Improvements in fundamental movement skill competency mediate the effect of the SCORES intervention on physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness in children

"Track style" children's fundamental movement skills test: construction and verification of an efficient evaluation system

Objectives

This study aimed to develop an efficient tool for assessing children's fundamental motor skills, the "Track style" Children's Fundamental Movement Skills Test (TCFMST), based on theories of motor development integrated with Chinese cultural context and physical education teaching situations.

Methods

Starting from a literature analysis, the study selected items from existing fundamental movement skill (FMS) assessments, textbooks, physical education and health standards, and children's movement guidelines to construct a pool of test items. Subsequently, the items were screened and optimized using the Delphi method. Finally, the feasibility, discrimination, difficulty, reliability, and validity of the constructed test were examined using testing methods.

Results

The TCFMST includes three dimensions: locomotive skills, body control skills, and manipulative skills, with a total of 10 items. The difficulty and discrimination of each item are appropriate; the correlation coefficients for retest reliability range from 0.789 to 0.943 (p < 0.01). The results of exploratory factor analysis indicate that the common factors align with the hypothesized three dimensions, indicating good structural validity of the test. The concurrent validity results show a correlation coefficient of -0.510 (p < 0.01) between the TCFMST and the total score of TGMD-3, indicating a moderate correlation between the two tests.

Conclusion

The TCFMST developed in this study has good difficulty, discrimination, reliability, and validity. It also features strong operability, a short duration, and high interest. It can serve as an important tool for monitoring children's fundamental motor skill levels.

Exploring the Relationship between Fundamental Movement Skills and Health-Related Fitness among First and Second Graders in Korea: Implications for Healthy Childhood Development

This study investigated the relationship between fundamental movement skills (FMSs) and health-related fitness (HRF) among first and second graders in South Korean elementary schools. It aimed to provide foundational data for developing physical education programs tailored to the motor development stages and fitness levels of younger elementary school students. This study utilized secondary data from the physical activity competence evaluation conducted by the Health Physical Activity Institute (HPAI). In October 2023, the HPAI evaluated the fundamental movement skills (jumping, running, hopping, static balance, dynamic balance, overhand throwing, and kicking) and health-related fitness (muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, and flexibility) of 291 first and second-grade students. The collected data were analyzed through frequency and multiple regression analyses performed using SPSS software. The results revealed that higher scores in jumping and hopping are associated with greater muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, and flexibility. Running had no significant effect on HRF elements. Higher scores in static balance (i.e., that used in single-leg stance) were associated with increased muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, and flexibility, but dynamic balance (balance beam walking) did not have a significant effect. Higher scores in overhand throwing were associated with greater muscular strength and cardiorespiratory endurance, but kicking did not show a significant association. Overall, these findings emphasize the importance of prioritizing jumping and static balance in physical education for the well-rounded health development of first and second graders. Based on the results derived from this study, it is expected to serve as a theoretical basis for including "jumping" and "static balance" in the first and second grade curriculum of elementary schools, thereby providing essential guidance.

Is there an association between proficiency in fundamental movement skills and mderate-to-vigorous physical activity in childhood on weekdays and weekends? The REACT project

OBJECTIVE

The present study probes into the association between children's fundamental movement skills (FMS) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during weekdays and weekends.

METHODS

This cross-sectional sample included 1014 children aged 6-10 years from the REACT project. Physical activity was assessed with accelerometry, and five FMS (stationary dribble, kick, catch, overhand throw, and underhand roll) were assessed with the digital platform Meu Educativo®. Three groups were formed based on the frequency of FMS that each child mastered: group 1 (wizard level in four or five FMS); group 2 (wizard level in two or three FMS); and group 3 (wizard level in at most one skill). Multilevel models were used to analyze the data treating children (level-1) nested within schools (level-2).

RESULTS

Compared to group 1, groups 2 (-12.9 ± 2.3 min day-1) and 3 (-23.9 ± 2.4 min day-1) were less physically active during weekdays and weekends (group 2: -14.7 ± 2.7 min day-1 and group 3: -22.4 ± 2.9 min day-1), independent of age and sex. There was a decline in MVPA during the weekend. Further, on average, boys were more active than girls, and with increasing age, children were less active.

CONCLUSION

On average, children with higher FMS levels are generally more physically active than their peers with lower FMS levels. Even though MVPA tends to decline on weekends, FMS proficiency is a significant factor in maintaining 60 min of MVPA on weekends.

Motor skill competence and moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity: a linear and non-linear cross-sectional analysis of eight pooled trials

BACKGROUND

Few studies have examined the relationship between motor skill competence and device-measured physical activity in large samples and none have used non-linear modelling. This study assessed the linear and non-linear associations between motor skill competence and physical activity in children using pooled data from eight studies.

METHODS

Cross-sectional ActiGraph accelerometer and motor skills competence data from 988 children (50.8% boys) aged 3-11 years were included. Total, object control and locomotor skill competence were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Skill Development. Linear mixed models were fitted to examine linear associations between motor skill competence and physical activity. Then, restricted cubic splines models were used to assess potential non-linear relationships. Interactions by sex and age were assessed.

RESULTS

There was evidence of positive linear associations between total skill, and object control and locomotor skills, with moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity; however, the associations with total skill competence and object control better fitted a non-linear model. Non-linear models indicated associations were positive but relatively weak in the low to mid ranges of TGMD/object control scores but at high ranges (~ > 70 out of 100/ and ~ 35 out of 50) the association strength increased for both moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity. There were sex interactions for locomotor skills only, specifically for vigorous activity with boys having a stronger positive association than girls.

CONCLUSIONS

There appears to be a threshold for object control skill proficiency that children need to reach to enhance their physical activity levels which provides support for a motor skill "proficiency barrier". This provides a tangible benchmark for children to achieve in motor competence programs.

Direct Parent Engagement to Improve Fundamental Movement Skills in Children: A Systematic Review

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are basic movements in children that represent the building blocks for more complex motor skill development and act as a prerequisite for enduring sport and physical activity (PA) engagement and positive health-related behaviours. The FMS proficiency is currently inadequate worldwide, and consequently there are alarming levels of inactivity and childhood obesity. However, parents are role models to their children and possess the power to influence their PA behaviour. This review investigated if parent-focused interventions could improve FMS in 2-7-year-old children and evaluated which setting and method of parent engagement was most impactful. Keyword searches were conducted via Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Only nine articles met the inclusion criteria. No research originated from the United Kingdom, highlighting the urgent need for further FMS interventions involving parents. The FMS improved in all nine studies, with significant changes in seven of the articles (p < 0.05). Parent-child co-activity, the education and empowerment of parents, and the provision of clear FMS guidance, messaging, and structure can positively influence children's FMS. Recently, smartphone apps have increased the feasibility and accessibility of FMS practice at home and may be integral to future interventions. Further research with direct parental involvement is clearly warranted.

Evaluation of Social Impact Within Primary School Health Promotion: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Health promotion programs and interventions are designed to encourage behavioral changes in children, encouraging them to make safe and healthy life choices. This systematic review seeks to examine how social impact is measured in primary school health promotion interventions.

METHOD

A systematic search and review process was used to identify and examine primary school health promotion interventions. The PRISMA guidelines were followed to source articles from 6 electronic databases reporting school health promotion programs or interventions in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, or the United Kingdom.

RESULTS

A total of 77 studies were located, representing 55 health promotion interventions delivered in primary school settings. Of these interventions, only 8 (15%) measured or attempted to measure social impact, whereas another 8 (15%) alluded to social impact. The predominant theories reported were social based theories (theories which examine the social influences on people, environments, and behaviors) (n = 17, 59%), with almost a third not informed by an overt health promotion framework or model (n = 34, 59%). A systematic rating system identified some level of stakeholder engagement (n = 30, 53%).

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review highlights the need for social impact measurement within health promotion to illuminate the role of school programs in delivering lasting change.

Bi-Directionality between Physical Activity within School and Fundamental Movement Skills in School-Aged Students: A Cross-Lagged Study

Background: Evidence has indicated the health importance of fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical activity (PA) in children and their relationships seems bidirectional. However, their bidirectional relationship has not yet been fully answered in the literature. Aim: This study sought to determine bidirectional relationship between FMS and PA in children using cross-lagged study design. Methods: A total of 183 second-level students (8.8 ± 1.1 years old) from three primary schools in Henan Province, China were selected as subjects. The average number of steps per school day was used as the amount of PA in the school environment; the third edition of the test of gross motor development was used for FMS testing. The baseline data (T1) and tracking data (T2) were collected at the beginning and end of the fall semester, respectively. The two tests were separated by 3 months (11 weeks), and a cross-lag model analysis was performed. Based on the hypothetical model, we tested the cross-lag effect of children’s PA and FMS. Results: The model fit index was χ2/df = 2.861 (p < 0.001, n = 183); goodness of fit index GFI = 0.900; NFI = 0.909; CFI = 0.931 and the 95%CI was between 0.071−0.192. The RMSEA = 0.063, and the standardized residual root mean square SRMR = 0.029. The T1 FMS can be used to predict the number of steps in the T2 teaching days with statistical significance (β = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.07−0.38, p = 0.003). However, the T1 steps cannot be used to predict the T2 FMS (β = 0.05, 95% CI: 0.07−0.13, p = 0.475). Further analysis shows that the main contributor to these relationships are ball skills in the FMS. Conclusions: The relationship between children’s fundamental movement skills and PA is not two-way. Students with higher FMS are expected to reach higher levels of PA after undergoing school PA in a teaching cycle. The PA of the students can be improved by improving their motor skills, which further improves their physical and mental health.

The Effect of Physical Exercise on Fundamental Movement Skills and Physical Fitness among Preschool Children: Study Protocol for a Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: Evidence shows that physical exercise promotes preschoolers’ fundamental movement skills (FMSs) and physical fitness (PF). However, studies that assess the effectiveness of different types of physical exercise interventions to improve FMSs and PF in preschool children remain scarce. To explore and compare the effectiveness of different physical exercise on FMSs and PF, interventions comprising ball games (BGs), rhythm activities (RAs), basic movements (BMs), and a combination of all related activities (multiple activities, MAs) will be conducted among preschoolers. Methods: A single-blind, five-arm, cluster-randomized trial will be conducted in kindergarten in Shanghai, China. In total, 300 healthy preschoolers, aged 4 to 5 years, will be randomized to four intervention groups (BG, RA, BM, or MA) and one control group (unorganized physical activities). Four intervention groups will receive three 30-min lessons weekly for 16 weeks. At the baseline, the end of the 16-week intervention, and the 6-month follow-up after the end of the intervention, the primary outcomes (FMSs and PF) and physical activity (PA), and sociodemographic and anthropometric data will be assessed. Discussion: This study will provide vital information regarding the effect of different physical exercise interventions on preschool children’s FMSs and PF, PA, and the potential interactions between these domains. The most effective intervention strategy can be generalized to kindergarten and other preschool educational institutions in practice to promote preschoolers’ development of FMSs and PF. Conclusions: This study protocol aims to provide a method to solve the problem of “how to arrange physical exercise and which kind of physical exercise program can promote FMS and PF better in preschool children”.

A collaborative approach to adopting/adapting guidelines. The Australian 24-hour movement guidelines for children (5-12 years) and young people (13-17 years): An integration of physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep

Abstract

Background

In 2018, the Australian Government updated the Australian Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines for Children and Young People. A requirement of this update was the incorporation of a 24-hour approach to movement, recognising the importance of adequate sleep. The purpose of this paper was to describe how the updated Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Children and Young People (5 to 17 years): an integration of physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep were developed and the outcomes from this process.

Methods

The GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach was used to develop the guidelines. A Leadership Group was formed, who identified existing credible guidelines. The Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Children and Youth best met the criteria established by the Leadership Group. These guidelines were evaluated based on the evidence in the GRADE tables, summaries of findings tables and recommendations from the Canadian Guidelines. We conducted updates to each of the Canadian systematic reviews. A Guideline Development Group reviewed, separately and in combination, the evidence for each behaviour. A choice was then made to adopt or adapt the Canadian recommendations for each behaviour or create de novo recommendations. We then conducted an online survey (n=237) along with three focus groups (n=11 in total) and 13 key informant interviews. Stakeholders used these to provide feedback on the draft guidelines.

Results

Based on the evidence from the Canadian systematic reviews and the updated systematic reviews in Australia, the Guideline Development Group agreed to adopt the Canadian recommendations and, apart from some minor changes to the wording of good practice statements, maintain the wording of the guidelines, preamble, and title of the Canadian Guidelines. The Australian Guidelines provide evidence-informed recommendations for a healthy day (24-hours), integrating physical activity, sedentary behaviour (including limits to screen time), and sleep for children (5-12 years) and young people (13-17 years).

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is only the second time the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach has been used to develop movement behaviour guidelines. The judgments of the Australian Guideline Development Group did not differ sufficiently to change the directions and strength of the recommendations and as such, the Canadian Guidelines were adopted with only very minor alterations. This allowed the Australian Guidelines to be developed in a shorter time frame and at a lower cost. We recommend the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach, especially if a credible set of guidelines that was developed using the GRADE approach is available with all supporting materials. Other countries may consider this approach when developing and/or revising national movement guidelines.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12966-021-01236-2.

Through the Looking Glass: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Evidence, Providing New Insight for Motor Competence and Health

Introduction

In 2008, a conceptual model explaining the role of motor competence (MC) in children’s physical activity (PA), weight status, perceived MC and health-related fitness was published.

Objective

The purpose of the current review was to systematically compile mediation, longitudinal and experimental evidence in support of this conceptual model.

Methods

This systematic review (registered with PROSPERO on 28 April 2020) was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. Separate searches were undertaken for each pathway of interest (final search 8 November 2019) using CINAHL Complete, ERIC, Medline (OVID), PsycINFO, Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus and SportDiscus. Potential articles were initially identified through abstract and title checking (N = 585) then screened further and combined into one review (n = 152), with 43 articles identified for extraction. Studies needed to be original and peer reviewed, include typically developing children and adolescents first assessed between 2 and 18 years and objective assessment of gross MC and at least one other variable (i.e., PA, weight status, perceived MC, health-related fitness). PA included sport participation, but sport-specific samples were excluded. Longitudinal or experimental designs and cross-sectional mediated models were sought. Strength of evidence was calculated for each pathway in both directions for each domain (i.e., skill composite, object control and locomotor/coordination/stability) by dividing the proportion of studies indicating a significantly positive pathway in the hypothesised direction by the total associations examined for that pathway. Classifications were no association (0–33%), indeterminate/inconsistent (34–59%), or a positive ‘+’ or negative ‘ − ’ association (≥ 60%). The latter category was classified as strong evidence (i.e., ++or −−) when four or more studies found an association. If the total number of studies in a domain of interest was three or fewer, this was considered insufficient evidence to make a determination.

Results

There was strong evidence in both directions for a negative association between MC and weight status. There was strong positive evidence for a pathway from MC to fitness and indeterminate evidence for the reverse. There was indeterminate evidence for a pathway from MC to PA and no evidence for the reverse pathway. There was insufficient evidence for the MC to perceived MC pathway. There was strong positive evidence for the fitness-mediated MC/PA pathway in both directions. There was indeterminate evidence for the perceived MC-mediated pathway from PA to MC and no evidence for the reverse.

Conclusion

Bidirectional longitudinal associations of MC with weight status are consistent with the model authored by Stodden et al. (Quest 2008;60(2):290–306, 2008). However, to test the whole model, the field needs robust longitudinal studies across childhood and adolescence that include all variables in the model, have multiple time points and account for potential confounding factors. Furthermore, experimental studies that examine change in MC relative to change in the other constructs are needed.

Trial Registrations

PROSPERO ID# CRD42020155799.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01516-8.

Effect of a Scalable School-Based Intervention on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Children: A Cluster Randomized Clinical Trial

IMPORTANCE

Cardiorespiratory fitness is an important marker of childhood health and low fitness levels are a risk factor for disease later in life. Levels of children's fitness have declined in recent decades. Whether school-based physical activity interventions can increase fitness at the population level remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of an internet-based intervention on children's cardiorespiratory fitness across a large number of schools.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this cluster randomized clinical trial, 22 government-funded elementary schools (from 137 providing consent) including 1188 students stratified from grades 3 and 4 in New South Wales, Australia, were randomized. The other schools received the intervention but were not included in the analysis. Eleven schools received the internet-based intervention and 11 received the control intervention. Recruitment and baseline testing began in 2016 and ended in 2017. Research assistants, blinded to treatment allocation, completed follow-up outcome assessments at 12 and 24 months. Data were analyzed from July to August 2020.

INTERVENTIONS

The internet-based intervention included standardized online learning for teachers and minimal in-person support from a project mentor (9-10 months).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Multistage 20-m shuttle run test for cardiorespiratory fitness.

RESULTS

Of 1219 participants (49% girls; mean [SD] age, 8.85 [0.71] years) from 22 schools, 1188 students provided baseline primary outcome data. At 12 months, the number of 20-m shuttle runs increased by 3.32 laps (95% CI, 2.44-4.20 laps) in the intervention schools and 2.11 laps (95% CI, 1.38-2.85 laps) in the control schools (adjusted difference = 1.20 laps; 95% CI, 0.17-2.24 laps). By 24 months, the adjusted difference was 2.22 laps (95% CI, 0.89-3.55 laps). The cost per student was AUD33 (USD26).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this study, a school-based intervention improved children's cardiorespiratory fitness when delivered in a large number of schools. The low cost and sustained effect over 24 months of the intervention suggests that it may have potential to be scaled at the population level.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

http://anzctr.org.au Identifier: ACTRN12616000731493.

Using process- and product-oriented measures to evaluate changes in motor skills across an intervention

The purpose of this study was to: (1) determine if process- and product-oriented measures similarly evaluate changes in motor skills across an intervention and (2) examine the relationship between preschoolers' motor skills when assessed using process-oriented and product-oriented measures before (pretest) and after (posttest) the intervention. Preschoolers (n= 65, M _age= 4.6±0.42 years) completed both process- and product-oriented measures of six FMS- run, hop, jump, catch, throw, and kick, before and after a high-autonomy motor skill intervention. Aggregate total, locomotor, and ball skills, as well as each individual skill, were examined. Children demonstrated improvements in process-oriented (p<0.01) skills, but only improved on the product hop, throw, and kick (p<0.001) after the intervention. Children's ranks on process- and product-oriented measures were correlated at pretest (r _s = 0.28-0.72) and posttest (r _s = 0.39-0.68). Therefore, process- and product-oriented measures assess different aspects of motor competence and do not equally evaluate intervention efficacy.

Rapid Realist Review of School-Based Physical Activity Interventions in 7- to 11-Year-Old Children

Meta-analysis of physical activity interventions in school settings have revealed low efficacy and that there is a need to explore implementation fidelity. The aim of this rapid realist review was to determine, what physical activity interventions in school settings for children aged 7- to 11-years-old works, for whom, and in what circumstances. The realist synthesis was conducted following RAMESES guidelines. Relevant studies were identified following a systematic search process and data from 28 studies was extracted for evidence to form context-mechanism-outcome configurations that were clustered and refined. Using the five-level socioecological model, the program theories were classified into the levels of intrapersonal (child), interpersonal (teachers), institutional (program content, school administration, and school environment), community (home and neighborhood), and policy. The school level led to most context-mechanism-outcome configurations related to school leadership and policy, workforce structure, program characteristics, and school environment. At each level, we identified features of interventions, alongside implementation considerations that might work to promote efficacy and sustainability. The need to recognize the school environment as part of a complex system with multi-level interaction and influences was a key finding. In line with realist philosophy, the researchers encouraged primary research to confirm, refute, and refine the program theories presented.

Global levels of fundamental motor skills in children: A systematic review

Competence in fundamental motor skills (FMS) facilitates physical activity participation and is important for children's holistic development. This study aimed to systematically review the FMS levels of children worldwide, using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). In accordance with PRISMA guidelines, studies were identified from searches across 7 databases. Studies were required to: (i) include typically developing children (3-10 years), (ii) be published in English, (iii) have been published between 2004 and 2019 and, (iv) report ≥1 TGMD-2 outcome scores. Extracted data were evaluated based on importance of determinants, strength of evidence, and methodological quality. Data from 64 articles were included. Weighted mean (and standard deviation) scores were calculated for each FMS outcome score. Analyses revealed FMS competence increases across age during childhood, with greater proficiency in locomotor skills than object control skills. Additionally, boys exhibit higher object control skill proficiency than girls. Compared to TGMD-2 normative data, children demonstrate "below average" to "average" FMS levels. This review highlights the scope for FMS development among children worldwide. These findings reinforce the necessity for FMS interventions in early educational settings, as FMS competence is positively associated with physical activity and other health outcomes.

Gaelic4Girls-The Effectiveness of a 10-Week Multicomponent Community Sports-Based Physical Activity Intervention for 8 to 12-Year-Old Girls

Girls are less active than boys throughout childhood and adolescence, with limited research focusing on female community sports-based programs. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of a multi-component, community sports-based intervention for increasing girl's physical activity (PA) levels, fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency, and psychological wellbeing, as relative to a second treatment group (the traditionally delivered national comparative program), and a third control group. One hundred and twenty female-only participants (mean age = 10.75 ± 1.44 years), aged 8 to 12 years old from three Ladies Gaelic Football (LGF) community sports clubs (rural and suburban) were allocated to one of three conditions: (1) Intervention Group 1 (n = 43) received a novel, specifically tailored, research-informed Gaelic4Girls (G4G) intervention; (2) Intervention Group 2 (n = 44) used the traditionally delivered, national G4G program, as run by the Ladies Gaelic Football (LGF) Association of Ireland; and (3) Control Group 3 (n = 33) received no G4G intervention (group 1 or 2) conditions and were expected to carry out their usual LGF community sports activities. Primary outcome measurements (at both pre- and 10-week follow up) examining the effectiveness of the G4G intervention included (1) PA, (2) FMS and (3) Psychological correlates (enjoyment levels, self-efficacy, peer and parental support). Following a two (pre to post) by three (intervention group 1, intervention group 2, and control group 3) mixed-model ANOVA, it was highlighted that intervention group 1 significantly increased in PA (p = 0.003), FMS proficiency (p = 0.005) and several psychological correlates of PA (p ≤ 0.005). The findings demonstrate that the 10-week, specifically tailored, research-informed G4G intervention is a feasible and efficacious program, leading to a positive effect on the physical and psychological wellbeing of pre-adolescent Irish girls, relative to the traditionally delivered national G4G comparative program and control group conditions.

The Motor skills At Playtime intervention improves children's locomotor skills: A feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Interventions are needed to teach fundamental motor skills (FMS) to preschoolers. There is a need to design more practical and effective interventions that can be successfully implemented by non-motor experts and fit within the existing gross motor opportunities such as outdoor free play at the preschool. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of a non-motor expert FMS intervention that was implemented during outdoor free play, Motor skills At Playtime (MAP).

METHODS

Participants were preschoolers from two Head Start centres (N = 46; Mage = 4.7 ± 0.46 years; 41% boys) and were divided into a MAP (n = 30) or control (outdoor free play; n = 16) group. Children completed either a 1,350-min MAP intervention or control condition (outdoor free play) from January to April of 2018. FMS were assessed before and after each programme using both the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd Edition and skill outcome measures (running speed, hopping speed, jump distance, throwing speed, kicking speed and catching percentage). Intervention implementation feasibility was measured through daily fidelity checks. Fidelity was evaluated as the percentage of intervention sessions that included all explicit intervention criteria. FMS data were analysed using linear mixed modelling. Models were fit with fixed effects of time and treatment, covariates of sex and height, and a random intercept for each individual.

RESULTS

The non-motor expert was feasibly able to implement MAP with high fidelity (>93%). There was a significant treatment effect for MAP on process and product locomotor FMS (P < 0.05) and a trend for a treatment effect for MAP on total process FMS (P = 0.07).

CONCLUSION

Results support that MAP was successfully implemented by a non-motor expert and led to improvements in children's FMS, especially locomotor FMS.

Investigating the Age-Related Association between Perceived Motor Competence and Actual Motor Competence in Adolescence

Irish adolescents have been found to possess high perceptions of motor competence. However, there is an evidential value to investigating the strength of the relationship between adolescent perceptions of motor competence and their low levels of actual motor competence. The purpose of this research was to gather data on the fundamental, functional, and perceived motor competence in adolescents, differentiated by year group, to discern if participants could assess their perceptions of ability. Data were collected on adolescents (N = 373; mean age: 14.38 ± 0.87 years; 47.7% female) across six second-level schools in Ireland, including measurements of fundamental movement skills, functional movement, and perceived motor competence. Poor levels of fundamental and functional movement were observed, with significant differences between year groups detected. Participants in 1st year scored the highest in overall fundamental movement skills; however, for overall functional movement, 3rd-year participants scored highest. High levels of perceived motor competence were reported across the entire sample. These scores did not align with actual motor competence, nor did any alignment between these measurements improve with aging, countering theorized age-related associations. Future research should target low levels of actual motor competence while emphasizing the cognitive aspects of movement to ensure greater accuracy between actual and perceived motor competence.

A mixed-studies systematic review and meta-analysis of school-based interventions to promote physical activity and/or reduce sedentary time in children

PURPOSE

The aim of this mixed-studies systematic review was to ascertain the effectiveness of school-based interventions in increasing physical activity (PA) and/or reducing sedentary time (ST) in children aged 5-11 years, as well as to explore their effectiveness in relation to categories of the theory of expanded, extended, and enhanced opportunity (TEO).

METHODS

Adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 5 databases were searched using predefined search terms. Following title and abstract screening of 1115 records, the removal of duplicates (n = 584) and articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria agreed to a priori (n = 419) resulted in 112 records that were full-text screened. Two independent reviewers subsequently used the mixed-methods appraisal tool to assess the methodological quality of 57 full-text studies that met the inclusion criteria after full-text screening. The interventions were summarised using the TIDierR checklist and TEO. The strength of evidence was determined using a 5-level rating system utilising a published decision tree.

RESULTS

Overall evidence ratings for interventions implemented within school settings were: no evidence of effects on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and inconclusive evidence of effects on sedentary time. In relation to the TEO, expansion of PA appeared to be the most promising intervention type for MVPA, with moderate evidence of effect, whereas extension and enhancement of PA opportunity demonstrated no evidence of effect. A critical issue of possible compensatory behavior was identified by analysis of intervention effect in relation to PA measurement duration; when studies measured changes in PA during the actual intervention, there was moderate evidence of effect, whereas those that measured changes in PA during the school day presented inconclusive evidence of effect, and those that measured changes in PA over a whole day yielded no evidence of effect. Two meta-analyses of those studies using a whole-day accelerometer measure for MVPA or ST showed a significant but moderate effect for MVPA (effect size = 0.51; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.02-0.99) and a large but nonsignificant effect for ST (effect size = 1.15; 95%CI: -1.03 to 3.33); both meta-analyses demonstrated low precision, considerable inconsistency, and high heterogeneity.

CONCLUSION

The findings have important implications for future intervention research in terms of intervention design, implementation, and evaluation.

Young Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Children’s Fundamental Motor Competence and Physical Activity Behaviors

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between fundamental motor skills (FMS; including locomotor and object-control skills), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and sedentary behavior among young Hispanic and non-Hispanic children. Using the prospective research design spanning one academic school year, we recruited 671 children (6.96 ± 1.6 years, 46% girls) from four primary schools in North Texas, 300 of whom were Hispanic and 371 non-Hispanic children, with 90% of the Hispanic and 74% of the non-Hispanic children from low-income families. All participants completed the PE Metrics™ FMS assessment and wore Actical accelerometers. Hispanic children demonstrated a lower level of MVPA on school days than their non-Hispanic peers. After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, both locomotor and object-control skills significantly predicted school-based MVPA for the non-Hispanic groups, while only object-control skills significantly predicted MVPA for the Hispanic group. For both ethnic groups, locomotor skills significantly predicted school-based sedentary behavior. The findings shed light on future motor competence–based interventions for physical activity promotion and obesity prevention among young Hispanic as well as non-Hispanic children.

The A+FMS cluster randomized controlled trial: An assessment-based intervention on fundamental movement skills and psychosocial outcomes in primary schoolchildren

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effectiveness of an assessment-based intervention that emphasizes fun, mastery, and support (A+FMS) on primary schoolchildren's fundamental movement skills (FMS), perceptions of physical and movement skill competence, teacher support and enjoyment.

DESIGN

Cluster randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

Ten clusters (classes) (n=282; mean age 8.4 years, SD 0.56) were randomised to the A+FMS or wait-list control group in a 1:1 ratio. Teachers in the A+FMS group were required to attend six hours of training and integrate 550min of assessment for learning strategies into their PE lessons for up to a maximum of 13 weeks. FMS competence in jump, skip, hop, overhand throw, dribble and catch was the primary outcome assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd Edition. Secondary outcome measures included perceptions of physical and FMS competence, teacher support, and student enjoyment using questionnaires. Multilevel modelling for the analysis of clustered data was used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention.

RESULTS

Significant intervention effects were found for locomotor skills (adjusted mean difference, 2.47 units; Cohen's d=0.76), overall FMS competence (3.72 units; Cohen's d=0.93) and perceived teacher support (0.21 units; Cohen's d=0.05). However, there was a group-by-time effect for perceived physical competence (-0.16 units; Cohen's d=-0.07) in favouring of the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

An assessment-based teacher-led FMS intervention was effective in improving FMS proficiency in primary schoolchildren. The results highlight the need for increased teacher support to develop positive self-perceptions of competence while promoting children's FMS. Trial registration CUHK_CCRB00479.

The iCook 4-H Study: Report on Physical Activity and Sedentary Time in Youth Participating in a Multicomponent Program Promoting Family Cooking, Eating, and Playing Together

OBJECTIVE

To report physical activity and sedentary time outcomes of youth in iCook 4-H.

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

iCook 4-H was a 5-state, randomized, control-treatment, family-based childhood obesity prevention intervention promoting cooking, eating, and playing together.

PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTION

Youth aged 9-10 years and the main preparer of their meals participated in the 12-week program followed by monthly newsletters and biyearly booster sessions until 24 months.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

A total of 155 youth were fitted with an Actigraph GT3X+ accelerometer, which they wore for 7 days at baseline and 4, 12, and 24 months to measure mean daily minutes per hour of waking wear time for sedentary time (ST), light physical activity (PA) (LPA), moderate PA, vigorous PA, and moderate to vigorous PA. Self-reported PA was assessed using the Block Kids Physical Activity Screener and additional questions querying for the program goal of the frequency of family actively playing together. Linear mixed models were used to determine differences from baseline to 24 months. Significance was set at P ≤ .05.

RESULTS

There was a significant (P < .05) group × time interaction for LPA (adjusted interaction B estimate, 95% confidence interval; 0.18 [0.05, 0.30]) and ST (-0.15 [-0.26, -0.04]); ST increased and LPA decreased in the treatment group. There were no differences in other accelerometer-derived PA measures, self-report Block Kids Physical Activity Screener measures, or frequency of family actively playing together at any time point.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

iCook 4-H was a multicomponent program observing youth aged 9-10 years for 24 months that focused on enhancing cooking skills, mealtime behavior and conversation, and PA through daily family activities. Greater emphasis on developing PA skills, changing environmental factors, and increasing PA both in and after school may be needed.

Pedagogical Approaches to and Effects of Fundamental Movement Skill Interventions on Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are assumed to be the basic prerequisite motor movements underpinning coordination of more integrated and advanced movement capabilities. FMS development and interventions have been associated with several beneficial health outcomes in individual studies.

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this review was to identify FMS intervention characteristics that could be optimised to attain beneficial outcomes in children and adolescents, while the secondary aim was to update the evidence as to the efficacy of FMS interventions on physiological, psychological and behavioural health outcomes.

METHODS

A systematic search [adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines] was conducted in seven databases. Studies were included if they conducted an FMS intervention and targeted at least one physiological, behavioural or psychological outcome in school-aged children (5-18 years).

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies examining the effect of FMS interventions relative to controls were identified. Specialist-led interventions, taught in conjunction with at-home practice and parent involvement, appeared more efficacious in enhancing FMS proficiency than school physical education alone. Intervention environments encouraging psychological autonomy were likely to enhance perceived and actual competence in FMS alongside physical activity. FMS interventions had little influence on overweight/obesity reduction, strength or flexibility. In 93% of studies, evidence indicated interventions improved FMS motor proficiency. Favourable specific physiological, psychological and behavioural outcomes were also identified across a variety of interventions.

CONCLUSION

With reference to clinical and normative school-age populations, future studies should be directed toward determining validated standard FMS assessments to enable accurate effect estimates, permit intervention comparisons and improve the efficacy of FMS development.

What is the Contribution of Actual Motor Skill, Fitness, and Physical Activity to Children’s Self-Perception of Motor Competence?

This study aimed to examine the contribution of objective measures of physical fitness (musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory), physical activity, and motor skill to motor perception. A total of 122 children (63 boys) aged 8–11 years were assessed. Independent t-tests assessed sex differences in all variables. Two linear mixed models adjusted for sex and age were performed with perceived object control and locomotor skills (Pictorial Scale of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children) as outcomes. Aerobic (multi-stage fitness test) and muscular fitness (long jump, grip strength), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (ActiGraph accelerometry), movement skill (Test of Gross Motor Development-2), age, and sex were predictors. Boys had higher object control skills (actual and perceived) and fitness. Age (decreasing) and long jump distance (positive) explained 16% of locomotor skill perception variance. Sex (boys) explained 13% of object control skill perception variance. Children’s skill self-perception may be influenced by fitness attributes as these are more evident to them. The fact that girls have lower actual object control competence and fitness than boys suggests girls may be an intervention target.

Skill-Based and Planned Active Play Versus Free-Play Effects on Fundamental Movement Skills in Preschoolers

Fundamental movement skill interventions are important for promoting physical activity, but the optimal intervention model for preschool children remains unclear. We compared two 8-week interventions, a structured skill-station and a planned active play approach, to a free-play control condition on pre- and postintervention fundamental movement skills. We also collected data regarding program attendance and perceived enjoyment. We found a significant interaction effect between intervention type and time. A Tukey honest significant difference analysis supported a positive intervention effect showing a significant difference between both interventions and the free-play control condition. There was a significant between-group difference in group attendance such that mean attendance was higher for both the free-play and planned active play groups relative to the structured skill-based approach. There were no differences in attendance between free-play and planned active play groups, and there were no differences in enjoyment ratings between the two intervention groups. In sum, while both interventions led to improved fundamental movement skills, the active play approach offered several logistical advantages. Although these findings should be replicated, they can guide feasible and sustainable fundamental movement skill programs within day care settings.

Relationship between Physical Activity and Physical Fitness in Preschool Children: A Cross-Sectional Study

PURPOSE

To evaluate the relationships between objectively measured physical activity and physical fitness among preschool children.

METHODS

A total of 346 participants (201 boys and 145 girls) aged 3.5-5.5 years (M = 4.5 yr, SD = 0.47) from Shanghai, China, completed physical fitness assessments, including triceps skinfold thickness (TSFT), grip strength, tennis throwing, sit and reach test, standing long jump, balance beam, 10mSRT, and 20mSRT. Physical activity was objectively measured by ActiGraphGT3X+ accelerometer. Multiple linear regression models were used to explore the cross-sectional associations between PA and physical fitness after adjusting for age, gender, BMI, and valid wearing time.

RESULTS

Positive associations were observed between stand long jump (p < .01), tennis throwing (p < .01), laps in 20mSRT (p < .01), and MVPA. However, TSFT (p < .05), time in 10mSRT (p < .01), and balance beam (p < .05) were negatively associated with MVPA. Furthermore, positive associations were found between stand long jump (p < .01), tennis throwing (p < .01), and MVPA only in boys. Negative associations were found between time on balance beam (p < .01) and MVPA only in girls.

CONCLUSIONS

MVPA appears to be an effective and reliable predictor of preschoolers' physical fitness. Boys' body composition, muscular strength, explosive strength, agility, aerobic fitness, girls' agility, aerobic fitness, and balance could improve as MVPA increases.

The Relationship between Actual Fundamental Motor Skill Proficiency, Perceived Motor Skill Confidence and Competence, and Physical Activity in 8⁻12-Year-Old Irish Female Youth

This study examines the relationship between actual fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency, perceived motor confidence and competence, and physical activity (PA) among female children (n= 160; mean age = 10.69 ± 1.40 years). The Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD-2) was used to assess seven FMSs (locomotor, object-control, and stability). Motor confidence and competence were assessed using a valid skill-specific scale, and a modified version of the Self-Perception Profile for Children. PA levels were assessed using self-report (PA Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C)) and classified as low, moderate, and high active. One-way and two-way ANOVAs (post-hoc honest significant difference (HSD)) and correlation coefficients were used to analyse the data. Findings indicate that the majority of youth (71.8%) were not meeting the minimum 60 min of daily PA recommended for health, and that 98.1% did not achieve the FMS proficiency expected for their age. While there were high levels of perceived physical self-confidence (PSC) reported within FMS skill-specific tasks, there was no significant correlation observed between actual FMS proficiency and perceived PSC among the cohort. Results show that low, moderately, and highly active female participants differ significantly in terms of their overall FMS (p = 0.03) and locomotor (LOC) control scores (p = 0.03). Results from a two-way between-groups analysis of variance also revealed no statistically significant interaction effect between PA grouping and physical performance self-concept (PPSC) on overall FMS proficiency levels. Results of a multiple linear regression indicate that perceived PSC is a significant predictor (beta = 0.183) of participants' overall PA levels. Data show a need for targeting low levels of PA, and low FMS proficiency in female youth, and for developing interventions aiming to enhance perceived PSC levels.

Prevalence and correlates of resistance training skill competence in adolescents

The aim of this study is to examine the prevalence and correlates of adolescents' resistance training (RT) skill competence. Participants were 548 adolescents (14.1 ± 0.5 years) from 16 schools in New South Wales, Australia. RT skills were assessed using the Resistance Training Skills Battery. Demographics, BMI, muscular fitness, perceived strength, RT self-efficacy, and motivation for RT were also assessed. The proportion demonstrating "competence" and "near competence" in each of the six RT skills were calculated and sex differences explored. Associations between the combined RT skill score and potential correlates were examined using multi-level linear mixed models. Overall, the prevalence of competence was low (range = 3.3% to 27.9%). Females outperformed males on the squat, lunge and overhead press, whereas males performed better on the push-up (p < .05). Significant associations were seen for a number of correlates, which largely differed by sex. Muscular fitness was moderately and positively associated with RT skills among both males (β = 0.34, 95%CIs = 0.23 to 0.46) and females (β = 0.36, 95%CIs = 0.23 to 0.48). Our findings support a link between RT skills and muscular fitness. Other associations were statistically significant but small in magnitude, and should therefore be interpreted cautiously.

Physical activity, sedentary behavior and their correlates in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A systematic review

Autism Spectrum Disorder affects up to 2.5% of children and is associated with harmful health outcomes (e.g. obesity). Low levels of physical activity and high levels of sedentary behaviors may contribute to harmful health outcomes. To systematically review the prevalence and correlates of physical activity and sedentary behaviors in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, electronic databases (PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, EMBASE, Medline) were searched from inception to November 2015. The review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42014013849). Peer-reviewed, English language studies were included. Two reviewers screened potentially relevant articles. Outcomes of interest were physical activity and sedentary behaviour levels and their potential correlates. Data were collected and analysed in 2015. Of 35 included studies, 15 reported physical activity prevalence, 10 reported physical activity correlates, 18 reported sedentary behavior prevalence, and 10 reported sedentary behavior correlates. Estimates of children’s physical activity (34–166 mins/day, average 86 mins/day) and sedentary behavior (126–558 mins/day in screen time, average 271 mins/day; 428–750 mins/day in total sedentary behavior, average 479 mins/day) varied across studies. Age was consistently inversely associated, and sex inconsistently associated with physical activity. Age and sex were inconsistently associated with sedentary behavior. Sample sizes were small. All but one of the studies were classified as having high risk of bias. Few correlates have been reported in sufficient studies to provide overall estimates of associations. Potential correlates in the physical environment remain largely unexamined. This review highlights varying levels of physical activity and sedentary behavior in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Research is needed to consistently identify the correlates of these behaviors. There is a critical need for interventions to support healthy levels of these behaviors.

More active pre-school children have better motor competence at school starting age: an observational cohort study

BACKGROUND

Almost half of young children do not achieve minimum recommendations of 60 daily minutes in physical activity. Physical activity is potentially an important determinant of the development of motor competence in children. This study is one of very few longitudinal studies in this area and the first to investigate early childhood physical activity as a predictor of subsequent motor skill competence.

METHODS

Children were assessed as part of the Melbourne InFANT Program longitudinal cohort study at 19 months, 3.5 years and 5 years. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (accelerometry) was assessed at each time point. At age 5, children were also assessed in actual (Test of Gross Motor Development-2) and perceived motor competence (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence). General linear models were performed with all 12 skills (six object control and six locomotor skills), both actual and perceived, at age 5 as the respective outcome variables. Predictor variables alternated between MVPA at 19 months, 3.5 years and 5 years.

RESULTS

Based on standardized TGMD-2 scores most children were average or below in their skill level at age 5. MVPA at 19 months was not a predictor of actual or perceived skill at age 5. MVPA at 3.5 years was associated with actual locomotor skill (B = 0.073, p = 0.033) and perceived total skill at 5 years of age (B = 0.059, p = 0.044). MVPA was not a predictor of actual or perceived object control skill at any age.

CONCLUSION

Parents and preschool staff should be informed that more time in MVPA as a preschool child contributes to locomotor skill and to perceptions of skill ability in a child of school starting age. Understanding this relationship will assist in intervention development.

Scaling-up an efficacious school-based physical activity intervention: Study protocol for the 'Internet-based Professional Learning to help teachers support Activity in Youth' (iPLAY) cluster randomized controlled trial and scale-up implementation evaluation

BACKGROUND

Despite the health benefits of regular physical activity, most children are insufficiently active. Schools are ideally placed to promote physical activity; however, many do not provide children with sufficient in-school activity or ensure they have the skills and motivation to be active beyond the school setting. The aim of this project is to modify, scale up and evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention previously shown to be efficacious in improving children's physical activity, fundamental movement skills and cardiorespiratory fitness. The 'Internet-based Professional Learning to help teachers support Activity in Youth' (iPLAY) study will focus largely on online delivery to enhance translational capacity.

METHODS/DESIGN

The intervention will be implemented at school and teacher levels, and will include six components: (i) quality physical education and school sport, (ii) classroom movement breaks, (iii) physically active homework, (iv) active playgrounds, (v) community physical activity links and (vi) parent/caregiver engagement. Experienced physical education teachers will deliver professional learning workshops and follow-up, individualized mentoring to primary teachers (i.e., Kindergarten - Year 6). These activities will be supported by online learning and resources. Teachers will then deliver the iPLAY intervention components in their schools. We will evaluate iPLAY in two complementary studies in primary schools across New South Wales (NSW), Australia. A cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT), involving a representative sample of 20 schools within NSW (1:1 allocation at the school level to intervention and attention control conditions), will assess effectiveness and cost-effectiveness at 12 and 24 months. Students' cardiorespiratory fitness will be the primary outcome in this trial. Key secondary outcomes will include students' moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (via accelerometers), fundamental movement skill proficiency, enjoyment of physical education and sport, cognitive control, performance on standardized tests of numeracy and literacy, and cost-effectiveness. A scale-up implementation study guided by the RE-AIM framework will evaluate the reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance of the intervention when delivered in 160 primary schools in urban and regional areas of NSW.

DISCUSSION

This project will provide the evidence and a framework for government to guide physical activity promotion throughout NSW primary schools and a potential model for adoption in other states and countries.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ( ACTRN12616000731493 ). Date of registration: June 3, 2016.

Improving fundamental movement skills in Hong Kong students through an assessment for learning intervention that emphasizes fun, mastery, and support: the A + FMS randomized controlled trial study protocol

BACKGROUND

Assessment for learning has been identified as an effective strategy to help children learn more effectively. Developing children to master basic movement skills in primary school requires formative assessments to inform instruction and learning. This study reports the rationale and methods for an assessment-based intervention that emphasizes fun, mastery and support (A + FMS) designed to improve fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency of primary schoolchildren.

METHODS/DESIGN

Utilizing a cluster randomized controlled trial, the A + FMS intervention was designed to improve FMS proficiency of Hong Kong Chinese schoolchildren. A target sample of 282 students or more from 10 Grade 3 classes (from five schools) will be recruited and randomly assigned into an experimental group or a wait-list control group. Competence motivation theory provided a framework for the intervention that emphasizes fun activities to develop basic fundamentals, improving mastery of movement, and providing support for teaching and learning skills. Primary outcome measures are the raw scores of six objectively measured FMS (i.e., jump, hop, skip, dribble, catch, and overhand throw). Secondary outcomes include self-reported measures: enjoyment in physical education, perceived physical competence, perceived skill competence, and perceived social support. Teachers in the experimental group are required to attend a six-h training workshop and integrate 550 min of assessment for learning strategies into their physical education lessons. Resources such as videos, skills checklists, and equipment will also be provided to support children to accumulate extra learning and practice time after school. The rate of changes in primary and secondary outcomes across the experimental and control groups will be compared to determine the effectiveness of the program.

DISCUSSION

The A + FMS is an innovative school-based intervention targeting improvements in movement mastery by supporting physical education teachers in FMS instruction and assessment practices. The findings from the study may be used to guide pre-service teacher education and continuous professional development in FMS teaching and assessment. Trial registration CUHK_CCRB00479.

Fundamental Movement Skills and Health-Related Outcomes: A Narrative Review of Longitudinal and Intervention Studies Targeting Typically Developing Children

Many children with typical development are highly sedentary, overweight/obese, and are deemed not ready for school at kindergarten entry. All of these concerns can be related to a lack of movement skill proficiency in this population. The purpose of this narrative review was to synthesize the literature examining the impact of movement skills on 5 areas of overall health: physical activity, physical fitness, body composition, self-beliefs, and executive functioning. To gain an understanding of these relationships, only studies employing an experimental or observational longitudinal design were reviewed. Although the results were limited in the number of studies available, there is evidence that movement skill may have a positive influence on these broad domains of health both naturally over the course of development and through intervention. We recommend that a universal approach to movement skill development is warranted, given the range of benefits that stem from developing proficiency in these skills.

Family-Based Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial Enhancing Physical Activity and Motor Competence in 4-7-Year-Old Children

Little is known of how to involve families in physical activity (PA) interventions for children. In this cluster randomized controlled trial, we recruited families with four- to seven-year-old children to participate in a year-long study where parents in the intervention group families (n = 46) received tailored counseling to increase children’s PA. Structured PA was not served. Control group families (n = 45) did not receive any counseling. PA in all children (n = 91; mean age 6.16 ± 1.13 years at the baseline) was measured by accelerometers at the baseline and after three, six, nine and 12 months. Motor competence (MC) (n = 89) was measured at the baseline and after six and 12 months by a KTK (KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder) and throwing and catching a ball (TCB) protocols. The effect of parental counseling on study outcomes was analyzed by a linear mixed-effects model fit by REML and by a Mann-Whitney U test in the case of the TCB. As season was hypothesized to affect counseling effect, an interaction of season on the study outcomes was examined. The results show significant decrease of MVPA in the intervention group when compared to the control group (p < .05). The TCB showed a nearly significant improvement at six months in the intervention group compared to the controls (p = .051), but not at 12 months. The intervention group had a steadier development of the KTK when the interaction of season was taken into account. In conclusion, more knowledge of family constructs associating with the effectiveness of counseling is needed for understanding how to enhance PA in children by parents. However, a hypothesis may be put forward that family-based counseling during an inactive season rather than an active season may provide a more lasting effect on the development of KTK in children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN28668090.