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Igwe JK, Alaribe U. Cannabis use associated with lower mortality among hospitalized Covid-19 patients using the national inpatient sample: an epidemiological study. J Cannabis Res 2024; 6:18. [PMID: 38582889 PMCID: PMC10998318 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-024-00228-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prior reports indicate that modulation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) may have a protective benefit for Covid-19 patients. However, associations between cannabis use (CU) or CU not in remission (active cannabis use (ACU)), and Covid-19-related outcomes among hospitalized patients is unknown. METHODS In this multicenter retrospective observational cohort analysis of adults (≥ 18 years-old) identified from 2020 National Inpatient Sample database, we utilize multivariable regression analyses and propensity score matching analysis (PSM) to analyze trends and outcomes among Covid-19-related hospitalizations with CU and without CU (N-CU) for primary outcome of interest: Covid-19-related mortality; and secondary outcomes: Covid-19-related hospitalization, mechanical ventilation (MV), and acute pulmonary embolism (PE) compared to all-cause admissions; for CU vs N-CU; and for ACU vs N-ACU. RESULTS There were 1,698,560 Covid-19-related hospitalizations which were associated with higher mortality (13.44% vs 2.53%, p ≤ 0.001) and worse secondary outcomes generally. Among all-cause hospitalizations, 1.56% of CU and 6.29% of N-CU were hospitalized with Covid-19 (p ≤ 0.001). ACU was associated with lower odds of MV, PE, and death among the Covid-19 population. On PSM, ACU(N(unweighted) = 2,382) was associated with 83.97% lower odds of death compared to others(N(unweighted) = 282,085) (2.77% vs 3.95%, respectively; aOR:0.16, [0.10-0.25], p ≤ 0.001). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that the ECS may represent a viable target for modulation of Covid-19. Additional studies are needed to further explore these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph-Kevin Igwe
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, 1 Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Ugo Alaribe
- Caribbean Medical University School of Medicine, 5600 N River Rd Suite 800, Rosemont, IL, 60018, USA
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Tellios V, Maksoud MJE, Nagra R, Jassal G, Lu WY. Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase Critically Regulates the Endocannabinoid Pathway in the Murine Cerebellum During Development. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 22:1200-1215. [PMID: 36402869 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-022-01493-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum is a major site of endocannabinoid (eCB) production and signaling. The predominant eCB within the cerebellum, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), is produced by a metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1 (mGluR1)-initiated signaling cascade within Purkinje neurons (PNs). 2-AG retrogradely stimulates cannabinoid 1 receptors (CB1Rs) located on presynaptic terminals. The activated CB1R decreases neurotransmitter release and leads to the production of nitric oxide (NO), a gaseous molecule. Recently, our group discovered that during development in mice lacking neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS-/-), PNs display an excitotoxic phenotype associated with overactivated mGluR1. Considering the importance of mGluR1 in 2-AG synthesis, the present study explored the role of nNOS-derived NO in regulating the eCB pathway within the cerebella of wildtype (WT) and nNOS-/- mice at postnatal day 7 (PD7), 2 weeks (2 W), and 7 weeks (7 W). Our analysis showed that diacylglycerol lipase α, the enzyme that catalyzes 2-AG production, was elevated at early postnatal ages, and followed by elevated levels of 2-AG in nNOS-/- cerebella compared to WT. CB1R expression in nNOS-/- cerebella was upregulated at PD7 but decreased at 2 W and 7 W when compared to age-matched WT mice cerebella. Importantly, treating organotypic nNOS-/- cerebellar slice cultures with an NO-donor-attenuated CB1R levels after 7 days in vitro. In addition, expression of the eCB hydrolases fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase were significantly downregulated in nNOS-/- cerebella compared to WT cerebella at 7 W. Together, these results reveal a novel role for nNOS/NO in regulating eCB signaling in the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Tellios
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
- Robarts Research Institute, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Matthew J E Maksoud
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
- Robarts Research Institute, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | | | - Gurneet Jassal
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Wei-Yang Lu
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada.
- Robarts Research Institute, London, N6A 5B7, Canada.
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada.
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Fischler PV, Soyka M, Seifritz E, Mutschler J. Off-label and investigational drugs in the treatment of alcohol use disorder: A critical review. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:927703. [PMID: 36263121 PMCID: PMC9574013 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.927703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Compounds known to be successful in the treatment of alcohol use disorder include the aversive agent, Disulfiram, the glutamatergic NMDA receptor antagonist, Acamprosate, and the opioid receptor antagonists, Naltrexone and Nalmefene. Although all four are effective in maintaining abstinence or reduction of alcohol consumption, only a small percentage of patients receive pharmacological treatment. In addition, many other medications have been investigated for their therapeutic potential in the treatment of alcohol use disorder. In this review we summarize and compare Baclofen, Gabapentin, Topiramate, Ondansetron, Varenicline, Aripiprazole, Quetiapine, Clozapine, Antidepressants, Lithium, Neuropeptide Y, Neuropeptide S, Corticotropin-releasing factor antagonists, Oxytocin, PF-05190457, Memantine, Ifenprodil, Samidorphan, Ondelopran, ABT-436, SSR149415, Mifepristone, Ibudilast, Citicoline, Rimonabant, Surinabant, AM4113 and Gamma-hydroxybutyrate While some have shown promising results in the treatment of alcohol use disorder, others have disappointed and should be excluded from further investigation. Here we discuss the most promising results and highlight medications that deserve further preclinical or clinical study. Effective, patient-tailored treatment will require greater understanding provided by many more preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Valentin Fischler
- Department for Gynecology and Obstetrics, Women’s Clinic Lucerne, Cantonal Hospital of Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Pascal Valentin Fischler,
| | - Michael Soyka
- Psychiatric Hospital University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Erich Seifritz
- Director of the Clinic for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Clinic Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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The interactions of alcohol and cocaine regulate the expression of genes involved in the GABAergic, glutamatergic and endocannabinoid systems of male and female rats. Neuropharmacology 2021; 206:108937. [PMID: 34965406 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Although the pharmacological and behavioural interactions between cocaine and alcohol are well established, less is known about how polyconsumption of these drugs affects the neurotransmitter systems involved in their psychoactive effects and in particular, in the process of addiction. Here, rats of both sexes at two stages of development were studied under a chronic regime of intravenous cocaine and/or alcohol administration. Brain samples from the medial prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus and amygdala were extracted to analyse the mRNA expression of genes encoding subunits of the GABA, NMDA and AMPA receptors, as well as the expression of the CB1 receptor, and that of enzymes related to the biosynthesis and degradation of endocannabinoids. Moreover, two synaptic scaffold proteins related to GABA and NMDA receptors, gephyrin and PSD-95, were quantified in Western blots. Significant interactions between cocaine and alcohol were common, affecting the GABAergic and endocannabinoid systems in the medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala of young adults, whereas such interactions were evident in the glutamatergic and endocannabinoid systems in adults, as well as a more pronounced sex effect. Significant interactions between these drugs affecting the scaffold proteins were evident in the medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens of young adults, and in the nucleus accumbens and amygdala of adults, but not in the hippocampus. These results highlight the importance of considering the interactions between cocaine and alcohol on neurotransmitter systems in the context of polyconsumption, specifically when treating problems of abuse of these two substances.
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Sharma L, Sharma A, Dash AK, Bisht GS, Gupta GL. A standardized polyherbal preparation POL-6 diminishes alcohol withdrawal anxiety by regulating Gabra1, Gabra2, Gabra3, Gabra4, Gabra5 gene expression of GABA A receptor signaling pathway in rats. BMC Complement Med Ther 2021; 21:13. [PMID: 33407346 PMCID: PMC7789136 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-020-03181-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alcohol abuse is a major problem worldwide and it affects people's health and economy. There is a relapse in alcohol intake due to alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol withdrawal anxiety-like behavior is a symptom that appears 6-24 h after the last alcohol ingestion. METHODS The present study was designed to explore the protective effect of a standardized polyherbal preparation POL-6 in ethanol withdrawal anxiety in Wistar rats. POL-6 was prepared by mixing the dried extracts of six plants Bacopa monnieri, Hypericum perforatum, Centella asiatica, Withania somnifera, Camellia sinesis, and Ocimum sanctum in the proportion 2:1:2:2:1:2 respectively. POL-6 was subjected to phytochemical profiling through LC-MS, HPLC, and HPTLC. The effect of POL-6 on alcohol withdrawal anxiety was tested using a two-bottle choice drinking paradigm model giving animals' free choice between alcohol and water for 15 days. Alcohol was withdrawn on the 16th day and POL-6 (20, 50, and 100 mg/kg, oral), diazepam (2 mg/kg) treatment was given on the withdrawal days. Behavioral parameters were tested using EPM and LDT. On the 18th day blood was collected from the retro-orbital sinus of the rats and alcohol markers ALT, AST, ALP, and GGT were studied. At end of the study, animals were sacrificed and the brain was isolated for exploring the influences of POL-6 on the mRNA expression of GABAA receptor subunits in the amygdala and hippocampus. RESULTS Phytochemical profiling showed that POL-6 contains major phytoconstituents like withaferin A, quercetin, catechin, rutin, caeffic acid, and β-sitosterol. In-vivo studies showed that POL-6 possesses an antianxiety effect in alcohol withdrawal. Gene expression studies on the isolated brain tissues showed that POL-6 normalizes the GABAergic transmission in the amygdala and hippocampus of the rats. CONCLUSION The study concludes that POL-6 may have therapeutic potential for treating ethanol-type dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalit Sharma
- Department of Pharmacy, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173234, India
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
| | - Aditi Sharma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
| | - Ashutosh Kumar Dash
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
- Natural Product Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, 180001, India
| | - Gopal Singh Bisht
- Department of BT/BI, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173234, India
| | - Girdhari Lal Gupta
- Department of Pharmacology, Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, Shri Vile Parle Kelavani Mandal's Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400056, India.
- School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, Shri Vile Parle Kelavani Mandal's Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies, Shirpur Campus, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India.
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Dong X, Zhang D, Zhu R, Liu X, Ye Y, Jiang Y. Spatio-temporal effects of acute alcohol intoxication on endocannabinoid system in rat brain and blood. Alcohol 2020; 88:101-108. [PMID: 32738384 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2020.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has been shown to play a critical role in the regulation of alcohol intake and alcohol-related behaviors. However, there are discrepancies between studies examining the interaction of the ECS and alcohol administration due to different experimental procedures. The present study aims at clarifying the time course effects of acute alcohol consumption on the ECS in the peripheral circulatory systems and central nervous systems of the same cohort of subjects. We have closely monitored the critical indicators reflecting changes of the ECS during the entire process from alcohol absorption to its metabolization, after acute alcohol (4.5 g/kg) intake by intragastric administration, including two key endocannabinoids (arachidonoylethanolamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol) and their hydrolytic enzymes (fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase) in blood and three brain regions, as well as a crucial and abundant receptor (cannabinoid 1 receptor) of the ECS in the three brain regions. Our results indicate that acute alcohol consumption inhibits endocannabinoid (eCB) production in the blood and in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, whereas the reverse was observed in the brain regions of the hippocampus and striatum. The variation between levels of two hydrolytic enzymes in the blood and in the three brain regions failed to reach statistical significance. After acute alcohol consumption, CB1R levels in striatum, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex showed a similar trend of increasing, while the significant changes occurred at different time points. The present findings reveal different ligand-receptor changing patterns in the blood and in different brain regions, supporting the notion that the ECS plays a vital role in acute alcohol intoxication. Additionally, the temporal effects of alcohol on key elements of the ECS of blood and different brain nuclei were different. Our investigation may lead to a deeper understanding of the effect of acute alcohol consumption on the ECS.
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Hauser SR, Katner SN, Waeiss RA, Truitt WA, Bell RL, McBride WJ, Rodd ZA. Selective breeding for high alcohol preference is associated with increased sensitivity to cannabinoid reward within the nucleus accumbens shell. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 197:173002. [PMID: 32710885 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.173002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The rate of cannabinoid intake by those with alcohol use disorder (AUD) exceeds that of the general public. The high prevalence of co-abuse of alcohol and cannabis has been postulated to be predicated upon both a common predisposing genetic factor and the interaction of the drugs within the organism. The current experiments examined the effects of cannabinoids in an animal model of AUD. OBJECTIVES The present study assessed the reinforcing properties of a cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) agonist self-administered directly into the nucleus accumbens shell (AcbSh) in female Wistar and alcohol-preferring (P) rats. METHODS Following guide cannulae surgery aimed at AcbSh, subjects were placed in an operant box equipped with an 'active lever' (fixed ratio 1; FR1) that caused the delivery of the infusate and an 'inactive lever' that did not. Subjects were arbitrarily assigned to one of seven groups that self-administered either artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF), or 3.125, 6.25, 12.5, or 25 pmol/100 nl of O-1057, a water-soluble CB1 agonist, dissolved in aCSF. The first four sessions of acquisition are followed by aCSF only infusates in sessions 5 and 6 during extinction, and finally the acquisition dose of infusate during session 7 as reinstatement. RESULTS The CB1 agonist was self-administered directly into the AcbSh. P rats self-administered the CB1 agonist at lower concentrations and at higher rates compared to Wistar rats. CONCLUSIONS Overall, the data indicate selective breeding for high alcohol preference has produced rats divergent in response to cannabinoids within the brain reward pathway. The data support the hypothesis that there can be common genetic factors influencing drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheketha R Hauser
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
| | - Simon N Katner
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Robert A Waeiss
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - William A Truitt
- Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & Physiology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Richard L Bell
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - William J McBride
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Zachary A Rodd
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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Pavón FJ, Serrano A, Stouffer DG, Polis I, Roberto M, Cravatt BF, Martin‐Fardon R, Rodríguez de Fonseca F, Parsons LH. Ethanol-induced alterations in endocannabinoids and relevant neurotransmitters in the nucleus accumbens of fatty acid amide hydrolase knockout mice. Addict Biol 2019; 24:1204-1215. [PMID: 30421483 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Deletion of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), enzyme responsible for degrading endocannabinoids, increases alcohol consumption and preference. However, there is a lack of data on neurochemical events in mice exposed to alcohol in the absence of FAAH. Extracellular levels of endocannabinoids and relevant neurotransmitters were measured by in vivo microdialysis in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) of FAAH knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice during an ethanol (EtOH; 2 g/kg, ip) challenge in EtOH-naive and repeated (r) EtOH-treated mice. In both genotypes, EtOH treatment caused no changes in baseline endocannabinoid levels, although FAAH KO mice displayed higher baseline N-arachidonoylethanolamine levels than WT mice. EtOH challenge caused a sustained increase in 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) levels in EtOH-naive WT mice but not in FAAH KO mice. In contrast, 2-AG levels were decreased following EtOH challenge in (r)EtOH-treated mice in both genotypes. Whereas (r)EtOH-treated mice showed higher baseline dopamine and serotonin levels than EtOH-naive mice in WT mice, these differences were attenuated in FAAH KO mice. Significant differences in baseline γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate levels by EtOH history were observed in WT mice but not in FAAH KO mice. Moreover, opposed effects on glutamate response were observed after EtOH challenge in EtOH-naive and (r)EtOH-treated FAAH KO mice. Finally, FAAH deletion failed to show EtOH-induced locomotion sensitivity. These data provide evidence of a potential influence of 2-AG in the neurochemical response to EtOH exposure in the NAc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J. Pavón
- Department of NeuroscienceThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga, (IBIMA)Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga Málaga Spain
| | - Antonia Serrano
- Department of NeuroscienceThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga, (IBIMA)Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga Málaga Spain
| | - David G. Stouffer
- Department of NeuroscienceThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
| | - Ilham Polis
- Department of NeuroscienceThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
| | - Marisa Roberto
- Department of NeuroscienceThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
| | - Benjamin F. Cravatt
- Department of Chemical Physiology, Skaggs Institute for Chemical BiologyThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
| | - Rémi Martin‐Fardon
- Department of NeuroscienceThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
| | - Fernando Rodríguez de Fonseca
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga, (IBIMA)Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga Málaga Spain
| | - Loren H. Parsons
- Department of NeuroscienceThe Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California USA
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Dong X, Li L, Ye Y, Zhang D, Zheng L, Jiang Y, Shen M. Surrogate analyte-based quantification of main endocannabinoids in whole blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Biomed Chromatogr 2018; 33:e4439. [PMID: 30444951 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.4439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are endogenous ligands of the endocannabinoid system that are known to regulate several physiological and behavioral processes. Previous studies have developed methods for the detection of main eCBs including arachidonylethanolamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), mostly in serum or plasma. Whole blood is a superior biomaterial for eCBs analysis owing to the nature of the shortened isolation procedure and decreased risk of 2-AG isomerization during preparation. In this study, a surrogate analyte-based liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay was developed for the measurement of AEA, 2-AG and its isomer 1-arachidonoylglycerol (1-AG) using a maximum of 100 μL whole blood. Chromatographic separation was achieved using a reverse-phase column and a gradient elution. Detection was performed in selected reaction monitoring mode with an electrospray ionization source. The limits of detection of three eCBs were 0.05-0.1 ng/mL. Good linearity was observed over the concentration range. Intra- and inter-assay accuracy and precision were ≤10.9 and ≤8.7% at four quality control levels. The response factor and parallelism experiment illustrated that the surrogate analytes were suitable for accurate quantification of the main eCBs in whole blood. This surrogate analyte approach was successfully applied to authentic blood samples obtained from alcohol negative drivers and those under the influence of alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoru Dong
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China.,Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Liliang Li
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Yonghong Ye
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Dingang Zhang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Lixing Zheng
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Yan Jiang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Min Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
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Navarrete F, García-Gutiérrez MS, Manzanares J. Pharmacological regulation of cannabinoid CB2 receptor modulates the reinforcing and motivational actions of ethanol. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 157:227-234. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Soyka M, Kranzler HR, Hesselbrock V, Kasper S, Mutschler J, Möller HJ. Guidelines for biological treatment of substance use and related disorders, part 1: Alcoholism, first revision. World J Biol Psychiatry 2017; 18:86-119. [PMID: 28006997 DOI: 10.1080/15622975.2016.1246752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
These practice guidelines for the biological treatment of alcohol use disorders are an update of the first edition, published in 2008, which was developed by an international Task Force of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP). For this 2016 revision, we performed a systematic review (MEDLINE/PUBMED database, Cochrane Library) of all available publications pertaining to the biological treatment of alcoholism and extracted data from national guidelines. The Task Force evaluated the identified literature with respect to the strength of evidence for the efficacy of each medication and subsequently categorised it into six levels of evidence (A-F) and five levels of recommendation (1-5). Thus, the current guidelines provide a clinically and scientifically relevant, evidence-based update of our earlier recommendations. These guidelines are intended for use by clinicians and practitioners who evaluate and treat people with alcohol use disorders and are primarily concerned with the biological treatment of adults with such disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Soyka
- a Psychiatric Hospital Meiringen , Meiringen , Switzerland.,b Department of Psychiatry , Ludwig-Maximilians-University , Munich , Germany.,c Medicalpark Chiemseeblick , Bernau , Germany
| | - Henry R Kranzler
- d Crescenz VAMC , University of Pennsylvania and VISN 4 MIRECC , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | | | - Siegfried Kasper
- f Department of Psychiatric Medicine , University of Vienna, Vienna , Austria
| | - Jochen Mutschler
- a Psychiatric Hospital Meiringen , Meiringen , Switzerland.,g Psychiatric Hospital University of Zürich, Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Hans-Jürgen Möller
- b Department of Psychiatry , Ludwig-Maximilians-University , Munich , Germany
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Paxman J, Hunt B, Hallan D, Zarbock SR, Woodbury DJ. Drunken Membranes: Short-Chain Alcohols Alter Fusion of Liposomes to Planar Lipid Bilayers. Biophys J 2017; 112:121-132. [PMID: 28076803 PMCID: PMC5232861 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2016.11.3205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the effects of ethanol on protein receptors and lipid membranes have been studied extensively, ethanol's effect on vesicles fusing to lipid bilayers is not known. To determine the effect of alcohols on fusion rates, we utilized the nystatin/ergosterol fusion assay to measure fusion of liposomes to a planar lipid bilayer (BLM). The addition of ethanol excited fusion when applied on the cis (vesicle) side, and inhibited fusion on the trans side. Other short-chain alcohols followed a similar pattern. In general, the inhibitory effect of alcohols (trans) occurs at lower doses than the excitatory (cis) effect, with a decrease of 29% in fusion rates at the legal driving limit of 0.08% (w/v) ethanol (IC50 = 0.2% v/v, 34 mM). Similar inhibitory effects were observed with methanol, propanol, and butanol, with ethanol being the most potent. Significant variability was observed with different alcohols when applied to the cis side. Ethanol and propanol enhanced fusion, butanol also enhanced fusion but was less potent, and low doses of methanol mildly inhibited fusion. The inhibition by trans addition of alcohols implies that they alter the planar membrane structure and thereby increase the activation energy required for fusion, likely through an increase in membrane fluidity. The cis data are likely a combination of the above effect and a proportionally greater lowering of the vesicle lysis tension and hydration repulsive pressure that combine to enhance fusion. Alternate hypotheses are also discussed. The inhibitory effect of ethanol on liposome-membrane fusion is large enough to provide a possible biophysical explanation of compromised neuronal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Paxman
- Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
| | - Brady Hunt
- Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
| | - David Hallan
- Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
| | - Samuel R Zarbock
- Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
| | - Dixon J Woodbury
- Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.
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Marco EM, Ballesta JA, Irala C, Hernández MD, Serrano ME, Mela V, López-Gallardo M, Viveros MP. Sex-dependent influence of chronic mild stress (CMS) on voluntary alcohol consumption; study of neurobiological consequences. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 152:68-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Dasmahapatra AK, Khan IA. Gene-specific disruption of endocannabinoid receptor 1 (cnr1a) by ethanol probably leads to the development of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) phenotypes in Japanese rice fish (Oryzias latipes) embryogenesis. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 167:90-100. [PMID: 25251458 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Revised: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The present study was designed to investigate the probable roles played by cannabinoid (CB) receptors in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) induction in Japanese rice fish (Oryzias latipes). Searching of public databases (GenBank, Ensembl) indicated that the Japanese rice fish genome includes three human ortholog CB receptor genes (cnr1a, cnr1b and cnr2). Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and whole mount in situ hybridization (WMISH) techniques were used to analyze the expression of these cnr genes during Japanese rice fish embryogenesis and also in response to developmental ethanol exposure. qPCR analyses showed that the expression of all three CB receptor genes were developmentally regulated and only cnr2 showed maternal expression. The mRNA concentrations of these genes were found to be enhanced after 3 dpf and attained maximal levels either prior to or after hatching. WMISH technique indicated that all three cnr genes were expressed in the head region of hatchlings. During development, ethanol selectively attenuated the expression of cnr1a mRNA only. Blocking of cnr1a mRNA by CB1 receptor antagonists rimonabant (10-20 μM) or AM251 (0.2-1 μM) 0-2 dpf were unable to induce any FASD-related phenotypic features in embryos or in hatchlings. However, continuous exposure of the embryos (0-6 dpf) to AM251 (1 μM) was able to reduce the hatching efficiency of the embryos. Our data indicated that in Japanese rice fish, ethanol disrupted the expression of only cnr1a in a concentration-dependent manner that induced delay in hatching and might be responsible for the development of FASD phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asok K Dasmahapatra
- National Center for Natural Product Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA; Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA.
| | - Ikhlas A Khan
- National Center for Natural Product Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
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15
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Pina MM, Cunningham CL. Effects of the novel cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist PF 514273 on the acquisition and expression of ethanol conditioned place preference. Alcohol 2014; 48:427-31. [PMID: 24954022 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The centrally expressed cannabinoid receptor (CB1) has been considered a potential therapeutic target in treating alcoholism. Though CB1 receptors have been shown to modulate primary and conditioned ethanol reward, much of this research employed animal models that require ethanol ingestion or oral routes of administration. This is problematic considering CB1 antagonist drugs have high anorectic liability and have been used clinically in the treatment of obesity. Therefore, the present study examined CB1 antagonism in DBA/2J mice using an unbiased ethanol-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) procedure, a paradigm that does not require ethanol ingestion. To evaluate the role of CB1 receptors in primary ethanol reward, the highly potent and selective novel CB1 antagonist 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(2,2-difluoropropyl)-6,7-dihydro-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-f][1,4]oxazepin-8(5H)-one (PF 514273) was administered 30 min before place preference conditioning with a fixed dose of ethanol (acquisition). To evaluate the role of CB1 receptors in ethanol-conditioned reward, PF 514273 was administered 30 min before place preference testing (expression). Although PF 514273 reduced ethanol-stimulated and basal locomotor activity, it did not perturb the acquisition or expression of ethanol-induced CPP. Results from the present study appear inconsistent with other studies that have demonstrated a role for CB1 antagonism in ethanol reward using oral administration paradigms. Our findings suggest that CB1 antagonism may have greater involvement in consummatory behavior than ethanol reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie M Pina
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA.
| | - Christopher L Cunningham
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA
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Cole GJ, Zhang C, Ojiaku P, Bell V, Devkota S, Mukhopadhyay S. Effects of ethanol exposure on nervous system development in zebrafish. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 299:255-315. [PMID: 22959306 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394310-1.00007-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol (ethanol) is a teratogen that adversely affects nervous system development in a wide range of animal species. In humans numerous congenital abnormalities arise as a result of fetal alcohol exposure, leading to a spectrum of disorders referred to as fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). These abnormalities include craniofacial defects as well as neurological defects that affect a variety of behaviors. These human FASD phenotypes are reproduced in the rodent central nervous system (CNS) following prenatal ethanol exposure. While the study of ethanol effects on zebrafish development has been more limited, several studies have shown that different strains of zebrafish exhibit differential susceptibility to ethanol-induced cyclopia, as well as behavioral deficits. Molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of ethanol on CNS development also appear to be shared between rodent and zebrafish. Thus, zebrafish appear to recapitulate the observed effects of ethanol on human and mouse CNS development, indicating that zebrafish can serve as a complimentary developmental model system to study the molecular basis of FASD. Recent studies examining the effect of ethanol exposure on zebrafish nervous system development are reviewed, with an emphasis on attempts to elucidate possible molecular pathways that may be impacted by developmental ethanol exposure. Recent work from our laboratories supports a role for perturbed extracellular matrix function in the pathology of ethanol exposure during zebrafish CNS development. The use of the zebrafish model to assess the effects of ethanol exposure on adult nervous system function as manifested by changes in zebrafish behavior is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Cole
- Julius L. Chambers Biomedical/Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC, USA
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Rao PSS, Sari Y. Glutamate transporter 1: target for the treatment of alcohol dependence. Curr Med Chem 2013; 19:5148-56. [PMID: 22680643 DOI: 10.2174/092986712803530511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that many aspects of alcohol and drug dependence involve changes in glutamate transmission. A number of studies have reported that drugs of abuse, including alcohol and cocaine, alter glutamate transport. Extracellular glutamate is regulated by a number of glutamate transporters in various brain regions. Of these transporters, glutamate transporter (GLT1) is a key player in the removal of most of the extracellular glutamate. Similar to neurodegenerative disease models, in which there is dysfunction of the glutamatergic excitatory system, the role of GLT1 has been tested in drug dependence models that show dysfunction of glutamate transmission. We and others have recently found that ceftriaxone, an FDA-approved drug known to elevate GLT1 expression, attenuates cue-induced cocaine relapse. Moreover, we recently found that alcohol-preferring rats treated with ceftriaxone showed a significant dosedependent reduction in alcohol consumption. We also demonstrated that ceftriaxone-induced upregulation of GLT1 expression was associated with increases in glutamate uptake in Huntington's disease mouse model. Importantly, ceftriaxone is currently in clinical trials for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. This review provides information about the potential therapeutic role of GLT1 for the treatment of alcohol abuse and dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S S Rao
- University of Toledo, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Health Science Campus, 3000 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
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Alijanpour S, Rezayof A, Zarrindast MR. Dorsal hippocampal cannabinoid CB1 receptors mediate the interactive effects of nicotine and ethanol on passive avoidance learning in mice. Addict Biol 2013; 18:241-51. [PMID: 21995552 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2011.00387.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The present study evaluated the involvement of the dorsal hippocampal cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the combined effect of ethanol and nicotine on passive avoidance learning in adult male mice. The results indicated that pre-training administration of ethanol (1 g/kg, i.p.) impaired memory retrieval. Pre-test administration of ethanol (0.5 and 1 g/kg, i.p.) or nicotine (0.5 and 0.7 mg/kg, s.c.) significantly reversed ethanol-induced amnesia, suggesting a functional interaction between ethanol and nicotine. Pre-test microinjection of a selective CB1 receptor agonist, ACPA (3 and 5 ng/mouse), plus an ineffective dose of ethanol (0.25 g/kg) or nicotine (0.3 mg/kg) improved memory retrieval, while ACPA by itself could not reverse ethanol-induced amnesia. Pre-test intra-CA1 microinjection of a selective CB1 receptor antagonist, AM251 (0.5-2 ng/mouse), did not lead to a significant change in ethanol-induced amnesia. However, pre-test intra-CA1 microinjection of AM251 prevented the ethanol (1 g/kg) or nicotine (0.7 mg/kg) response on ethanol-induced amnesia. In order to support the involvement of the dorsal hippocampal CB1 receptors in nicotine response, the scheduled mixed treatments of AM251 (0.1-1 ng/mouse), ACPA (5 ng/mouse) and nicotine (0.3 mg/kg) were used. The results indicated that AM251 reversed the response of ACPA to the interactive effects of nicotine and ethanol in passive avoidance learning. Furthermore, pre-test intra-CA1 microinjection of the same doses of ACPA or AM251 had no effect on memory retrieval. These findings show that the cannabinoid CB1 receptors of dorsal hippocampus are important in the combined effect of ethanol and nicotine on passive avoidance learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakineh Alijanpour
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Iran
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Neumeister A, Normandin MD, Murrough JW, Henry S, Bailey CR, Luckenbaugh DA, Tuit K, Zheng MQ, Galatzer-Levy IR, Sinha R, Carson RE, Potenza MN, Huang Y. Positron emission tomography shows elevated cannabinoid CB1 receptor binding in men with alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2012; 36:2104-9. [PMID: 22551199 PMCID: PMC3418442 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01815.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several lines of evidence link cannabinoid (CB) type 1 (CB (1) ) receptor-mediated endogenous CB (eCB) signaling to the etiology of alcohol dependence (AD). However, to date, only peripheral measures of eCB function have been collected in living humans with AD and no human in vivo data on the potentially critical role of the brain CB (1) receptor in AD have been published. This is an important gap in the literature, because recent therapeutic developments suggest that these receptors could be targeted for the treatment for AD. METHODS Medication-free participants were scanned during early abstinence 4 weeks after their last drink. Using positron emission tomography (PET) with a high-resolution research tomograph and the CB (1) receptor selective radiotracer [(11) C]OMAR, we determined [(11) C]OMAR volume of distribution ( V (T) ) values, a measure of CB (1) receptor density, in a priori selected brain regions in men with AD (n = 8, age 37.4 ± 7.9 years; 5 smokers) and healthy control (HC) men (n = 8, age 32.5 ± 6.9 years; all nonsmokers). PET images reconstructed using the MOLAR algorithm with hardware motion correction were rigidly aligned to the subject-specific magnetic resonance (MR) image, which in turn was warped to an MR template. Time-activity curves (TACs) were extracted from the dynamic PET data using a priori selected regions of interest delineated in the MR template space. RESULTS In AD relative to HC, [(11) C]OMAR V (T) values were elevated by approximately 20% (p = 0.023) in a circuit, including the amygdala, hippocampus, putamen, insula, anterior and posterior cingulate cortices, and orbitofrontal cortex. Age, body mass index, or smoking status did not influence the outcome. CONCLUSIONS These findings agree with preclinical evidence and provide the first, albeit still preliminary in vivo evidence suggesting a role for brain CB (1) receptors in AD. The current study design does not answer the important question of whether elevated CB (1) receptors are a preexisting vulnerability factor for AD or whether elevations develop as a consequence of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Neumeister
- Molecular Imaging Program, Department of Psychiatry and Radiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA.
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Abstract
There are two well characterized cannabinoid receptors (CBRs), CB1-Rs and CB2-Rs, with other candidates, such as GPR55, PPARs and vanilloid TRPV1 (VR1) receptors, which are either activated by cannabinoids and/or endocannabinoids (eCBs). The neuronal and functional expression of CB2-Rs in the brain has been much less well characterized in comparison with the expression of the ubiquitous CB1-Rs. CB2-Rs were previously thought to be predominantly expressed in immune cells in the periphery and were traditionally referred to as peripheral CB2-Rs. We and others have now demonstrated the expression of CB2-Rs in neuronal, glial and endothelial cells in the brain, and this warrants a re-evaluation of the CNS effects of CB2-Rs. In the present review we summarize our current understanding of CNR2 genomic structure, its polymorphic nature, subtype specificity, from mice to human subjects, and its variants that confer vulnerabilities to neuropsychiatric disorders beyond neuro-immuno-cannabinoid activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel S Onaivi
- Department of Biology, William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ 07470, USA.
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21
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Onaivi ES. Commentary: Functional Neuronal CB2 Cannabinoid Receptors in the CNS. Curr Neuropharmacol 2011; 9:205-8. [PMID: 21886591 PMCID: PMC3137183 DOI: 10.2174/157015911795017416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 04/17/2010] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoids are the constituents of the marijuana plant (Cannabis sativa). There are numerous cannabinoids and other natural compounds that have been reported in the cannabis plant. The recent progress in marijuana-cannabinoid research include the discovery of an endocannabinoid system with specific genes coding for cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) that are activated by smoking marijuana, and that the human body and brain makes its own marijuana-like substances called endocannabinoids that also activate CBRs. This new knowledge and progress about cannabinoids and endocannabinoids indicate that a balanced level of endocannabinoids is important for pregnancy and that the breast milk in animals and humans has endocannabinoids for the growth and development of the new born. There are two well characterized cannabinoid receptors termed CB1-Rs and CB2-Rs and these CBRs are perhaps the most abundant G-protein coupled receptors that are expressed at high levels in many regions of the mammalian brain. The expression of CB1-Rs in the brain and periphery and the identification of CB2-Rs in immune cells and during inflammation has been extensively studied and characterized. However, the expression of functional neuronal CB2-Rs in the CNS has been much less well established and characterized in comparison to the expression of abundant brain CB1-Rs and functional neuronal CB2-Rs has ignited debate and controversy. While the issue of the specificity of CB2-R antibodies remains, many recent studies have reported the discovery and functional characterization of functional neuronal CB2-Rs in the CNS beyond neuro-immuno cannabinoid activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E S Onaivi
- William Paterson University, Wayne NJ and Molecular Neurobiology Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, USA
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Gutierrez-Lopez MD, Llopis N, Feng S, Barrett DA, O'Shea E, Colado MI. Involvement of 2-arachidonoyl glycerol in the increased consumption of and preference for ethanol of mice treated with neurotoxic doses of methamphetamine. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:772-83. [PMID: 20590579 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00720.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Methamphetamine (METH) is a psychostimulant amphetamine that causes long-term dopaminergic neurotoxicity in mice. Hypodopaminergic states have been demonstrated to increase voluntary ethanol (EtOH) consumption and preference. In addition, the endocannabinoid system has been demonstrated to modulate EtOH drinking behaviour. Thus, we investigated EtOH consumption in METH-lesioned animals and the role of cannabinoid (CB) signalling in this EtOH drinking. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Mice were treated with a neurotoxic regimen of METH, and 7 days later exposed to increasing concentrations of drinking solutions of EtOH (3, 6, 10 and 20%). Seven days after neurotoxic METH, the following biochemical determinations were carried out in limbic forebrain: CB(1) receptor density and stimulated activity, 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) activity, dopamine levels and dopamine transporter density. KEY RESULTS EtOH consumption and preference were increased in METH-treated mice. Seven days after METH, a time at which both dopamine levels and density of dopamine transporters in limbic forebrain were decreased, CB(1) receptor density and activity were unaltered, but 2-AG levels were increased. At this same time-point, MAGL activity was reduced. The CB(1) receptor antagonist AM251 prevented the METH-induced increase in EtOH consumption and preference, while N-arachidonoyl maleimide, an inhibitor of MAGL, increased EtOH consumption and preference in both saline- and METH-treated mice. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS An increase in endocannabinoid tone may be involved in the increased consumption of and preference for EtOH displayed by METH-lesioned mice as blockade of the CB(1) receptor decreased EtOH-seeking behaviours, whereas the MAGL inhibitor increased EtOH consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Gutierrez-Lopez
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
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The endocannabinoid system tonically regulates inhibitory transmission and depresses the effect of ethanol in central amygdala. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35:1962-72. [PMID: 20463657 PMCID: PMC2904853 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2010.70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The central amygdala (CeA) has a major role in alcohol dependence and reinforcement, and behavioral and neurochemical evidence suggests a role for the endocannabinoid (eCB) system in ethanol binging and dependence. We used a slice preparation to investigate the physiological role of cannabinoids and their interaction with ethanol on inhibitory synaptic transmission in CeA. Superfusion of the cannabinoid receptor (CB1) agonist WIN55212-2 (WIN2) onto CeA neurons decreased evoked GABA(A) receptor-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) in a concentration-dependent manner, an effect prevented by the CB1 antagonists Rimonabant (SR141716, SR1) and AM251. SR1 or AM251 applied alone augmented IPSPs, revealing a tonic eCB activity that decreased inhibitory transmission in CeA. Paired-pulse analysis suggested a presynaptic CB1 mechanism. Intracellular BAPTA abolished the ability of AM251 to augment IPSPs, demonstrating the eCB-driven nature and postsynaptic origin of the tonic CB1-dependent control of GABA release. Superfusion of ethanol increased IPSPs and addition of WIN2 reversed the ethanol effect. Similarly, previous superfusion of WIN2 prevented subsequent ethanol effects on GABAergic transmission. The ethanol-induced augmentation of IPSPs was additive to CB1 blockade, ruling out a participation of CB1 in the action of acute ethanol. Our study points to an important role of CB1 in CeA in which the eCBs tonically regulate neuronal activity, and suggests a potent mechanism for modulating CeA tone during challenge with ethanol.
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Abstract
There is a paucity of research on pharmacotherapies in adolescents with substance use disorders. This paucity is partly because of the fact that most people with substance dependence do not get diagnosed until early adulthood, that is, after 18 years of age. This article reviews pharmacotherapies used for aversion, substitution, anti-craving, and detoxification of alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, and opioids dependence. Adult research is referenced when applicable and generalized to adolescents with caution. Continued evaluation and development of pharmacotherapy for youth in controlled studies are needed to examine medication effectiveness, safety, potential for abuse, compliance, and potential interactions with other medications or substances of abuse.
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Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Alcoholism is a widespread disorder with substantial mortality and negative treatment outcomes. To date, few medications have been found to reduce relapse rates or drinking in alcohol-dependent patients. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW This review focuses on drugs that have been clinically tested for the treatment of alcohol dependence in clinical trials, pilot trials or which are considered to have a clinical perspective. For this purpose, a detailed Medline search was conducted on this issue. Although the neurochemical basis of alcoholism and the neuronal circuitry mediating its psychotropic effects have been explored in great detail in recent years, few drugs have emerged for the treatment of alcohol dependence, also because pharmaceutical companies have only a limited interest in this area of research. Acamprosate and the opioid antagonist naltrexone have been found to be effective, although data are mixed. A depot formula of naltrexone and the alternate opioid antagonist nalmefene have been studied in clinical trials and will presumably be introduced in the markets soon. Other emerging drugs are topiramate, novel acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) inhibitors, baclofen, a combination therapy of gababentin and flumazenil and drugs targeting the cortitropin-releasing factor/neuropeptide Y mediated stress axis. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN Insights on the neurochemical basis of alcohol dependence and possible targets of medications. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Acamprosate, naltrexone and the ALDH inhibitor disulfiram are proven medications for the treatment of alcohol dependence with modest efficacy. Novel alternate medications, a depot formulation of the opioid antagonist naltrexone and another oral opioid antagonist, nalmefene, are available now with good evidence for clinical efficacy. Novel ALDH inhibitors, antiepileptic drugs such as topiramate and drugs targeting the stress axis are currently among the most promising emerging drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Soyka
- Psychiatric Hospital, University of Munich, Nussbaumstr. 7 80336 Munich, Germany.
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Abstract
It is well established that the continued intake of drugs of abuse is reinforcing-that is repeated consumption increases preference. This has been shown in some studies to extend to other drugs of abuse; use of one increases preference for another. In particular, the present review deals with the interaction of nicotine and alcohol as it has been shown that smoking is a risk factor for alcoholism and alcohol use is a risk factor to become a smoker. The review discusses changes in the brain caused by chronic nicotine and chronic alcohol intake to approach the possible mechanisms by which one drug increases the preference for another. Chronic nicotine administration was shown to affect nicotine receptors in the brain, affecting not only receptor levels and distribution, but also receptor subunit composition, thus affecting affinity to nicotine. Other receptor systems are also affected among others catecholamine, glutamate, GABA levels and opiate and cannabinoid receptors. In addition to receptor systems and transmitters, there are endocrine, metabolic and neuropeptide changes as well induced by nicotine. Similarly chronic alcohol intake results in changes in the brain, in multiple receptors, transmitters and peptides as discussed in this overview and also illustrated in the tables. The changes are sex and age-dependent-some changes in males are different from those in females and in general adolescents are more sensitive to drug effects than adults. Although nicotine and alcohol interact-not all the changes induced by the combined intake of both are additive-some are opposing. These opposing effects include those on locomotion, acetylcholine metabolism, nicotine binding, opiate peptides, glutamate transporters and endocannabinoid content among others. The two compounds lower the negative withdrawal symptoms of each other which may contribute to the increase in preference, but the mechanism by which preference increases-most likely consists of multiple components that are not clear at the present time. As the details of induced changes of nicotine and alcohol differ, it is likely that the mechanisms of increasing nicotine preference may not be identical to that of increasing alcohol preference. Stimulation of preference of yet other drugs may again be different -representing one aspect of drug specificity of reward mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lajtha
- Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA
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27
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Järbe TUC, Li C, Vadivel SK, Makriyannis A. Discriminative stimulus functions of methanandamide and delta(9)-THC in rats: tests with aminoalkylindoles (WIN55,212-2 and AM678) and ethanol. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2010; 208:87-98. [PMID: 19902182 PMCID: PMC3727230 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1708-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 10/22/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of the study was to characterize in vivo the aminoalkylindoles WIN55,212-2 (WIN) and AM678 (naphthalen-1-yl(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)methanone) as cannabinoid receptor (CB(1)R) ligands using drug discrimination. Tests also involved delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and R-(+)-methanandamide (mAEA), a metabolically stable analog of the endogenous ligand anandamide, as well as the CB(1)R selective antagonist/inverse agonist rimonabant; tests with ethanol assessed pharmacological specificity. We used two different drug discriminations (mAEA and THC) allowing us to explore potential differences in CB(1)R activation which could be attributed to variations in their respective CB(1)R signaling mechanisms. METHODS There were two concurrently trained groups of rats. One group discriminated between i.p. injected vehicle and 10 mg/kg mAEA. The other group was trained to discriminate between vehicle and 1.8 mg/kg THC. RESULTS Dose generalization curves for AM678, WIN55,212-2, THC, and mAEA suggested the following rank order of potency: AM678 > WIN55,212-2 > or = THC > mAEA in both drug discrimination groups. Challenge by 1 mg/kg rimonabant resulted in shifts to the right of the generalization curves for the two aminoalkylindoles (4.4-fold for AM678 and 11.3-fold for WIN in the mAEA group, whereas for the THC group, the corresponding values were 13 and 2.6, respectively), suggesting surmountable antagonism. Ethanol did not generalize in either of the two groups, suggesting pharmacological specificity. CONCLUSION Data are congruent with the general observation that there is substantial overlap in the discriminative stimulus effects of CB(1)R ligands across different chemical classes. However, the quantitative differences in the interactions between the two aminoalkylindoles and rimonabant in the two discrimination groups suggest subtle variations in the ligand-receptor activation(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Torbjörn U C Järbe
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, 265-67 Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA.
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Alvarez-Jaimes L, Stouffer DG, Parsons LH. Chronic ethanol treatment potentiates ethanol-induced increases in interstitial nucleus accumbens endocannabinoid levels in rats. J Neurochem 2009; 111:37-48. [PMID: 19650871 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06301.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
We employed in vivo microdialysis to characterize the effect of an ethanol challenge injection on endocannabinoid levels in the nucleus accumbens of ethanol-naïve and chronic ethanol-treated rats. Ethanol (0.75 and 2 g/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently increased dialysate 2-arachidonoylglycerol (to a maximum 157 +/- 20% of baseline) and decreased anandamide (to a minimum 52 +/- 9% of baseline) in ethanol-naïve rats. The endocannabinoid clearance inhibitor N-(4-hydrophenyl) arachidonoylamide (AM404; 3 mg/kg) potentiated ethanol effects on 2-arachidonoylglycerol levels but did not alter ethanol-induced decreases in anandamide. AM404 alone did not alter dialysate levels of either endocannabinoid. Then, we characterized the effect of ethanol challenge on nucleus accumbens endocannabinoid levels in rats previously maintained on an ethanol-containing liquid diet. Ethanol challenge produced a greater and more prolonged increase in 2-arachidonoylglycerol (to a maximum 394 +/- 135% of baseline) in ethanol-experienced than in ethanol-naïve rats. The profile in ethanol-experienced rats was similar to that produced by AM404 pre-treatment in ethanol-naïve rats. AM404 in ethanol-experienced rats led to a further enhancement in the 2-arachidonoylglycerol response to ethanol challenge (to a maximum 704 +/- 174% of baseline). Our findings demonstrate that ethanol-induced increases in nucleus accumbens 2-arachidonoylglycerol are potentiated in animals with a history of ethanol consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Alvarez-Jaimes
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
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Gerald TM, Howlett AC, Ward GR, Ho C, Franklin SO. Gene expression of opioid and dopamine systems in mouse striatum: effects of CB1 receptors, age and sex. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 198:497-508. [PMID: 18438728 PMCID: PMC3708653 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1141-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2007] [Accepted: 03/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Endocannabinoid, opioid, and dopamine systems interact to exhibit cannabinoid receptor neuromodulation of opioid peptides and D(4) dopamine receptor gene expression in CB(1)-cannabinoid-deficient mouse striatum. OBJECTIVE Using CB(1)-transgenic mice, we examine primary age-sex influences and interactions on opioid and dopamine system members' gene expression in striatum. MATERIALS AND METHODS Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to analyze gene expression of opioid peptides [preproenkephalin (PPENK); preprodynorphin (PPDYN)], opioid receptors [delta-opioid receptor (delta-OR); mu-opioid receptor (micro-OR)] and dopamine receptor subtypes (D(1) through D(5)) in male/female CB(1)(+/+)/CB(1)(-/-) mice striata at two adult ages [young (60-90 days); old (140-300 days)]. RESULTS (1) Increased PPENK and PPDYN, owing to genotype [CB(1)(+/+) vs. CB(1)(-/-)], depended on sex. When genotype-independent, they depended on sex (PPENK) or age (PPDYN). (2) delta-OR was age-dependent (higher in old). (3) micro-OR, owing to genotype, was age-dependent [higher in old CB(1)(-/-) males]. When genotype-independent, it depended on sex (higher in females). (4) Female D(1) was genotype-independent and age-dependent, while male D(1) was higher in old over young CB(1)(+/+) mice. (5) D(5), owing to genotype, was sex-dependent [higher in young female CB(1)(-/-) mice]. (6) D(2), genotype-independent, was higher in old over young male mice. (7) Young female D(3) was higher in CB(1)(-/-) over CB(1)(+/+) mice. Male D(3) was age-dependent (higher in old mice). (8) D(4), owing to genotype, was sex-dependent [higher in CB(1)(-/-) over CB(1)(+/+) females]. Genotype-independent D(4) was sex-dependent in young mice (higher in females) and age-dependent in males (higher in old). CONCLUSIONS Greater striatal expression is genotype-dependent in females (opioid-peptides, D(3), D(4), D(5)) and genotype-independent in both females (PPENK, mu-OR, D(4)) and old males (PPDYN, delta-OR, D(2), D(3), D(4)).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonya M. Gerald
- Chemistry Department, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA. Neuroscience/Drug Abuse Research Program JLC-BBRI, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA
| | - Allyn C. Howlett
- Neuroscience/Drug Abuse Research Program JLC-BBRI, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA. Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Gregg R. Ward
- Neuroscience/Drug Abuse Research Program JLC-BBRI, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA. Department of Life Sciences, Winston-Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA
| | - Cheryl Ho
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Steven O. Franklin
- Chemistry Department, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA. Neuroscience/Drug Abuse Research Program JLC-BBRI, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA. Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, One Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27156, USA
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Cannabinoid receptor 1 blocker rimonabant (SR 141716) for treatment of alcohol dependence: results from a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2008; 28:317-24. [PMID: 18480689 DOI: 10.1097/jcp.0b013e318172b8bc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Multiple lines of evidence suggest that the endocannabinoid system is implicated in the development of alcohol dependence. In addition, in animal models, the cannabinoid receptor 1 blocker rimonabant was found to decrease alcohol consumption, possibly by indirect modulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission. This was a 12-week double-blind, placebo-controlled, proof-of-concept study to assess the possible efficacy of the cannabinoid receptor 1 antagonist rimonabant 20 mg/d (2 x 10 mg) in the prevention of relapse to alcohol in recently detoxified alcohol-dependent patients. A total of 260 patients were included, 258 were exposed to medication, and 208 (80.6%) were men. Patients had an alcohol history of 15 years on average. More patients in the rimonabant group (94/131 [71.8%]) completed treatment compared with the placebo group (79/127 [62.2%]). Although there was a modest effect of rimonabant with respect to relapse rate, there were no statistically significant differences between treatment groups. Approximately 41.5% of the rimonabant group had relapsed to drinking at the end of the study compared with 47.7% of the placebo group (obtained from Kaplan-Meier-curve). Differences were more marked but not statistically significant in patients who relapsed to heavy drinking: 27.7% versus 35.6%, respectively. Safety and tolerance of the drug were good. Similar rates of adverse events were reported between the 2 groups; less patients experienced serious events or discontinued the treatment with rimonabant compared with placebo. Rates of depression-related events were low (3.8% with rimonabant compared with 1.6% with placebo). Patients on rimonabant lost weight (Mean, -1.7 kg) compared with baseline, whereas there was no such change in the placebo group. Weight loss was more pronounced in patients with a higher body mass index. In addition, there was a significant decrease in leptin levels in the rimonabant group compared with baseline. Lack of efficacy in this study may be explained by a very high response rate in the placebo group and a relatively short treatment duration. Taking the substantial numbers of animal studies suggesting a possible role of CB1 antagonists for the treatment of alcohol dependence into account, it seems worthwhile to further test cannabinoid blockers in the treatment of alcoholism.
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Abstract
Food, drugs and brain stimulation can serve as strong rewarding stimuli and are all believed to activate common brain circuits that evolved in mammals to favour fitness and survival. For decades, endogenous dopaminergic and opioid systems have been considered the most important systems in mediating brain reward processes. Recent evidence suggests that the endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid) system also has an important role in signalling of rewarding events. First, CB(1) receptors are found in brain areas involved in reward processes, such as the dopaminergic mesolimbic system. Second, activation of CB(1) receptors by plant-derived, synthetic or endogenous CB(1) receptor agonists stimulates dopaminergic neurotransmission, produces rewarding effects and increases rewarding effects of abused drugs and food. Third, pharmacological or genetic blockade of CB(1) receptors prevents activation of dopaminergic neurotransmission by several addictive drugs and reduces rewarding effects of food and these drugs. Fourth, brain levels of the endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol are altered by activation of reward processes. However, the intrinsic activity of the endocannabinoid system does not appear to play a facilitatory role in brain stimulation reward and some evidence suggests it may even oppose it. The influence of the endocannabinoid system on brain reward processes may depend on the degree of activation of the different brain areas involved and might represent a mechanism for fine-tuning dopaminergic activity. Although involvement of the various components of the endocannabinoid system may differ depending on the type of rewarding event investigated, this system appears to play a major role in modulating reward processes.
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Rubio M, Fernández-Ruiz J, de Miguel R, Maestro B, Michael Walker J, Ramos JA. CB1 receptor blockade reduces the anxiogenic-like response and ameliorates the neurochemical imbalances associated with alcohol withdrawal in rats. Neuropharmacology 2008; 54:976-88. [PMID: 18371990 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2007] [Revised: 02/05/2008] [Accepted: 02/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
There is strong evidence that blocking CB1 receptors may reduce alcohol intake in alcohol-dependent individuals. However, there is still limited evidence that CB1 receptor antagonists may also be beneficial in the attenuation of alcohol withdrawal syndrome, even though alcohol withdrawal appears to be milder in CB1 receptor knockout mice. Here we have examined whether the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant (SR141716) can alleviate the behavioral symptoms and revert the neurochemical imbalance elicited by a 3-h interruption of chronic alcohol exposure (7.2% in the drinking water for 10 days) in male Wistar rats. Administration of rimonabant attenuated the strong anxiogenic traits of the animals that developed when regular alcohol intake was interrupted. This may reflect the correction of the GABA/glutamate imbalances developed by the animals that received rimonabant in various brain regions involved in emotional (e.g. prefrontal cortex) and motor (e.g. caudate-putamen and globus pallidus) responses. In addition, rimonabant also affected the dopamine deficits generated by alcohol abstinence in the amygdala and ventral-tegmental area, albeit to a lesser extent. However, this antagonist was unable to correct the impairment caused by alcohol abstinence in serotonin and neuropeptide Y. The endocannabinoid activity in the brain of alcohol-abstinent rats indicated that the behavioral and neurochemical improvements caused by rimonabant were not related to the attenuation of a possible increase in this activity generated by alcohol withdrawal. Conversely, the density of CB1 receptors was reduced in alcohol-abstinent animals (e.g. globus pallidus, substantia nigra), as were the levels of endocannabinoids and related N-acylethanolamines (e.g. amygdala, caudate-putamen). Thus, rimonabant possibly enhances an endogenous response generated by interrupting the regular use of alcohol. In summary, rimonabant might attenuate withdrawal symptoms associated with alcohol abstinence, an effect that was presumably due to the normalization of GABA and glutamate, and to a lesser extent, dopamine transmission in emotion- and motor-related areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Rubio
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular and Centro de Investigación biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, 28040-Madrid, Spain
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Lemos JI, Takahashi RN, Morato GS. Effects of SR141716 and WIN 55,212-2 on tolerance to ethanol in rats using the acute and rapid procedures. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 194:139-49. [PMID: 17546513 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0804-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2006] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Our previous findings have shown rapid cross-tolerance between ethanol and Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and that intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) antagonist SR141716 (SR) does not interfere with tolerance to either of these drugs in mice. OBJECTIVES This study investigates the effects of SR, alone or in combination with the CB receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 (WIN), on the development of acute and rapid tolerance to the incoordinating effect of ethanol in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Male Wistar rats received SR, through i.p. (0.5-2.0 mg/kg) or intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injections (0.5-4.0 microg), alone or together with WIN (1.0 microg, i.c.v.), in combination with ethanol (2.7 g/kg, i.p.). Another group received WIN (1.0 microg, i.c.v.) in combination with ethanol (2.3 g/kg), and the rats were tested for motor coordination. Rapid tolerance was assessed 24 h later by administering ethanol to all animals and retesting them under the same dose regimen. Acute tolerance was evaluated for 75 min after ethanol (3.0 g/kg, i.p.) in animals treated with SR or WIN (i.c.v.). RESULTS The reduced motor impairment on day 2 (i.e., rapid tolerance) was blocked by SR (i.p. and i.c.v.). WIN (1.0 microg, i.c.v.) facilitated rapid tolerance and also prevented the blockade of rapid tolerance by SR (1.0 microg, i.c.v.). In the acute tolerance procedure, SR did not affect the motor incoordination induced by ethanol. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that the endocannabinoid system may contribute to the development of rapid tolerance to ethanol.
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MESH Headings
- Analgesics, Opioid/administration & dosage
- Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology
- Animals
- Benzoxazines/administration & dosage
- Benzoxazines/pharmacology
- Central Nervous System Depressants/administration & dosage
- Central Nervous System Depressants/pharmacology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Drug Interactions
- Drug Tolerance
- Ethanol/administration & dosage
- Ethanol/pharmacology
- Injections, Intraperitoneal
- Injections, Intraventricular
- Male
- Morpholines/administration & dosage
- Morpholines/pharmacology
- Motor Activity/drug effects
- Naphthalenes/administration & dosage
- Naphthalenes/pharmacology
- Piperidines/administration & dosage
- Piperidines/pharmacology
- Pyrazoles/administration & dosage
- Pyrazoles/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/agonists
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/antagonists & inhibitors
- Rimonabant
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Inácio Lemos
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário Trindade, CCB, 88049-900, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil.
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Endocannabinoid system involvement in brain reward processes related to drug abuse. Pharmacol Res 2007; 56:393-405. [PMID: 17936009 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2007.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2007] [Revised: 08/21/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis is the most commonly abused illegal drug in the world and its main psychoactive ingredient, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), produces rewarding effects in humans and non-human primates. Over the last several decades, an endogenous system comprised of cannabinoid receptors, endogenous ligands for these receptors and enzymes responsible for the synthesis and degradation of these endogenous cannabinoid ligands has been discovered and partly characterized. Experimental findings strongly suggest a major involvement of the endocannabinoid system in general brain reward functions and drug abuse. First, natural and synthetic cannabinoids and endocannabinoids can produce rewarding effects in humans and laboratory animals. Second, activation or blockade of the endogenous cannabinoid system has been shown to modulate the rewarding effects of non-cannabinoid psychoactive drugs. Third, most abused drugs alter brain levels of endocannabinoids in the brain. In addition to reward functions, the endocannabinoid cannabinoid system appears to be involved in the ability of drugs and drug-related cues to reinstate drug-seeking behavior in animal models of relapse. Altogether, evidence points to the endocannadinoid system as a promising target for the development of medications for the treatment of drug abuse.
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Colombo G, Orrù A, Lai P, Cabras C, Maccioni P, Rubio M, Gessa GL, Carai MAM. The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, rimonabant, as a promising pharmacotherapy for alcohol dependence: preclinical evidence. Mol Neurobiol 2007; 36:102-12. [PMID: 17952655 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-007-0017-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2006] [Accepted: 01/24/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Several lines of preclinical evidence indicate the ability of the prototypic cannabinoid CB(1) receptor antagonist, rimonabant, to suppress various alcohol-related behaviors, including alcohol drinking and seeking behavior and alcohol self-administration in rats and mice. Together, these data-synthetically reviewed in the present paper-suggest (a) the involvement of the cannabinoid CB(1) receptor in the neural substrate controlling alcohol intake, alcohol reinforcement, and the motivational properties of alcohol and (b) that rimonabant may constitute a new and potentially effective medication for the treatment of alcohol dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giancarlo Colombo
- C.N.R. Institute of Neuroscience, Viale Diaz 182, Cagliari (CA), 182 I-09126, Italy.
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Blednov YA, Cravatt BF, Boehm SL, Walker D, Harris RA. Role of endocannabinoids in alcohol consumption and intoxication: studies of mice lacking fatty acid amide hydrolase. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:1570-82. [PMID: 17164820 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Endocannabinoid signaling plays the important role in regulation of ethanol intake. Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a key membrane protein for metabolism of endocannabinoids, including anandamide, and blockade of FAAH increases the level of anandamide in the brain. To determine if FAAH regulates ethanol consumption, we studied mutant mice with deletion of the FAAH gene. Null mutant mice showed higher preference for alcohol and voluntarily consumed more alcohol than wild-type littermates. There was no significant difference in consumption of sweet or bitter solutions. To determine the specificity of FAAH for ethanol intake, we studied additional ethanol-related behaviors. There were no differences between null mutant and wild-type mice in severity of ethanol-induced acute withdrawal, conditioned taste aversion to alcohol, conditioned place preference, or sensitivity to hypnotic effect of ethanol. However, null mutant mice showed shorter duration of loss of righting reflex induced by low doses of ethanol (3.2 and 3.4 g/kg) and faster recovery from motor incoordination induced by ethanol. All three behavioral phenotypes (increased preference for ethanol, decreased sensitivity to ethanol-induced sedation, and faster recovery from ethanol-induced motor incoordination) seen in mutant mice were reproduced in wild-type mice by injection of a specific inhibitor of FAAH activity--URB597. These data suggest that increased endocannabinoid signaling increased ethanol consumption owing to decreased acute ethanol intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri A Blednov
- Department of Neurobiology, Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712-0159, USA.
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Müller TD, Reichwald K, Wermter AK, Brönner G, Nguyen TT, Friedel S, Koberwitz K, Engeli S, Lichtner P, Meitinger T, Schäfer H, Hebebrand J, Hinney A. No evidence for an involvement of variants in the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) in obesity in German children and adolescents. Mol Genet Metab 2007; 90:429-34. [PMID: 17292652 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2007.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2006] [Revised: 01/03/2007] [Accepted: 01/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Studies in rodent models demonstrated that the central cannabinoid receptor (Cnr1) mediates the orexigenic effects of cannabinoids. To analyze whether genetic variation in the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) is implicated in human obesity, we initially genotyped 8 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in the 5' region (rs9353527, rs754387, rs6454676), intron 2 (rs806379, rs1535255), exon 3 (rs2023239), intron 3 (rs806370) and the coding region (rs1049353) in up to 364 German obesity trios (extremely obese child or adolescent and both parents). The transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) was negative for these SNPs (p>0.05). However, there was a slight trend towards preferential transmission of the A-allele of rs1049353 (p=0.12). We therefore genotyped this SNP in 235 independent German obesity families (at least two obese sibs and both parents) and in parallel screened the CNR1 coding region for sequence variations in 120 German extremely obese children and adolescents who mainly contributed to the initial trend observed for rs1049353. The trend for preferential transmission of the A-allele could not be substantiated (pedigree disequilibrium test, PDT p=0.15; A-allele less frequently transmitted). In the mutation screen we detected two rare variations, one novel non-conservative mutation (c.1256C>A; A419E) and the known variant 1419+1G>C. In addition, we confirmed the presence of rs1049353. As these variants could not explain the initial TDT, we conclude that there is no evidence for an association of CNR1 alleles with obesity in our study groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Dirk Müller
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Duisburg-Essen, Virchowstr. 174, 45147 Essen, Germany
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Mitrirattanakul S, López-Valdés HE, Liang J, Matsuka Y, Mackie K, Faull KF, Spigelman I. Bidirectional alterations of hippocampal cannabinoid 1 receptors and their endogenous ligands in a rat model of alcohol withdrawal and dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007; 31:855-67. [PMID: 17386072 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00366.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The hippocampus is strongly implicated in memory processes and contains high concentrations of both cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands. Chronic alcohol consumption impairs a variety of cognitive and performance tasks, including memory and learning. As the activation of cannabinoid receptors by their endogenous ligands modulates hippocampal neurotransmission, we hypothesized that the impaired memory and learning in alcoholism may be due to alterations in the hippocampal endocannabinoid system. METHODS We used the rat chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) model for alcohol withdrawal and dependence which involves intermittent episodes of ethanol intoxication (60 doses) and withdrawal (approximating binge drinking episodes in humans). We measured the levels of cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) protein (Western blot using a C-terminal-directed antibody), CB1R mRNA (real-time RT-PCR), CB1R localization (immunocytochemistry), tissue levels of the endocannabinoids N-arachidonoylethanolamine/anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and function (patch-clamp recordings of depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI), as well as effects of CB1R agonist WIN 55,212-2 on inhibitory currents) in the hippocampus of CIE rats and their saline-treated controls. RESULTS Results were obtained in saline and CIE-treated rats after 2 and 40 days of withdrawal (DW) from their respective treatments. In 2 DW CIE rats, CB1R mRNA and protein levels were decreased by 27% (p<0.05) compared with saline controls. Surprisingly, in 40 DW CIE rats, CB1R mRNA increased by 100% and protein increased by 21%, confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Hippocampal [2-AG] increased in both 2 and 40 DW CIE rats; [AEA] increased only at 40 DW. Hippocampal DSI of CIE rats was significantly reduced at 2 DW but not at 40 DW. The CB1R agonist WIN 55,212-2 (0.5 microM) produced a significantly greater decrease in the frequency of spontaneous inhibitory currents from saline-treated rats compared with CIE rats at 2 DW, but not at 40 DW. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that CIE treatment and withdrawal transiently down-regulates hippocampal CB1 Rs followed by a long-term up-regulation, including increased levels of endogenous cannabinoids. These findings are consistent with our hypothesis and suggest that long-term up-regulation of hippocampal CB1Rs may contribute to the long-term cognitive impairments in alcoholism. The data further suggest that the effectiveness of CB1R blockade in decreasing alcohol consumption may be greater after protracted abstinence from alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somsak Mitrirattanakul
- Division of Oral Biology & Medicine, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1668, USA
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Hansson AC, Bermúdez-Silva FJ, Malinen H, Hyytiä P, Sanchez-Vera I, Rimondini R, Rodriguez de Fonseca F, Kunos G, Sommer WH, Heilig M. Genetic impairment of frontocortical endocannabinoid degradation and high alcohol preference. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:117-26. [PMID: 16482090 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Endocannabinoid signaling has recently been implicated in ethanol-seeking behavior. We analyzed the expression of endocannabinoid-related genes in key brain regions of reward and dependence, and compared them between the alcohol-preferring AA (Alko Alcohol) and nonpreferring ANA (Alko Non-Alcohol) rat lines. A decreased expression of fatty acid amidohydrolase (FAAH), the main endocannabinoid-degrading enzyme, was found in prefrontal cortex (PFC) of AA rats, and was accompanied by decreased enzyme activity in this region. Binding of the endocannabinoid-cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor ligand (3)[H]SR141716A, and [35S]GTPgammaS incorporation stimulated by the CB1 agonist WIN 55,212-2 were downregulated in the same area. Together, this suggests an overactive endocannabinoid transmission in the PFC of AA animals, and a compensatory downregulation of CB1 signaling. The functional role of impaired FAAH function for alcohol self-administration was validated in two independent ways. The CB1 antagonist SR141716A potently and dose-dependently suppressed self-administration in AA rats when given systemically, or locally into the PFC, but not in the striatum. Conversely, intra-PFC injections of the competitive FAAH inhibitor URB597 increased ethanol self-administration in nonselected Wistar rats. These results show for the first time that impaired FAAH function may confer a phenotype of high voluntary alcohol intake, and point to a FAAH both as a potential susceptibility factor and a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita C Hansson
- Laboratory of Clinical and Translational Studies, NIAAA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1108, USA
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Kelaï S, Hanoun N, Aufrère G, Beaugé F, Hamon M, Lanfumey L. Cannabinoid-serotonin interactions in alcohol-preferring vs. alcohol-avoiding mice. J Neurochem 2006; 99:308-20. [PMID: 16987253 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04054.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Because cannabinoid and serotonin (5-HT) systems have been proposed to play an important role in drug craving, we investigated whether cannabinoid 1 (CB1) and 5-HT(1A) receptor ligands could affect voluntary alcohol intake in two mouse strains, C57BL/6 J and DBA/2 J, with marked differences in native alcohol preference. When offered progressively (3-10% ethanol) in drinking water, in a free-choice procedure, alcohol intake was markedly lower (approximately 70%) in DBA/2 J than in C57BL/6 J mice. In DBA/2 J mice, chronic treatment with the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 increased alcohol intake. WIN 55,212-2 effect was prevented by concomitant, chronic CB1 receptor blockade by rimonabant or chronic 5-HT(1A) receptor stimulation by 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)-tetralin, which, on their own, did not affect alcohol intake. In C57BL/6 J mice, chronic treatment with WIN 55,212-2 had no effect but chronic CB1 receptor blockade or chronic 5-HT(1A) receptor stimulation significantly decreased alcohol intake. Parallel autoradiographic investigations showed that chronic treatment with WIN 55,212-2 significantly decreased 5-HT(1A)-mediated [35S]guanosine triphosphate-gamma-S binding in the hippocampus of both mouse strains. Conversely, chronic rimonabant increased this binding in C57BL/6 J mice. These results show that cannabinoid neurotransmission can exert a permissive control on alcohol intake, possibly through CB1-5-HT(1A) interactions. However, the differences between C57BL/6 J and DBA/2 J mice indicate that such modulations of alcohol intake are under genetic control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabah Kelaï
- UMR 677 INSERM-UPMC, Faculté de Médecine Pierre et Marie Curie, Site Pitié-Salpêtrière, IFR 70 des Neurosciences, Paris, France
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Ginsburg BC, Lamb RJ. Cannabinoid effects on behaviors maintained by ethanol or food: a within-subjects comparison. Behav Pharmacol 2006; 17:249-57. [PMID: 16572003 DOI: 10.1097/00008877-200605000-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The cannabinoid CB1 antagonist rimonabant (SR141716A) has been proposed as a therapeutic agent for several addictive disorders, including alcoholism. Rimonabant may selectively reduce responding for an ethanol solution compared with an alternative. While this could represent a specific effect of CB1 inhibition on ethanol reinforcement, this could also result from differences in the baseline rates of behavior or experiences between comparison groups. We developed a procedure in rats that allows a within-subject comparison of ethanol and food-maintained responding and provides well matched baseline response rates. We determined the effects of acute doses of rimonabant (0.3-5.6 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) and the CB1 agonist Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (1.0-5.6 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) on responding for food and ethanol under a multiple fixed-ratio schedule. To confirm that rimonabant blocked cannabinoid receptors, the ability of rimonabant to antagonize Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in the same subjects under the same reinforcement schedule was also determined. In contrast with previous reports, rimonabant did not significantly alter responding for ethanol or food. The effects of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on responding for food were completely antagonized by rimonabant, whereas Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects on responding for ethanol were not. These results suggest that there may be neuroadaptation of the cannabinoid system following aging or chronic self-administration of ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett C Ginsburg
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78228, USA.
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Basavarajappa BS, Yalamanchili R, Cravatt BF, Cooper TB, Hungund BL. Increased ethanol consumption and preference and decreased ethanol sensitivity in female FAAH knockout mice. Neuropharmacology 2006; 50:834-44. [PMID: 16448676 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2005] [Revised: 12/07/2005] [Accepted: 12/08/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that mice lacking cannabinoid (CB1) receptor gene consume markedly reduced levels of ethanol. Mice lacking the enzyme fatty acid amidohydrolase (FAAH) are severely impaired in their ability to degrade anandamide (AEA) and therefore represent a unique animal model in which to examine the function of AEA in vivo on ethanol-drinking behavior. In the current study, FAAH(-/-) mice were tested for ethanol, saccharin or quinine consumption and preference. Ethanol-induced hypothermia, and sleep time were used to evaluate the sensitivity to acute effects of ethanol. Ethanol intake and preference were increased only in female FAAH(-/-) mice. No significant difference in saccharin or quinine consumption or preference was observed between genotypes. Female FAAH(-/-) mice were less sensitive to the hypothermic and sedative/hypnotic effects of acute ethanol. Supersensitivity to exogenous AEA was noted in both male and female FAAH(-/-) mice. Following voluntary ethanol consumption, CB1 receptor levels and function were down-regulated in male FAAH(+/+), FAAH(-/-), and female FAAH(+/+) mice but not in female FAAH(-/-) mice. Our results suggest that absence of an effect in male mice indicates a sex-linked mechanism that is secondary (or modulatory) to FAAH function. Thus, the data suggest that FAAH may be indirectly related to ethanol intake and sensitivity and central endocannabinoidergic-mediated pathways may regulate ethanol consumption.
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Melamede R. Harm reduction--the cannabis paradox. Harm Reduct J 2005; 2:17. [PMID: 16179090 PMCID: PMC1261530 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7517-2-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2004] [Accepted: 09/22/2005] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This article examines harm reduction from a novel perspective. Its central thesis is that harm reduction is not only a social concept, but also a biological one. More specifically, evolution does not make moral distinctions in the selection process, but utilizes a cannabis-based approach to harm reduction in order to promote survival of the fittest. Evidence will be provided from peer-reviewed scientific literature that supports the hypothesis that humans, and all animals, make and use internally produced cannabis-like products (endocannabinoids) as part of the evolutionary harm reduction program. More specifically, endocannabinoids homeostatically regulate all body systems (cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, excretory, immune, nervous, musculo-skeletal, reproductive). Therefore, the health of each individual is dependant on this system working appropriately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Melamede
- Biology Department, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, 80918, USA.
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Litten RZ, Fertig J, Mattson M, Egli M. Development of medications for alcohol use disorders: recent advances and ongoing challenges. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2005; 10:323-43. [PMID: 15934870 DOI: 10.1517/14728214.10.2.323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
During the past decade, efforts to develop medications for alcoholism have burgeoned. Three agents, disulfiram, naltrexone and acamprosate, are now approved in a large number of countries. Although many patients have benefited from existing medications, their effects are moderate, and some alcoholics fail to respond to them. A host of new agents are currently under active investigation. Critical barriers must be overcome to ensure that future efforts in the development of medications for alcohol use disorders reach full fruition. These challenges include: establishing key targets for drug discovery; validating animal and human screening models; and developing biomarkers to help predict treatment success. In addition, it is important to formulate methodological and statistical strategies to efficiently conduct alcohol pharmacotherapy trials; to specify genetic and phenotypic patient characteristics associated with efficacy and safety for lead compounds; to forge productive alliances among governmental agencies, the pharmaceutical industry and academic researchers to further drug development; and, ultimately and perhaps most difficult, to engage the practitioner community to incorporate medications into the alcohol treatment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raye Z Litten
- Division of Treatment and Recovery Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 5635 Fishers Lane, Room 2041, Bethesda, MD 20852-1705, USA.
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