. [PMID: 32827756 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2020.103447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Fortunately, no fungus can cause disease on all plant species, and although some plant-pathogenic fungi have quite a broad host range, most are highly limited in the range of plant species or even cultivars that they cause disease in. The mechanisms of host specificity have been extensively studied in many plant-pathogenic fungi, especially in fungal pathogens causing disease on economically important crops. Specifically, genes involved in host specificity have been identified during the last few decades. In this overview, we describe and discuss these host-specificity genes. These genes encode avirulence (Avr) proteins, proteinaceous host-specific toxins or secondary metabolites. We discuss the genomic context of these genes, their expression, polymorphism, horizontal transfer and involvement in pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiming Li
- Molecular Plant Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1098 XH, the Netherlands
| | - Ben Cornelissen
- Molecular Plant Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1098 XH, the Netherlands
| | - Martijn Rep
- Molecular Plant Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1098 XH, the Netherlands.
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17
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Kim HS, Lohmar JM, Busman M, Brown DW, Naumann TA, Divon HH, Lysøe E, Uhlig S, Proctor RH. Identification and distribution of gene clusters required for synthesis of sphingolipid metabolism inhibitors in diverse species of the filamentous fungus Fusarium. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:510. [PMID: 32703172 PMCID: PMC7376913 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-06896-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sphingolipids are structural components and signaling molecules in eukaryotic membranes, and many organisms produce compounds that inhibit sphingolipid metabolism. Some of the inhibitors are structurally similar to the sphingolipid biosynthetic intermediate sphinganine and are referred to as sphinganine-analog metabolites (SAMs). The mycotoxins fumonisins, which are frequent contaminants in maize, are one family of SAMs. Due to food and feed safety concerns, fumonisin biosynthesis has been investigated extensively, including characterization of the fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster in the agriculturally important fungi Aspergillus and Fusarium. Production of several other SAMs has also been reported in fungi, but there is almost no information on their biosynthesis. There is also little information on how widely SAM production occurs in fungi or on the extent of structural variation of fungal SAMs. RESULTS Using fumonisin biosynthesis as a model, we predicted that SAM biosynthetic gene clusters in fungi should include a polyketide synthase (PKS), an aminotransferase and a dehydrogenase gene. Surveys of genome sequences identified five putative clusters with this three-gene combination in 92 of 186 Fusarium species examined. Collectively, the putative SAM clusters were distributed widely but discontinuously among the species. We propose that the SAM5 cluster confers production of a previously reported Fusarium SAM, 2-amino-14,16-dimethyloctadecan-3-ol (AOD), based on the occurrence of AOD production only in species with the cluster and on deletion analysis of the SAM5 cluster PKS gene. We also identified SAM clusters in 24 species of other fungal genera, and propose that one of the clusters confers production of sphingofungin, a previously reported Aspergillus SAM. CONCLUSION Our results provide a genomics approach to identify novel SAM biosynthetic gene clusters in fungi, which should in turn contribute to identification of novel SAMs with applications in medicine and other fields. Information about novel SAMs could also provide insights into the role of SAMs in the ecology of fungi. Such insights have potential to contribute to strategies to reduce fumonisin contamination in crops and to control crop diseases caused by SAM-producing fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Seon Kim
- U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Jessica M Lohmar
- U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Mark Busman
- U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Daren W Brown
- U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | - Todd A Naumann
- U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA
| | | | - Erik Lysøe
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Robert H Proctor
- U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA.
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18
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Self-Protection against the Sphingolipid Biosynthesis Inhibitor Fumonisin B 1 Is Conferred by a FUM Cluster-Encoded Ceramide Synthase. mBio 2020; 11:mBio.00455-20. [PMID: 32546615 PMCID: PMC7298705 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00455-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisin (FB) mycotoxins produced by species of the genus Fusarium detrimentally affect human and animal health upon consumption, due to the inhibition of ceramide synthase. In the present work, we set out to identify mechanisms of self-protection employed by the FB1 producer Fusarium verticillioides FB1 biosynthesis was shown to be compartmentalized, and two cluster-encoded self-protection mechanisms were identified. First, the ATP-binding cassette transporter Fum19 acts as a repressor of the FUM gene cluster. Appropriately, FUM19 deletion and overexpression increased and decreased, respectively, the levels of intracellular and secreted FB1 Second, the cluster genes FUM17 and FUM18 were shown to be two of five ceramide synthase homologs in Fusarium verticillioides, grouping into the two clades CS-I and CS-II in a phylogenetic analysis. The ability of FUM18 to fully complement the yeast ceramide synthase null mutant LAG1/LAC1 demonstrated its functionality, while coexpression of FUM17 and CER3 partially complemented, likely via heterodimer formation. Cell viability assays revealed that Fum18 contributes to the fungal self-protection against FB1 and increases resistance by providing FUM cluster-encoded ceramide synthase activity.IMPORTANCE The biosynthesis of fungal natural products is highly regulated not only in terms of transcription and translation but also regarding the cellular localization of the biosynthetic pathway. In all eukaryotes, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in the production of organelles, which are subject to cellular traffic or secretion. Here, we show that in Fusarium verticillioides, early steps in fumonisin production take place in the ER, together with ceramide biosynthesis, which is targeted by the mycotoxin. A first level of self-protection is given by the presence of a FUM cluster-encoded ceramide synthase, Fum18, hitherto uncharacterized. In addition, the final fumonisin biosynthetic step occurs in the cytosol and is thereby spatially separate from the fungal ceramide synthases. We suggest that these strategies help the fungus to avoid self-poisoning during mycotoxin production.
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19
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Shao Z, Zhao Y, Liu L, Chen S, Li C, Meng F, Liu H, Hu S, Wang J, Wang Q. Overexpression of FBR41 enhances resistance to sphinganine analog mycotoxin-induced cell death and Alternaria stem canker in tomato. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2020; 18:141-154. [PMID: 31161714 PMCID: PMC6920163 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) and Alternaria alternate f. sp. lycopersici (AAL)-toxin are classified as sphinganine analog mycotoxins (SAMTs), which induce programmed cell death (PCD) in plants and pose health threat to humans who consume the contaminated crop products. Herein, Fumonisin B1 Resistant41 (FBR41), a dominant mutant allele, was identified by map-based cloning of Arabidopsis FB1-resistant mutant fbr41, then ectopically expressed in AAL-toxin sensitive tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) cultivar. FBR41-overexpressing tomato plants exhibited less severe cell death phenotype upon AAL-toxin treatment. Analysis of free sphingoid bases showed that both fbr41 and FBR41-overexpressing tomato plants accumulated less sphinganine and phytosphingosine upon FB1 and AAL-toxin treatment, respectively. Alternaria stem canker is a disease caused by AAL and responsible for severe economic losses in tomato production, and FBR41-overexpressing tomato plants exhibited enhanced resistance to AAL with decreased fungal biomass and less cell death, which was accompanied by attenuated accumulation of free sphingoid bases and jasmonate (JA). Taken together, our results indicate that FBR41 is potential in inhibiting SAMT-induced PCD and controlling Alternaria stem canker in tomato.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Shao
- State Agricultural Ministry Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Growth and DevelopmentDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Yanting Zhao
- Institute of VegetablesZhejiang Academy of Agricultural SciencesHangzhouChina
| | - Lihong Liu
- State Agricultural Ministry Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Growth and DevelopmentDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Shanshan Chen
- State Agricultural Ministry Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Growth and DevelopmentDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Chuanyou Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant GenomicsNational Centre for Plant Gene Research (Beijing)Institute of Genetics and Developmental BiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Fanliang Meng
- State Agricultural Ministry Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Growth and DevelopmentDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Haoran Liu
- State Agricultural Ministry Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Growth and DevelopmentDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Songshen Hu
- State Agricultural Ministry Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Growth and DevelopmentDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Jiansheng Wang
- Institute of VegetablesZhejiang Academy of Agricultural SciencesHangzhouChina
| | - Qiaomei Wang
- State Agricultural Ministry Laboratory of Horticultural Crop Growth and DevelopmentDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
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Whole-Genome and Transposed Duplication Contributes to the Expansion and Diversification of TLC Genes in Maize. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20215484. [PMID: 31689978 PMCID: PMC6862079 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20215484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
TLC (TRAM/LAG/CRN8) proteins play important roles in ceramide metabolism and mycotoxin resistance. Herein a comparative genomics analysis of TLCs was performed in 31 plant and 3 species from other kingdoms, with an emphasis mainly on maize. TLCs were conserved across kingdoms and expanded in angiosperms, largely due to whole-genome/segmental duplication (WGD/SD) under purifying selection. Phylogeny reconstruction by maximum-likelihood method uncovered five TLC clades, subsequently named as TRAM/LAG, CLN8, PS-TLC, TM136 and TLCD clades. Each clade of TLCs shared specific transmembrane regions and motif composition. Divisions of conserved motifs to subunits may have occurred in TM136-type TLCs. Focusing on maize, five WGD and two DNA-mediated transposed duplication (TD) pairs were discovered, accounting for 61.11% ZmTLCs. Combined with further expression analysis, significant divergence was found in expression patterns between most maize WGD pairs, indicating subfunctionalization or/and neofunctionalization. Moreover, ZmTLC5, a deduced parental copy in a TD pair, was highly induced under FB1 and fungus pathogen injection and exhibited potential capacity to respond to environmental stimuli. Additionally, population genetics analysis showed that ZmTLC10 in the CLN8-clade may have experienced significant positive selection and differentiated between wild and inbred maize populations. Overall, our results help to decipher the evolutionary history of TLCs in maize and plants, facilitating further functional analysis of them.
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21
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Meena M, Samal S. Alternaria host-specific (HSTs) toxins: An overview of chemical characterization, target sites, regulation and their toxic effects. Toxicol Rep 2019; 6:745-758. [PMID: 31406682 PMCID: PMC6684332 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2019.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria causes pathogenic disease on various economically important crops having saprophytic to endophytic lifecycle. Pathogenic fungi of Alternaria species produce many primary and secondary metabolites (SMs). Alternaria species produce more than 70 mycotoxins. Several species of Alternaria produce various phytotoxins that are host-specific (HSTs) and non-host-specific (nHSTs). These toxins have various negative impacts on cell organelles including chloroplast, mitochondria, plasma membrane, nucleus, Golgi bodies, etc. Non-host-specific toxins such as tentoxin (TEN), Alternaric acid, alternariol (AOH), alternariol 9-monomethyl ether (AME), brefeldin A (dehydro-), Alternuene (ALT), Altertoxin-I, Altertoxin-II, Altertoxin-III, zinniol, tenuazonic acid (TeA), curvularin and alterotoxin (ATX) I, II, III are known toxins produced by Alternaria species. In other hand, Alternaria species produce numerous HSTs such as AK-, AF-, ACT-, AM-, AAL- and ACR-toxin, maculosin, destruxin A, B, etc. are host-specific and classified into different family groups. These mycotoxins are low molecular weight secondary metabolites with various chemical structures. All the HSTs have different mode of actions, biochemical reactions, and signaling mechanisms to causes diseases in the host plants. These HSTs have devastating effects on host plant tissues by affecting biochemical and genetic modifications. Host-specific mycotoxins such as AK-toxin, AF-toxin, and AC-toxin have the devastating effect on plants which causes DNA breakage, cytotoxic, apoptotic cell death, interrupting plant physiology by mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and affect membrane permeability. This article will elucidate an understanding of the disease mechanism caused by several Alternaria HSTs on host plants and also the pathways of the toxins and how they caused disease in plants.
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Key Words
- 1O2, singlet oxygen
- AA, ascorbic acid
- ALT, alternuene
- AME, alternariol 9-monomethyl ether
- AOH, alternariol
- APX, ascorbate peroxidase
- ATX, alterotoxin
- Alternaria species
- CAT, catalase
- CDCs, conditionally dispensable chromosomes
- DHAR, dehydroascorbate reductase
- DHT, dihydrotentoxin
- GPX, guaiacol peroxidase
- GR, glutathione reductase
- GSH, glutathione
- H2O2, hydrogen peroxide
- HR, hypersensitive response
- HSTs, host specific toxins
- Host-specific toxins
- MDHAR, monodehydroascorbate reductase
- NO, nitric oxide
- NRPS, nonribosomal peptide synthetase
- Non-host-specific toxins
- O2˙ˉ, superoxide anion
- PCD, programmed cell death
- PKS, polyketide synthase gene
- Pathogenicity
- REMI, restriction enzyme-mediated integration
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- SMs, secondary metabolites
- SOD, superoxide dismutase
- Secondary metabolites
- TEN, tentoxin
- TeA, tenuazonic acid
- UGT, UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases
- nHSTs, non-host specific toxins
- ˙OH, hydroxyl radical
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukesh Meena
- Department of Botany, University College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, 313001, India
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Swarnmala Samal
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
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Moriya S, Terakami S, Okada K, Shimizu T, Adachi Y, Katayose Y, Fujisawa H, Wu J, Kanamori H, Yamamoto T, Abe K. Identification of candidate genes responsible for the susceptibility of apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) to Alternaria blotch. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 19:132. [PMID: 30961541 PMCID: PMC6454750 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-019-1737-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mechanism underlying the interaction between host plant and host-selective toxin (HST)-producing Alternaria alternata during infection is of particular interest for sustainable crop production. Alternaria blotch of apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) caused by A. alternata apple pathotype is a major disease particularly in East Asia, which is the largest producer of apples globally. A single dominant gene, Alt, controls the susceptibility of the apple cultivar 'Delicious' to Alternaria blotch. In this study, we fine mapped the Alt locus and characterized three potential candidate genes. RESULTS We used 797 F1 individuals derived from 15 crosses between apple accessions susceptible (Alt/alt) and resistant (alt/alt) to Alternaria blotch to construct physical and genetic maps of the Alt locus located on the top of chromosome 11. Susceptible accessions were derived from 'Delicious.' To fine map the Alt locus, we constructed a BAC library of 'Starking Delicious,' a sport of 'Delicious,' and used graphical genotyping to delimit the Alt locus to a region of 43 kb. Three genes predicted within the candidate Alt region were potentially involved in plant defense response, among which the gene encoding a coiled coil-nucleotide binding-leucine rich repeat (CC-NB-LRR) type disease resistance protein was the most promising. Moreover, a 12-bp insertion was uniquely identified in the 5' untranslated region of the Alt-associated allele of this gene, the presence or absence of which co-segregated with the susceptibility or resistance to A. alternata apple pathotype, respectively, among 43 tested cultivars including old ones and founders of modern apple breeding. CONCLUSION A disease resistance protein has been suggested as a determinant of susceptibility/resistance to HST-producing A. alternata for the first time. Our finding provides new insight into the mechanism of HST-mediated disease control used by A. alternata against host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeki Moriya
- Apple Research Station, Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 92-24 Shimokuriyagawa Nabeyashiki, Morioka, Iwate 020-0123 Japan
| | - Shingo Terakami
- Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, NARO, 2-1 Fujimoto, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8604 Japan
| | - Kazuma Okada
- Apple Research Station, Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 92-24 Shimokuriyagawa Nabeyashiki, Morioka, Iwate 020-0123 Japan
| | - Taku Shimizu
- Apple Research Station, Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 92-24 Shimokuriyagawa Nabeyashiki, Morioka, Iwate 020-0123 Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Adachi
- Citrus Research Station, Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, NARO, 485-6 Okitsunaka-cho, Shimizu, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka 424-0284 Japan
| | - Yuichi Katayose
- Advanced Genomics Breeding Section, Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634 Japan
| | - Hiroko Fujisawa
- Advanced Genomics Breeding Section, Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634 Japan
| | - Jianzhon Wu
- Advanced Genomics Breeding Section, Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634 Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kanamori
- Advanced Genomics Breeding Section, Institute of Crop Science, NARO, 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634 Japan
| | - Toshiya Yamamoto
- Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, NARO, 2-1 Fujimoto, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8604 Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Abe
- Apple Research Station, Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 92-24 Shimokuriyagawa Nabeyashiki, Morioka, Iwate 020-0123 Japan
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Lorang J. Necrotrophic Exploitation and Subversion of Plant Defense: A Lifestyle or Just a Phase, and Implications in Breeding Resistance. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2019; 109:332-346. [PMID: 30451636 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-09-18-0334-ia] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Breeding disease-resistant plants is a critical, environmentally friendly component of any strategy to sustainably feed and clothe the 9.8 billion people expected to live on Earth by 2050. Here, I review current literature detailing plant defense responses as they relate to diverse biological outcomes; disease resistance, susceptibility, and establishment of mutualistic plant-microbial relationships. Of particular interest is the degree to which these outcomes are a function of plant-associated microorganisms' lifestyles; biotrophic, hemibiotrophic, necrotrophic, or mutualistic. For the sake of brevity, necrotrophic pathogens and the necrotrophic phase of pathogenicity are emphasized in this review, with special attention given to the host-specific pathogens that exploit defense. Defense responses related to generalist necrotrophs and mutualists are discussed in the context of excellent reviews by others. In addition, host evolutionary trade-offs of disease resistance with other desirable traits are considered in the context of breeding for durable disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Lorang
- Department of Botany, 2082 Cordley Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331
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24
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Wang R, Leng Y, Zhao M, Zhong S. Fine mapping of a dominant gene conferring resistance to spot blotch caused by a new pathotype of Bipolaris sorokiniana in barley. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2019; 132:41-51. [PMID: 30242493 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-018-3192-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We fine-mapped and physically anchored a dominant gene (Rbs7) conferring resistance to spot blotch caused by a new pathotype of Bipolaris sorokiniana in a genomic interval of 304 kb on barley chromosome 6H. Spot blotch, caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana, is an economically important disease on barley in the Upper Midwest region of the USA and Prairie Provinces of Canada. A new pathotype (pathotype 7, represented by isolate ND4008) of B. sorokiniana has been identified, which is highly virulent on barley cultivars with resistance to other pathotypes of the fungus. In this study, we fine-mapped a dominant gene conferring resistance to pathotype 7 in the barley line PI 235186. Genetic analysis of the F1 and F2 plants from a cross between PI 356741 (highly susceptible to ND4008) and PI 235186 (highly resistant to ND4008) indicated that a single dominant gene (Rbs7) controls the resistance in PI 235186. This result was confirmed by genetic analysis of the F2:3 families and a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from the same cross. Bulked segregant analysis using simple sequence repeat markers localized Rbs7 on the short arm of chromosome 6H. Additional DNA markers were developed from the 6H pseudomolecule sequence of barley cv. Morex and mapped to the genomic region carrying Rbs7 using the RIL population and F2 recombinants derived from the PI 356741 × PI 235186 cross. Rbs7 was fine-mapped between two markers (M13.06 and M13.37), which spans a physical distance of 304 kb on Morex chromosome 6H. These results provide a foundation for future cloning of the resistance gene and development of user-friendly molecular markers that can be used for development of spot-blotch-resistant cultivars in barley breeding programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58108, USA
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Idaho, Aberdeen, ID, 83210, USA
| | - Yueqiang Leng
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58108, USA
| | - Mingxia Zhao
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58108, USA
| | - Shaobin Zhong
- Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58108, USA.
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26
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Yi JK, Xu R, Jeong E, Mileva I, Truman JP, Lin CL, Wang K, Snider J, Wen S, Obeid LM, Hannun YA, Mao C. Aging-related elevation of sphingoid bases shortens yeast chronological life span by compromising mitochondrial function. Oncotarget 2018; 7:21124-44. [PMID: 27008706 PMCID: PMC5008273 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sphingoid bases (SBs) as bioactive sphingolipids, have been implicated in aging in yeast. However, we know neither how SBs are regulated during yeast aging nor how they, in turn, regulate it. Herein, we demonstrate that the yeast alkaline ceramidases (YPC1 and YDC1) and SB kinases (LCB4 and LCB5) cooperate in regulating SBs during the aging process and that SBs shortens chronological life span (CLS) by compromising mitochondrial functions. With a lipidomics approach, we found that SBs were increased in a time-dependent manner during yeast aging. We also demonstrated that among the enzymes known for being responsible for the metabolism of SBs, YPC1 was upregulated whereas LCB4/5 were downregulated in the course of aging. This inverse regulation of YPC1 and LCB4/5 led to the aging-related upregulation of SBs in yeast and a reduction in CLS. With the proteomics-based approach (SILAC), we revealed that increased SBs altered the levels of proteins related to mitochondria. Further mechanistic studies demonstrated that increased SBs inhibited mitochondrial fusion and caused fragmentation, resulting in decreases in mtDNA copy numbers, ATP levels, mitochondrial membrane potentials, and oxygen consumption. Taken together, these results suggest that increased SBs mediate the aging process by impairing mitochondrial structural integrity and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Kyo Yi
- Graduate Program in Molecular and Cellular Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Ruijuan Xu
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Eunmi Jeong
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Izolda Mileva
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | | | - Chih-Li Lin
- Graduate Program in Molecular and Cellular Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Kai Wang
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Justin Snider
- Graduate Program in Molecular and Cellular Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Sally Wen
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Lina M Obeid
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Northport Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Northport, NY, USA
| | - Yusuf A Hannun
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Cungui Mao
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.,Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
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Petrov V, Qureshi MK, Hille J, Gechev T. Occurrence, biochemistry and biological effects of host-selective plant mycotoxins. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 112:251-264. [PMID: 29288760 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.12.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Host-selective mycotoxins (HSTs) are various secondary metabolites or proteinaceous compounds secreted by pathogenic necrotrophic fungi that feed off on dead tissues of certain plants. Research on the HSTs has not only fundamental but also practical importance. On one hand they are implicated in the onset of devastating crop diseases. On the other hand, they have been studied as a good model for revealing the intricate mechanisms of plant-pathogen interactions. At the cellular level, HSTs target different compartments and in most instances induce programmed cell death (PCD) by a wide range of mechanisms. Often the responses provoked by HSTs resemble the effector-triggered immunity used by plant cells to combat biotrophic pathogens, which suggests that HST-producing fungi exploit the plants' own defensive systems to derive benefits. Although by definition HSTs are active only in tissues of susceptible plant genotypes, it has been demonstrated that some of them are able to influence animal cells as well. The possible effects, like cytotoxicity or cytostasis, can be harmful or beneficial and thus HSTs may either pose a health risk for humans and livestock, or be of prospective use in the fields of pharmacology, medicine and agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veselin Petrov
- Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, 139 Ruski blvd., Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria; Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Agricultural University, 12 Mendeleev str., Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria.
| | - Muhammad Kamran Qureshi
- Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Bosan Road, 60800, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan.
| | - Jacques Hille
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Tsanko Gechev
- Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, 139 Ruski blvd., Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria; Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 105 Ruski blvd., Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria; Department of Plant Physiology and Molecular Biology, Plovdiv University, 24 Tsar Assen str., Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria.
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28
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Gonçalves AP, Heller J, Daskalov A, Videira A, Glass NL. Regulated Forms of Cell Death in Fungi. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1837. [PMID: 28983298 PMCID: PMC5613156 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell death occurs in all domains of life. While some cells die in an uncontrolled way due to exposure to external cues, other cells die in a regulated manner as part of a genetically encoded developmental program. Like other eukaryotic species, fungi undergo programmed cell death (PCD) in response to various triggers. For example, exposure to external stress conditions can activate PCD pathways in fungi. Calcium redistribution between the extracellular space, the cytoplasm and intracellular storage organelles appears to be pivotal for this kind of cell death. PCD is also part of the fungal life cycle, in which it occurs during sexual and asexual reproduction, aging, and as part of development associated with infection in phytopathogenic fungi. Additionally, a fungal non-self-recognition mechanism termed heterokaryon incompatibility (HI) also involves PCD. Some of the molecular players mediating PCD during HI show remarkable similarities to major constituents involved in innate immunity in metazoans and plants. In this review we discuss recent research on fungal PCD mechanisms in comparison to more characterized mechanisms in metazoans. We highlight the role of PCD in fungi in response to exogenic compounds, fungal development and non-self-recognition processes and discuss identified intracellular signaling pathways and molecules that regulate fungal PCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Pedro Gonçalves
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, CA, United States
| | - Jens Heller
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, CA, United States
| | - Asen Daskalov
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, CA, United States
| | - Arnaldo Videira
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal.,I3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em SaúdePorto, Portugal
| | - N Louise Glass
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, CA, United States
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29
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Meena M, Gupta SK, Swapnil P, Zehra A, Dubey MK, Upadhyay RS. Alternaria Toxins: Potential Virulence Factors and Genes Related to Pathogenesis. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1451. [PMID: 28848500 PMCID: PMC5550700 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria is an important fungus to study due to their different life style from saprophytes to endophytes and a very successful fungal pathogen that causes diseases to a number of economically important crops. Alternaria species have been well-characterized for the production of different host-specific toxins (HSTs) and non-host specific toxins (nHSTs) which depend upon their physiological and morphological stages. The pathogenicity of Alternaria species depends on host susceptibility or resistance as well as quantitative production of HSTs and nHSTs. These toxins are chemically low molecular weight secondary metabolites (SMs). The effects of toxins are mainly on different parts of cells like mitochondria, chloroplast, plasma membrane, Golgi complex, nucleus, etc. Alternaria species produce several nHSTs such as brefeldin A, tenuazonic acid, tentoxin, and zinniol. HSTs that act in very low concentrations affect only certain plant varieties or genotype and play a role in determining the host range of specificity of plant pathogens. The commonly known HSTs are AAL-, AK-, AM-, AF-, ACR-, and ACT-toxins which are named by their host specificity and these toxins are classified into different family groups. The HSTs are differentiated on the basis of bio-statistical and other molecular analyses. All these toxins have different mode of action, biochemical reactions and signaling mechanisms to cause diseases. Different species of Alternaria produced toxins which reveal its biochemical and genetic effects on itself as well as on its host cells tissues. The genes responsible for the production of HSTs are found on the conditionally dispensable chromosomes (CDCs) which have been well characterized. Different bio-statistical methods like basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) data analysis used for the annotation of gene prediction, pathogenicity-related genes may provide surprising knowledge in present and future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukesh Meena
- Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu UniversityVaranasi, India
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30
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Lim GH, Singhal R, Kachroo A, Kachroo P. Fatty Acid- and Lipid-Mediated Signaling in Plant Defense. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2017; 55:505-536. [PMID: 28777926 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-080516-035406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Fatty acids and lipids, which are major and essential constituents of all plant cells, not only provide structural integrity and energy for various metabolic processes but can also function as signal transduction mediators. Lipids and fatty acids can act as both intracellular and extracellular signals. In addition, cyclic and acyclic products generated during fatty acid metabolism can also function as important chemical signals. This review summarizes the biosynthesis of fatty acids and lipids and their involvement in pathogen defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gah-Hyun Lim
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546;
| | - Richa Singhal
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546;
| | - Aardra Kachroo
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546;
| | - Pradeep Kachroo
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546;
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31
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Tartaglio V, Rennie EA, Cahoon R, Wang G, Baidoo E, Mortimer JC, Cahoon EB, Scheller HV. Glycosylation of inositol phosphorylceramide sphingolipids is required for normal growth and reproduction in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 89:278-290. [PMID: 27643972 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 09/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Sphingolipids are a major component of plant plasma membranes and endomembranes, and mediate a diverse range of biological processes. Study of the highly glycosylated glycosyl inositol phosphorylceramide (GIPC) sphingolipids has been slow as a result of challenges associated with the extractability of GIPCs, and their functions in the plant remain poorly characterized. We recently discovered an Arabidopsis GIPC glucuronosyltransferase, INOSITOL PHOSPHORYLCERAMIDE GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE 1 (IPUT1), which is the first enzyme in the GIPC glycosylation pathway. Plants homozygous for the iput1 loss-of-function mutation were unobtainable, and so the developmental effects of reduced GIPC glucuronosylation could not be analyzed in planta. Using a pollen-specific rescue construct, we have here isolated homozygous iput1 mutants. The iput1 mutants show severe dwarfism, compromised pollen tube guidance, and constitutive activation of salicyclic acid-mediated defense pathways. The mutants also possess reduced GIPCs, increased ceramides, and an increased incorporation of short-chain fatty acids and dihydroxylated bases into inositol phosphorylceramides and GIPCs. The assignment of a direct role for GIPC glycan head groups in the impaired processes in iput1 mutants is complicated by the vast compensatory changes in the sphingolipidome; however, our results reveal that the glycosylation steps of GIPC biosynthesis are important regulated components of sphingolipid metabolism. This study corroborates previously suggested roles for GIPC glycans in plant growth and defense, suggests important roles for them in reproduction and demonstrates that the entire sphingolipidome is sensitive to their status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Tartaglio
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Emilie A Rennie
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Rebecca Cahoon
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - George Wang
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Edward Baidoo
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Jennifer C Mortimer
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Edgar B Cahoon
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Henrik V Scheller
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
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Abstract
Sphingolipids, a once overlooked class of lipids in plants, are now recognized as abundant and essential components of plasma membrane and other endomembranes of plant cells. In addition to providing structural integrity to plant membranes, sphingolipids contribute to Golgi trafficking and protein organizational domains in the plasma membrane. Sphingolipid metabolites have also been linked to the regulation of cellular processes, including programmed cell death. Advances in mass spectrometry-based sphingolipid profiling and analyses of Arabidopsis mutants have enabled fundamental discoveries in sphingolipid structural diversity, metabolism, and function that are reviewed here. These discoveries are laying the groundwork for the tailoring of sphingolipid biosynthesis and catabolism for improved tolerance of plants to biotic and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D Luttgeharm
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, E318 Beadle Center, 1901 Vine Street, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Athen N Kimberlin
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, E318 Beadle Center, 1901 Vine Street, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Edgar B Cahoon
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, E318 Beadle Center, 1901 Vine Street, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA.
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Athukorala SNP, Piercey-Normore MD. Recognition- and defense-related gene expression at 3 resynthesis stages in lichen symbionts. Can J Microbiol 2015; 61:1-12. [PMID: 25485526 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2014-0470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Recognition and defense responses are early events in plant-pathogen interactions and between lichen symbionts. The effect of elicitors on responses between lichen symbionts is not well understood. The objective of this study was to compare the difference in recognition- and defense-related gene expression as a result of culture extracts (containing secreted water-soluble elicitors) from compatible and incompatible interactions at each of 3 resynthesis stages in the symbionts of Cladonia rangiferina. This study investigated gene expression by quantitative PCR in cultures of C. rangiferina and its algal partner, Asterochloris glomerata/irregularis, after incubation with liquid extracts from cultures of compatible and incompatible interactions at 3 early resynthesis stages. Recognition-related genes were significantly upregulated only after physical contact, demonstrating symbiont recognition in later resynthesis stages than expected. One of 3 defense-related genes, chit, showed significant downregulation in early resynthesis stages and upregulation in the third resynthesis stage, demonstrating a need for the absence of chitinase early in thallus formation and a need for its presence in later stages as an algal defense reaction. This study revealed that recognition- and defense-related genes are triggered by components in culture extracts at 3 stages of resynthesis, and some defense-related genes may be induced throughout thallus growth. The parasitic nature of the interaction shows parallels between lichen symbionts and plant pathogenic systems.
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Dutilleul C, Chavarria H, Rézé N, Sotta B, Baudouin E, Guillas I. Evidence for ACD5 ceramide kinase activity involvement in Arabidopsis response to cold stress. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2015; 38:2688-2697. [PMID: 26013074 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Although sphingolipids emerged as important signals for plant response to low temperature, investigations have been limited so far to the function of long-chain base intermediates. The formation and function of ceramide phosphates (Cer-Ps) in chilled Arabidopsis were explored. Cer-Ps were analysed by thin layer chromatography (TLC) following in vivo metabolic radiolabelling. Ceramide kinase activity, gene expression and growth phenotype were determined in unstressed and cold-stressed wild type (WT) and Arabidopsis ceramide kinase mutant acd5. A rapid and transient formation of Cer-P occurs in cold-stressed WT Arabidopsis plantlets and cultured cells, which is strongly impaired in acd5 mutant. Although concomitant, Cer-P formation is independent of long-chain base phosphate (LCB-P) formation. No variation of ceramide kinase activity was measured in vitro in WT plantlets upon cold stress but the activity in acd5 mutant was further reduced by cold stress. At the seedling stage, acd5 response to cold was similar to that of WT. Nevertheless, acd5 seed germination was hypersensitive to cold and abscisic acid (ABA), and ABA-dependent gene expression was modified in acd5 seeds when germinated at low temperature. Our data involve for the first time Cer-P and ACD5 in low temperature response and further underline the complexity of sphingolipid signalling operating during cold stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Heidy Chavarria
- UFR 927, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F-75252, Paris, France
| | - Nathalie Rézé
- UFR 927, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F-75252, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Sotta
- UFR 927, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F-75252, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Baudouin
- Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Sorbonne Universités, F-75252, Paris, France
- Biologie du Développement, Sorbonne Universités, F-75252, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Guillas
- UFR 927, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F-75252, Paris, France
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Magnin-Robert M, Le Bourse D, Markham J, Dorey S, Clément C, Baillieul F, Dhondt-Cordelier S. Modifications of Sphingolipid Content Affect Tolerance to Hemibiotrophic and Necrotrophic Pathogens by Modulating Plant Defense Responses in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 169:2255-74. [PMID: 26378098 PMCID: PMC4634087 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.01126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Sphingolipids are emerging as second messengers in programmed cell death and plant defense mechanisms. However, their role in plant defense is far from being understood, especially against necrotrophic pathogens. Sphingolipidomics and plant defense responses during pathogenic infection were evaluated in the mutant of long-chain base phosphate (LCB-P) lyase, encoded by the dihydrosphingosine-1-phosphate lyase1 (AtDPL1) gene and regulating long-chain base/LCB-P homeostasis. Atdpl1 mutants exhibit tolerance to the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea but susceptibility to the hemibiotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst). Here, a direct comparison of sphingolipid profiles in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) during infection with pathogens differing in lifestyles is described. In contrast to long-chain bases (dihydrosphingosine [d18:0] and 4,8-sphingadienine [d18:2]), hydroxyceramide and LCB-P (phytosphingosine-1-phosphate [t18:0-P] and 4-hydroxy-8-sphingenine-1-phosphate [t18:1-P]) levels are higher in Atdpl1-1 than in wild-type plants in response to B. cinerea. Following Pst infection, t18:0-P accumulates more strongly in Atdpl1-1 than in wild-type plants. Moreover, d18:0 and t18:0-P appear as key players in Pst- and B. cinerea-induced cell death and reactive oxygen species accumulation. Salicylic acid levels are similar in both types of plants, independent of the pathogen. In addition, salicylic acid-dependent gene expression is similar in both types of B. cinerea-infected plants but is repressed in Atdpl1-1 after treatment with Pst. Infection with both pathogens triggers higher jasmonic acid, jasmonoyl-isoleucine accumulation, and jasmonic acid-dependent gene expression in Atdpl1-1 mutants. Our results demonstrate that sphingolipids play an important role in plant defense, especially toward necrotrophic pathogens, and highlight a novel connection between the jasmonate signaling pathway, cell death, and sphingolipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryline Magnin-Robert
- Unité de Recherche Vigne et Vin de Champagne Equipe d'Accueil 4707, Laboratoire Stress Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet Fédération de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, F-51687 Reims cedex 2, France (M.M.-R., S.D., C.C., F.B., S.D.-C.); andCenter for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 (D.L.B., J.M.)
| | - Doriane Le Bourse
- Unité de Recherche Vigne et Vin de Champagne Equipe d'Accueil 4707, Laboratoire Stress Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet Fédération de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, F-51687 Reims cedex 2, France (M.M.-R., S.D., C.C., F.B., S.D.-C.); andCenter for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 (D.L.B., J.M.)
| | - Jonathan Markham
- Unité de Recherche Vigne et Vin de Champagne Equipe d'Accueil 4707, Laboratoire Stress Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet Fédération de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, F-51687 Reims cedex 2, France (M.M.-R., S.D., C.C., F.B., S.D.-C.); andCenter for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 (D.L.B., J.M.)
| | - Stéphan Dorey
- Unité de Recherche Vigne et Vin de Champagne Equipe d'Accueil 4707, Laboratoire Stress Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet Fédération de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, F-51687 Reims cedex 2, France (M.M.-R., S.D., C.C., F.B., S.D.-C.); andCenter for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 (D.L.B., J.M.)
| | - Christophe Clément
- Unité de Recherche Vigne et Vin de Champagne Equipe d'Accueil 4707, Laboratoire Stress Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet Fédération de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, F-51687 Reims cedex 2, France (M.M.-R., S.D., C.C., F.B., S.D.-C.); andCenter for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 (D.L.B., J.M.)
| | - Fabienne Baillieul
- Unité de Recherche Vigne et Vin de Champagne Equipe d'Accueil 4707, Laboratoire Stress Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet Fédération de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, F-51687 Reims cedex 2, France (M.M.-R., S.D., C.C., F.B., S.D.-C.); andCenter for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 (D.L.B., J.M.)
| | - Sandrine Dhondt-Cordelier
- Unité de Recherche Vigne et Vin de Champagne Equipe d'Accueil 4707, Laboratoire Stress Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet Fédération de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, F-51687 Reims cedex 2, France (M.M.-R., S.D., C.C., F.B., S.D.-C.); andCenter for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 (D.L.B., J.M.)
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Sekhwal MK, Li P, Lam I, Wang X, Cloutier S, You FM. Disease Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs) in Plants. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:19248-90. [PMID: 26287177 PMCID: PMC4581296 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160819248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Revised: 08/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants have developed effective mechanisms to recognize and respond to infections caused by pathogens. Plant resistance gene analogs (RGAs), as resistance (R) gene candidates, have conserved domains and motifs that play specific roles in pathogens' resistance. Well-known RGAs are nucleotide binding site leucine rich repeats, receptor like kinases, and receptor like proteins. Others include pentatricopeptide repeats and apoplastic peroxidases. RGAs can be detected using bioinformatics tools based on their conserved structural features. Thousands of RGAs have been identified from sequenced plant genomes. High-density genome-wide RGA genetic maps are useful for designing diagnostic markers and identifying quantitative trait loci (QTL) or markers associated with plant disease resistance. This review focuses on recent advances in structures and mechanisms of RGAs, and their identification from sequenced genomes using bioinformatics tools. Applications in enhancing fine mapping and cloning of plant disease resistance genes are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar Sekhwal
- Cereal Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Morden, MB R6M 1Y5, Canada.
| | - Pingchuan Li
- Cereal Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Morden, MB R6M 1Y5, Canada.
| | - Irene Lam
- Cereal Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Morden, MB R6M 1Y5, Canada.
| | - Xiue Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cytogenetics Institute, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Sylvie Cloutier
- Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada.
| | - Frank M You
- Cereal Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Morden, MB R6M 1Y5, Canada.
- Plant Science Department, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada.
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A Pectate Lyase-Coding Gene Abundantly Expressed during Early Stages of Infection Is Required for Full Virulence in Alternaria brassicicola. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127140. [PMID: 25996954 PMCID: PMC4440746 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria brassicicola causes black spot disease of Brassica species. The functional importance of pectin digestion enzymes and unidentified phytotoxins in fungal pathogenesis has been suspected but not verified in A. brassicicola. The fungal transcription factor AbPf2 is essential for pathogenicity and induces 106 genes during early pathogenesis, including the pectate lyase-coding gene, PL1332. The aim of this study was to test the importance and roles of PL1332 in pathogenesis. We generated deletion strains of the PL1332 gene, produced heterologous PL1332 proteins, and evaluated their association with virulence. Deletion strains of the PL1332 gene were approximately 30% less virulent than wild-type A. brassicicola, without showing differences in colony expansion on solid media and mycelial growth in nutrient-rich liquid media or minimal media with pectins as a major carbon source. Heterologous PL1332 expressed as fusion proteins digested polygalacturons in vitro. When the fusion proteins were injected into the apoplast between leaf veins of host plants the tissues turned dark brown and soft, resembling necrotic leaf tissue. The PL1332 gene was the first example identified as a general toxin-coding gene and virulence factor among the 106 genes regulated by the transcription factor, AbPf2. It was also the first gene to have its functions investigated among the 19 pectate lyase genes and several hundred putative cell-wall degrading enzymes in A. brassicicola. These results further support the importance of the AbPf2 gene as a key pathogenesis regulator and possible target for agrochemical development.
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How the necrotrophic fungus Alternaria brassicicola kills plant cells remains an enigma. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2015; 14:335-44. [PMID: 25681268 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00226-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Alternaria species are mainly saprophytic fungi, but some are plant pathogens. Seven pathotypes of Alternaria alternata use secondary metabolites of host-specific toxins as pathogenicity factors. These toxins kill host cells prior to colonization. Genes associated with toxin synthesis reside on conditionally dispensable chromosomes, supporting the notion that pathogenicity might have been acquired several times by A. alternata. Alternaria brassicicola, however, seems to employ a different mechanism. Evidence on the use of host-specific toxins as pathogenicity factors remains tenuous, even after a diligent search aided by full-genome sequencing and efficient reverse-genetics approaches. Similarly, no individual genes encoding lipases or cell wall-degrading enzymes have been identified as strong virulence factors, although these enzymes have been considered important for fungal pathogenesis. This review describes our current understanding of toxins, lipases, and cell wall-degrading enzymes and their roles in the pathogenesis of A. brassicicola compared to those of other pathogenic fungi. It also describes a set of genes that affect pathogenesis in A. brassicicola. They are involved in various cellular functions that are likely important in most organisms and probably indirectly associated with pathogenesis. Deletion or disruption of these genes results in weakly virulent strains that appear to be sensitive to the defense mechanisms of host plants. Finally, this review discusses the implications of a recent discovery of three important transcription factors associated with pathogenesis and the putative downstream genes that they regulate.
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Hatsugai N, Yamada K, Goto-Yamada S, Hara-Nishimura I. Vacuolar processing enzyme in plant programmed cell death. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:234. [PMID: 25914711 PMCID: PMC4390986 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Vacuolar processing enzyme (VPE) is a cysteine proteinase originally identified as the proteinase responsible for the maturation and activation of vacuolar proteins in plants, and it is known to be an ortholog of animal asparaginyl endopeptidase (AEP/VPE/legumain). VPE has been shown to exhibit enzymatic properties similar to that of caspase 1, which is a cysteine protease that mediates the programmed cell death (PCD) pathway in animals. Although there is limited sequence identity between VPE and caspase 1, their predicted three-dimensional structures revealed that the essential amino-acid residues for these enzymes form similar pockets for the substrate peptide YVAD. In contrast to the cytosolic localization of caspases, VPE is localized in vacuoles. VPE provokes vacuolar rupture, initiating the proteolytic cascade leading to PCD in the plant immune response. It has become apparent that the VPE-dependent PCD pathway is involved not only in the immune response, but also in the responses to a variety of stress inducers and in the development of various tissues. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the contribution of VPE to plant PCD and its role in vacuole-mediated cell death, and it also compares VPE with the animal cell death executor caspase 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Hatsugai
- Department of Plant Biology, Microbial and Plant Genomics Institute, University of MinnesotaSt. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Kenji Yamada
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto UniversityKyoto, Japan
| | - Shino Goto-Yamada
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto UniversityKyoto, Japan
| | - Ikuko Hara-Nishimura
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto UniversityKyoto, Japan
- *Correspondence: Ikuko Hara-Nishimura, Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kita-Shirakawa, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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Shi C, Yin J, Liu Z, Wu JX, Zhao Q, Ren J, Yao N. A systematic simulation of the effect of salicylic acid on sphingolipid metabolism. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:186. [PMID: 25859253 PMCID: PMC4373270 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) affects plant development and defense responses. Recent studies revealed that SA also participates in the regulation of sphingolipid metabolism, but the details of this regulation remain to beexplored. Here, we use in silico Flux Balance Analysis (FBA) with published microarray data to construct a whole-cell simulation model, including 23 pathways, 259 reactions, and 172 metabolites, to predict the alterations in flux of major sphingolipid species after treatment with exogenous SA. This model predicts significant changes in fluxes of certain sphingolipid species after SA treatment, changes that likely trigger downstream physiological and phenotypic effects. To validate the simulation, we used (15)N-labeled metabolic turnover analysis to measure sphingolipid contents and turnover rate in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings treated with SA or the SA analog benzothiadiazole (BTH). The results show that both SA and BTH affect sphingolipid metabolism, altering the concentrations of certain species and also changing the optimal flux distribution and turnover rate of sphingolipids. Our strategy allows us to estimate sphingolipid fluxes on a short time scale and gives us a systemic view of the effect of SA on sphingolipid homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Nan Yao
- *Correspondence: Nan Yao, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
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Siamer S, Guillas I, Shimobayashi M, Kunz C, Hall MN, Barny MA. Expression of the bacterial type III effector DspA/E in Saccharomyces cerevisiae down-regulates the sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway leading to growth arrest. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:18466-77. [PMID: 24828506 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.562769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Erwinia amylovora, the bacterium responsible for fire blight, relies on a type III secretion system and a single injected effector, DspA/E, to induce disease in host plants. DspA/E belongs to the widespread AvrE family of type III effectors that suppress plant defense responses and promote bacterial growth following infection. Ectopic expression of DspA/E in plant or in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is toxic, indicating that DspA/E likely targets a cellular process conserved between yeast and plant. To unravel the mode of action of DspA/E, we screened the Euroscarf S. cerevisiae library for mutants resistant to DspA/E-induced growth arrest. The most resistant mutants (Δsur4, Δfen1, Δipt1, Δskn1, Δcsg1, Δcsg2, Δorm1, and Δorm2) were impaired in the sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway. Exogenously supplied sphingolipid precursors such as the long chain bases (LCBs) phytosphingosine and dihydrosphingosine also suppressed the DspA/E-induced yeast growth defect. Expression of DspA/E in yeast down-regulated LCB biosynthesis and induced a rapid decrease in LCB levels, indicating that serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT), the first and rate-limiting enzyme of the sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway, was repressed. SPT down-regulation was mediated by dephosphorylation and activation of Orm proteins that negatively regulate SPT. A Δcdc55 mutation affecting Cdc55-PP2A protein phosphatase activity prevented Orm dephosphorylation and suppressed DspA/E-induced growth arrest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Siamer
- From the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique UMR1392, Institut d'Ecologie et des Sciences de l'Environnement, Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC), Bât A 7ème Etage Case 237, 7 Quai St.-Bernard, 75252 Paris, France, Biozentrum, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Isabelle Guillas
- Sorbonne Universités, UMR1166, Institut National de la Santé et de la recherche médicale-UPMC, Pitié-Salpétrière University Hospital, F75013, Paris, France
| | | | - Caroline Kunz
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, UFR 927, F-75005 Paris, France, and Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR7245, Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Michael N Hall
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marie-Anne Barny
- From the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique UMR1392, Institut d'Ecologie et des Sciences de l'Environnement, Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC), Bât A 7ème Etage Case 237, 7 Quai St.-Bernard, 75252 Paris, France,
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Radeva V, Petrov V, Minkov I, Toneva V, Gechev T. Effect of Cadmium onArabidopsis ThalianaMutants Tolerant to Oxidative Stress. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2010.10817823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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Baldwin TT, Zitomer NC, Mitchell TR, Zimeri AM, Bacon CW, Riley RT, Glenn AE. Maize seedling blight induced by Fusarium verticillioides: accumulation of fumonisin B₁ in leaves without colonization of the leaves. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:2118-2125. [PMID: 24524621 DOI: 10.1021/jf5001106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Fusarium verticillioides produces fumonisin mycotoxins during the colonization of maize, and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) production is necessary for manifestation of maize seedling blight disease. The objective of this study was to address FB₁ mobility and accumulation in seedlings to determine if proximal infection by F. verticillioides is necessary for FB₁ accumulation. Taking advantage of an aconidial mutant known to have limited capability for seedling infection, tissue and soil samples were analyzed to compare wild-type F. verticillioides against the mutant. Inoculation with either strain caused accumulation of FB₁ in the first and second leaves, but the mutants were unable to colonize aerial tissues. FB₁, FB₂, and FB₃ were detected in the soil and seedling roots, but only FB₁ was detected in the leaves of any treatment. These data suggest root infection by F. verticillioides is necessary for accumulation of FB₁ in leaves, but the mechanism for accumulation does not require colonization of the leaf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas T Baldwin
- Toxicology and Mycotoxin Research Unit, R. B. Russell Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 950 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
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Wang X, Jiang N, Liu J, Liu W, Wang GL. The role of effectors and host immunity in plant-necrotrophic fungal interactions. Virulence 2014; 5:722-32. [PMID: 25513773 PMCID: PMC4189878 DOI: 10.4161/viru.29798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal diseases pose constant threats to the global economy and food safety. As the largest group of plant fungal pathogens, necrotrophic fungi cause heavy crop losses worldwide. The molecular mechanisms of the interaction between necrotrophic fungi and plants are complex and involve sophisticated recognition and signaling networks. Here, we review recent findings on the roles of phytotoxin and proteinaceous effectors, pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and small RNAs from necrotrophic fungi. We also consider the functions of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), the receptor-like protein kinase BIK1, and epigenetic regulation in plant immunity to necrotrophic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuli Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests; Institute of Plant Protection; Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Beijing, PR China
| | - Nan Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests; Institute of Plant Protection; Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Beijing, PR China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm Innovation and Utilization and College of Agronomy; Hunan Agricultural University; Changsha, Hunan, PR China
| | - Jinling Liu
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm Innovation and Utilization and College of Agronomy; Hunan Agricultural University; Changsha, Hunan, PR China
| | - Wende Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests; Institute of Plant Protection; Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Beijing, PR China
| | - Guo-Liang Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests; Institute of Plant Protection; Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Beijing, PR China
- Department of Plant Pathology; Ohio State University; Columbus, OH USA
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Marrouchi R, Benoit E, Le Caer JP, Belayouni N, Belghith H, Molgó J, Kharrat R. Toxic c17-sphinganine analogue mycotoxin, contaminating tunisian mussels, causes flaccid paralysis in rodents. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:4724-40. [PMID: 24287956 PMCID: PMC3877882 DOI: 10.3390/md11124724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Revised: 10/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe toxicity was detected in mussels from Bizerte Lagoon (Northern Tunisia) using routine mouse bioassays for detecting diarrheic and paralytic toxins not associated to classical phytoplankton blooming. The atypical toxicity was characterized by rapid mouse death. The aim of the present work was to understand the basis of such toxicity. Bioassay-guided chromatographic separation and mass spectrometry were used to detect and characterize the fraction responsible for mussels’ toxicity. Only a C17-sphinganine analog mycotoxin (C17-SAMT), with a molecular mass of 287.289 Da, was found in contaminated shellfish. The doses of C17-SAMT that were lethal to 50% of mice were 750 and 150 μg/kg following intraperitoneal and intracerebroventricular injections, respectively, and 900 μg/kg following oral administration. The macroscopic general aspect of cultures and the morphological characteristics of the strains isolated from mussels revealed that the toxicity episodes were associated to the presence of marine microfungi (Fusarium sp., Aspergillus sp. and Trichoderma sp.) in contaminated samples. The major in vivo effect of C17-SAMT on the mouse neuromuscular system was a dose- and time-dependent decrease of compound muscle action potential amplitude and an increased excitability threshold. In vitro, C17-SAMT caused a dose- and time-dependent block of directly- and indirectly-elicited isometric contraction of isolated mouse hemidiaphragms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riadh Marrouchi
- Laboratory of Food Toxins, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis Manar, 13 Place Pasteur, Post-Office Box 74, Tunis-Belvédère 1002, Tunisia; E-Mails: (R.M.); (N.B.)
- Neurobiology and Development Laboratory, Research Unit 3294, National Center for Scientific Research, Research Center of Gif-sur-Yvette 3115, Institute of Neurobiology Alfred Fessard 2118, Gif sur Yvette Cedex 91198, France; E-Mails: (E.B.); (J.M.)
| | - Evelyne Benoit
- Neurobiology and Development Laboratory, Research Unit 3294, National Center for Scientific Research, Research Center of Gif-sur-Yvette 3115, Institute of Neurobiology Alfred Fessard 2118, Gif sur Yvette Cedex 91198, France; E-Mails: (E.B.); (J.M.)
| | - Jean-Pierre Le Caer
- Natural Product Chemistry Institute, National Center for Scientific Research, Research Center of Gif-sur-Yvette 3115, Gif sur Yvette Cedex 91198, France; E-Mail:
| | - Nawel Belayouni
- Laboratory of Food Toxins, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis Manar, 13 Place Pasteur, Post-Office Box 74, Tunis-Belvédère 1002, Tunisia; E-Mails: (R.M.); (N.B.)
| | - Hafedh Belghith
- Analysis Service, Biotechnology Center of Sfax, Post-Office Box K, Sfax 3038, Tunisia; E-Mail:
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Neurobiology and Development Laboratory, Research Unit 3294, National Center for Scientific Research, Research Center of Gif-sur-Yvette 3115, Institute of Neurobiology Alfred Fessard 2118, Gif sur Yvette Cedex 91198, France; E-Mails: (E.B.); (J.M.)
| | - Riadh Kharrat
- Laboratory of Food Toxins, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis Manar, 13 Place Pasteur, Post-Office Box 74, Tunis-Belvédère 1002, Tunisia; E-Mails: (R.M.); (N.B.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +216-7184-3755; Fax: +216-7179-1833
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Mase K, Ishihama N, Mori H, Takahashi H, Kaminaka H, Kodama M, Yoshioka H. Ethylene-responsive AP2/ERF transcription factor MACD1 participates in phytotoxin-triggered programmed cell death. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2013; 26:868-79. [PMID: 23617414 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-10-12-0253-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
To investigate plant programmed cell death (PCD), we developed the model system using phytotoxin AAL, which is produced by necrotrophic pathogen Alternaria alternata f. sp. lycopersici, and AAL-sensitive Nicotiana umbratica. We previously reported that ethylene (ET) signaling plays a pivotal role in AAL-triggered cell death (ACD). However, downstream signaling of ET to ACD remains unclear. Here, we show that the modulator of AAL cell death 1 (MACD1), which is an APETALA2/ET response factor (ERF) transcription factor, participates in ACD and acts downstream of ET signaling during ACD. MACD1 is a transcriptional activator and MACD1 overexpression plants showed earlier ACD induction than control plants, suggesting that MACD1 positively regulates factors affecting cell death. To investigate the role of MACD1 in PCD, we used Arabidopsis thaliana and a structural analog of AAL, fumonisin B1 (FB1). FB1-triggered cell death was compromised in ET signaling and erf102 mutants. The loh2 mutants showed sensitivity to AAL, and the loh2-1/erf102 double mutant compromised ACD, indicating that ERF102 also participates in ACD. To investigate the PCD-associated genes regulated by ERF102, we compared our microarray data using ERF102 overexpression plants with the database of upregulated genes by AAL treatment in loh2 mutants, and found genes under the control of ERF102 in ACD.
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Egusa M, Miwa T, Kaminaka H, Takano Y, Kodama M. Nonhost resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana against Alternaria alternata involves both pre- and postinvasive defenses but is collapsed by AAL-toxin in the absence of LOH2. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2013; 103:733-740. [PMID: 23360532 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-08-12-0201-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The tomato pathotype of Alternaria alternata causes Alternaria stem canker on tomato depending upon the production of the host-specific AAL-toxin. Host defense mechanisms to A. alternata, however, are largely unknown. Here, we elucidate some of the mechanisms of nonhost resistance to A. alternata using Arabidopsis mutants. Wild-type Arabidopsis showed either no symptoms or a hypersensitive reaction (HR) when inoculated with both strains of AAL-toxin-producing and non-producing A. alternata. Yet, when these Arabidopsis penetration (pen) mutants, pen2 and pen3, were challenged with both strains of A. alternata, fungal penetration was possible. However, further fungal development and conidiation were limited on these pen mutants by postinvasion defense with HR-like cell death. Meanwhile, only AAL-toxin-producing A. alternata could invade lag one homologue (loh)2 mutants, which have a defect in the AAL-toxin resistance gene, subsequently allowing the fungus to complete its life cycle. Thus, the nonhost resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana to A. alternata consists of multilayered defense systems that include pre-invasion resistance via PEN2 and PEN3 and postinvasion resistance. However, our study also indicates that the pathogen is able to completely overcome the multilayered nonhost resistance if the plant is sensitive to the AAL-toxin, which is an effector of the toxin-dependent necrotrophic pathogen A. alternata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayumi Egusa
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Japan
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Lou J, Fu L, Peng Y, Zhou L. Metabolites from Alternaria fungi and their bioactivities. Molecules 2013; 18:5891-935. [PMID: 23698046 PMCID: PMC6270608 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18055891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria is a cosmopolitan fungal genus widely distributing in soil and organic matter. It includes saprophytic, endophytic and pathogenic species. At least 268 metabolites from Alternaria fungi have been reported in the past few decades. They mainly include nitrogen-containing metabolites, steroids, terpenoids, pyranones, quinones, and phenolics. This review aims to briefly summarize the structurally different metabolites produced by Alternaria fungi, as well as their occurrences, biological activities and functions. Some considerations related to synthesis, biosynthesis, production and applications of the metabolites from Alternaria fungi are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ligang Zhou
- MOA Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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Tsuge T, Harimoto Y, Akimitsu K, Ohtani K, Kodama M, Akagi Y, Egusa M, Yamamoto M, Otani H. Host-selective toxins produced by the plant pathogenic fungusAlternaria alternata. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2013; 37:44-66. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00350.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Sanseverino W, Ercolano MR. In silico approach to predict candidate R proteins and to define their domain architecture. BMC Res Notes 2012; 5:678. [PMID: 23216678 PMCID: PMC3532234 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-5-678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plant resistance genes, which encode R-proteins, constitute one of the most important and widely investigated gene families. Thanks to the use of both genetic and molecular approaches, more than 100 R genes have been cloned so far. Analysis of resistance proteins and investigation of domain properties may afford insights into their role and function. Moreover, genomic experiments and availability of high-throughput sequence data are very useful for discovering new R genes and establish hypotheses about R-genes architecture. Result We surveyed the PRGdb dataset to provide valuable information about hidden R-protein features. Through an in silico approach 4409 putative R-proteins belonging to 33 plant organisms were analysed for domain associations frequency. The proteins showed common domain associations as well as previously unknown classes. Interestingly, the number of proteins falling into each class was found inversely related to domain arrangement complexity. Out of 31 possible theoretical domain combinations, only 22 were found. Proteins retrieved were filtered to highlight, through the visualization of a Venn diagram, candidate classes able to exert resistance function. Detailed analyses performed on conserved profiles of those strong putative R proteins revealed interesting domain features. Finally, several atypical domain associations were identified. Conclusion The effort made in this study allowed us to approach the R-domains arrangement issue from a different point of view, sorting through the vast diversity of R proteins. Overall, many protein features were revealed and interesting new domain associations were found. In addition, insights on domain associations meaning and R domains modelling were provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Sanseverino
- Department of Soil, Plant, Environmental and Animal Production Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Università 100, Portici, 80055, Italy
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