IMI 2021 Yearly Digest

Myopia control strategies: A systematic review and meta-meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To summarise pooled estimates of the efficacies of various myopia control interventions, as drawn from published meta-analyses.

METHOD

PubMed, SCOPUS and Web of Science were searched from inception to February 2024 for systematic reviews and meta-analyses reporting treatment effects of various myopia control strategies. The qualities of the included meta-analyses were assessed using the 16-item A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) 2. An intervention was defined as having a clinically significant effect if it resulted in a change in spherical equivalent refraction (SER) of ≥0.50 D/year or axial length (AL) change of ≤-0.18 mm/year.

RESULTS

A total of 38 studies were identified. The overall respective changes in SER and AL, mean difference (95% CI) were high-concentration (≥0.5%) atropine 0.67 D (0.58-0.77) and -0.24 mm (-0.36 to -0.11); moderate-concentration (>0.05% to <0.5%) atropine 0.48 D (0.34-0.62) and -0.23 mm (-0.27 to -0.19); low-concentration (0.01%, 0.025%, 0.05%) atropine 0.33 D (0.23-0.43) and -0.14 mm (-0.19 to -0.09); orthokeratology -0.47 mm (-0.66 to -0.28); peripheral plus soft contact lenses 0.30 D (0.18-0.42) and -0.35 mm (-0.62 to -0.08); peripheral plus spectacles 0.77 D (0.40-1.14) and -0.43 mm (-0.78 to -0.08); multifocal spectacles 0.21 D (0.11-0.31); repeated low-level red light therapy 0.55 D (0.46-0.65) and -0.25 mm (-0.29 to -0.20); outdoor time 0.17 D (0.16-0.18) and -0.04 mm (-0.06 to -0.01).

CONCLUSION

High and moderate concentrations of atropine, orthokeratology, peripheral plus spectacles and repeated low-level red light demonstrated clinically significant effects on slowing AL elongation, while high and moderate concentrations of atropine, peripheral plus spectacles and repeated low-level red light demonstrated clinically significant effects on slowing SER progression.

Slowing myopia progression with cylindrical annular refractive elements (CARE) spectacle lenses-Year 1 results from a 2-year prospective, multi-centre trial

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effectiveness of 12 months of spectacle lens wear incorporating cylindrical annular refractive elements (CARE) in slowing myopia progression compared to single vision (SV) spectacle wear.

METHODS

In an ongoing 2-year prospective, double-masked, multi-centre clinical trial, 240 Chinese children aged 6-13 years, spherical equivalent refractive error (SE) -0.75 D to -5.00 D were randomised to one of three groups of 80 participants each to wear: SV spectacle lens (N = 80), CARE spectacles (7 mm central clear zone surrounded by treatment zone incorporating CARE with mean surface power of +4.6 D) and CARE S (9 mm central clear zone surrounded by treatment zone comprising CARE with mean surface power of +3.8 D). Cycloplegic SE and axial length (AL) were measured at 6-month intervals.

RESULTS

Compared to baseline, changes in SE and AL were significantly different between the groups at both 6 and 12 months (p < 0.001, linear mixed model). Adjusting for site, group, parental myopia and age, at 12 months, the estimated change in SE and AL with 95% CI with SV was -0.65 D (CI: -0.56 to -0.74 D)/0.32 mm (CI: 0.29-0.36 mm). In comparison, the estimated change in SE/AL at 12 months with CARE was -0.35 D (-0.26 to -0.44 D)/0.19 mm (0.15-0.22 mm) and with CARE S was -0.36 D (-0.27 to -0.46 D)/0.21 mm (0.18-0.25 mm) at 12 months. Progression was slower with CARE and CARE S compared to SV (p < 0.05) but did not differ from each other (p = 0.793 and 0.336 for SE and AL, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

In children with myopia, after 12 months of lens wear, both CARE and CARE S spectacle lenses significantly slowed myopia progression compared to SV lenses.

Comparison between IOL MASTER 500 and MYAH with vector analysis in low and mild anterior corneal astigmatism

PURPOSE

Evaluate the agreement between IOL Master 500 (Carl Zeiss Meditec AG, Germany) and MYAH (Topcon EU, Visia Imaging, Japan) in measuring axial length, keratometry, and anterior corneal astigmatism.

SETTING

Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, Ophthalmology Clinic, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.

METHODS

In this prospective study, 40 eyes (right eye 25, left eye 15) of 40 patients were included. Axial length (AL), keratometry (K1, K2), and anterior corneal astigmatism (ACA) were measured. AL, mean K (Kavg) and magnitude of ACA were compared using Bland - Altman plot analysis, parametric and nonparametric statistical analysis. The difference vector and angle of error of the ACA measured by the two devices were evaluated by vector analysis using polar diagrams.

RESULTS

Mean and standard deviation with IOL Master and with MYAH device was for AL 24.25 ± 1.22 mm and 24.25 ± 1.22 mm (p = .99), for Kavg 42.75 ± 1.53 D and 42.85 ± 1.52 D (p = .78), for Magnitude of ACA 1.00 ± 0.58 D and 0.89 ± 0.56 D (p = .38) respectively. High correlations were found for AL (R² = 0.999), Kavg (R² = 0.996), and ACA Magnitude (R² = 0.889). Bland-Altman analysis of the two devices found high agreement and absence of proportional bias (MYAH-IOL MASTER) were found between the two assessments for AL (bias = -0.0005 mm, p = .93), Kavg (bias = 0.0955 D, p = .76) and ACA (bias = 0.11 D, p = .41). Limit of agreement (upper/lower LoA, 95%CI) were respectively +0.057/-0.058 mm for AL, + 0.29/-0.09 D for Kavg and +0.49/-0.27 D for ACA. No statistical difference was found between the x-component and y-component of the ACA vector (p > .01), the difference vector (IOL MASTER-MYAH) was +0.14 D axis 159 with an absolute mean angle of error of 7.2 ± 7.5 degree.

CONCLUSIONS

The instruments appear to be interchangeable for measurements of AL, keratometry, and magnitude of ACA with high agreement between the two devices. Also, in the presence of low astigmatism, the two instruments give the same results in terms of ACA.

Myopia management algorithm. Annexe to the article titled Update and guidance on management of myopia. European Society of Ophthalmology in cooperation with International Myopia Institute

Myopia is becoming increasingly common in young generations all over the world, and it is predicted to become the most common cause of blindness and visual impairment in later life in the near future. Because myopia can cause serious complications and vision loss, it is critical to create and prescribe effective myopia treatment solutions that can help prevent or delay the onset and progression of myopia. The scientific understanding of myopia's causes, genetic background, environmental conditions, and various management techniques, including therapies to prevent or postpone its development and slow its progression, is rapidly expanding. However, some significant information gaps exist on this subject, making it difficult to develop an effective intervention plan. As with the creation of this present algorithm, a compromise is to work on best practices and reach consensus among a wide number of specialists. The quick rise in information regarding myopia management may be difficult for the busy eye care provider, but it necessitates a continuing need to evaluate new research and implement it into daily practice. To assist eye care providers in developing these strategies, an algorithm has been proposed that covers all aspects of myopia mitigation and management. The algorithm aims to provide practical assistance in choosing and developing an effective myopia management strategy tailored to the individual child. It incorporates the latest research findings and covers a wide range of modalities, from primary, secondary, and tertiary myopia prevention to interventions that reduce the progression of myopia.

Myopic maculopathy among Chinese children with high myopia and its association with choroidal and retinal changes: the SCALE-HM study

AIMS

To investigate myopic maculopathy in Chinese children with high myopia and its association with choroidal and retinal changes.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included Chinese children aged 4-18 years with high myopia. Myopic maculopathy was classified by fundus photography and retinal thickness (RT) and choroidal thickness (ChT) in the posterior pole were measured by swept-source optical coherence tomography. A receiver operation curve was used to determine the efficacy of fundus factors in classifying myopic maculopathy.

RESULTS

In total, 579 children aged 12.8±3.2 years with a mean spherical equivalent of -8.44±2.20 D were included. The proportions of tessellated fundus and diffuse chorioretinal atrophy were 43.52% (N=252) and 8.64% (N=50), respectively. Tessellated fundus was associated with a thinner macular ChT (OR=0.968, 95% CI: 0.961 to 0.975, p<0.001) and RT (OR=0.977, 95% CI: 0.959 to 0.996, p=0.016), longer axial length (OR=1.545, 95% CI: 1.198 to 1.991, p=0.001) and older age (OR=1.134, 95% CI: 1.047 to 1.228, p=0.002) and less associated with male children (OR=0.564, 95% CI: 0.348 to 0.914, p=0.020). Only a thinner macular ChT (OR=0.942, 95% CI: 0.926 to 0.959, p<0.001) was independently associated with diffuse chorioretinal atrophy. When using nasal macular ChT for classifying myopic maculopathy, the optimal cut-off value was 129.00 µm (area under the curve (AUC)=0.801) and 83.85 µm (AUC=0.910) for tessellated fundus and diffuse chorioretinal atrophy, respectively.

CONCLUSION

A large proportion of highly myopic Chinese children suffer from myopic maculopathy. Nasal macular ChT may serve as a useful index for classifying and assessing paediatric myopic maculopathy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT03666052.

Two-Year Myopia Management Efficacy of Extended Depth of Focus Soft Contact Lenses (MYLO) in Caucasian Children

PURPOSE

To evaluate the progression of myopia as assessed by change in axial length (AL) and spherical equivalent (SE) from baseline in Caucasian children wearing extended depth of focus soft contact lenses (CLs) compared to distance single-vision spectacles.

DESIGN

Prospective non-randomized comparative clinical trial.

METHODS

A total of 90 children (6-13 years of age) with SE ranging from -0.75 to -10.00 diopters (D) were recruited. Of these children, 45 were fitted with CLs (MYLO, mark´ennovy), whereas 45 children wore spectacles. Cycloplegic refraction was measured with an auto-refractometer (Topcon-TRK-2P) and AL with an IOLMaster-700 (Zeiss) at 6-month intervals. Subjective responses after 1 month of CL wear related to vision and comfort were determined using a questionnaire with a scale from 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent). High-contrast visual acuity (HCVA) and contrast sensitivity (CS) were evaluated at baseline, 12, and 24 months.

RESULTS

After 2 years, mean change in SE/AL in the CL group was -0.62 ± 0.30 D/0.37 ± 0.04 mm and -1.13 ± 0.20 D/0.66 ± 0.03 mm in the spectacles group (P < .001). Cumulative absolute reduction in axial elongation (CARE) was 0.29 ± 0.06 mm. Difference in SE change was -0.50 ± 0.34 D. Although 100% of CL group had an AL increase ≤0.50 mm, all participants increased ≥0.50 mm in the spectacles group. In all, 53% of the CL group and 1% in the spectacles group showed a progression in SE ≤ -0.50D. All questionnaire items showed a mean value ≥9. There was a reduction logMAR HCVA in the CL compared to the spectacles group but it was less than 1 line (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Use of MYLO CLs reduced axial elongation and myopia progression compared to use of distance single-vision spectacles.

Optic neuropathy in high myopia: Glaucoma or high myopia or both?

Due to the increasing prevalence of high myopia around the world, structural and functional damages to the optic nerve in high myopia has recently attracted much attention. Evidence has shown that high myopia is related to the development of glaucomatous or glaucoma-like optic neuropathy, and that both have many common features. These similarities often pose a diagnostic challenge that will affect the future management of glaucoma suspects in high myopia. In this review, we summarize similarities and differences in optic neuropathy arising from non-pathologic high myopia and glaucoma by considering their respective structural and functional characteristics on fundus photography, optical coherence tomography scanning, and visual field tests. These features may also help to distinguish the underlying mechanisms of the optic neuropathies and to determine management strategies for patients with high myopia and glaucoma.

Comparison of the clinical efficacy of orthokeratology and 0.01% atropine for retardation of myopia progression in myopic children

OBJECTIVE

To compare the clinical efficacy of orthokeratology (ortho-k) and 0.01% atropine for retardation of myopia progression in myopic children.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study. A total of 282 patients, aged 8-17 years, were enrolled, including 100 children treated with ortho-k, 84 with 0.01% atropine, and 98 with single-vision spectacles. During the follow-up of 1 year, ortho-k wearers were examined at 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 3 months after treatment, and thereafter every 3 months, while the others were examined every 3 months by measurements of uncorrected vision, intraocular pressure, refractive power, slit-lamp microscopy, corneal topography, and the lens fitting when necessary. The axial length was measured every 6 months.

RESULTS

Patients with ortho-k had stable uncorrected vision after 1 month of lens wear, all reaching 0 logMAR. The annual axial elongation was 0.23 ± 0.19 mm, 0.22 ± 0.20 mm, and 0.39 ± 0.27 mm in the ortho-k, atropine, and spectacle groups, respectively, with significant difference (F = 23.251, P = 0.000). The axial length was delayed to increase by 41.03% and 43.59% within a year in patients with ortho-k and atropine, respectively, as compared to patients with spectacles (F = 0.006, P = 0.936). The elongation was ≤ 0.3 mm in 69.0% and 66.7% of patients in the two groups, respectively, versus 38.8% in the spectacle group (χ2 = 17.251, P = 0.000). During the follow-up, the rate of corneal staining was 11.0% and 2.0% in the ortho-k and spectacle groups, respectively (χ2 = 8.076, P = 0.003). The use of atropine did not increase corneal staining, but the incidence of related photophobia was 4.8%. No other serious complications were observed.

CONCLUSION

Ortho-k lenses and 0.01% atropine can achieve similar efficacy of myopia retardation, which was significantly better than that obtained with single-vision spectacles, in myopic children. The risk of corneal staining after ortho-k wear may be slightly higher than that with spectacles, but could be well controlled.

Development of a risk score for myopia: A cohort study conducted among school-aged children in China

PURPOSE

To evaluate the myopia risk in school-aged children one year after lifting a pandemic-related lockdown and develop a tool to identify high-risk groups.

METHODS

In total, 38,079 children without myopia from 38 schools were included. The outcomes were myopia incidence and progression in 1 year after the COVID-19 lockdown was lifted, both obtained by the spherical equivalent refraction (SER). We separated the population into an exploratory (75%) and a validation sample (25%) to construct the risk score model.

RESULTS

In total, 9811 (29.57%) students became myopic, and the overall myopia progression was 0.22 ± 0.62 D. Even less myopia progression was noted in the pre-myopia group at baseline (All: P = 0.045, Boy: P = 0.005). The risk score model included seven predictors: gender, grade, SER at baseline, residence, parental myopia, eye discomfort symptoms, and online courses. The model had a score range of 0-46 and an optimal cutoff of 34. The area under the receiver operating curve of the model was 0.726 (0.719-0.732) for the exploratory sample and 0.731 (0.720-0.742) for the validation sample.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk score can serve as a practical tool for classifying the risk of myopia in school-aged children.

Identifying and Exploring the Impact Factors for Intraocular Pressure Prediction in Myopic Children with Atropine Control Utilizing Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines

PURPOSE

The treatment of childhood myopia often involves the use of topical atropine, which has been demonstrated to be effective in decelerating the progression of myopia. It is crucial to monitor intraocular pressure (IOP) to ensure the safety of topical atropine. This study aims to identify the optimal machine learning IOP-monitoring module and establish a precise baseline IOP as a clinical safety reference for atropine medication.

METHODS

Data from 1545 eyes of 1171 children receiving atropine for myopia were retrospectively analyzed. Nineteen variables including patient demographics, medical history, refractive error, and IOP measurements were considered. The data were analyzed using a multivariate adaptive regression spline (MARS) model to analyze the impact of different factors on the End IOP.

RESULTS

The MARS model identified age, baseline IOP, End Spherical, duration of previous atropine treatment, and duration of current atropine treatment as the five most significant factors influencing the End IOP. The outcomes revealed that the baseline IOP had the most significant effect on final IOP, exhibiting a notable knot at 14 mmHg. When the baseline IOP was equal to or exceeded 14 mmHg, there was a positive correlation between atropine use and End IOP, suggesting that atropine may increase the End IOP in children with a baseline IOP greater than 14 mmHg.

CONCLUSIONS

MARS model demonstrates a better ability to capture nonlinearity than classic multiple linear regression for predicting End IOP. It is crucial to acknowledge that administrating atropine may elevate intraocular pressure when the baseline IOP exceeds 14 mmHg. These findings offer valuable insights into factors affecting IOP in children undergoing atropine treatment for myopia, enabling clinicians to make informed decisions regarding treatment options.

2022 Glenn A. Fry Award lecture: Enhancing clinical assessment for improved ophthalmic management

ABSTRACT

Detailed clinical assessment is critical to allow sensitive evaluation of the eye and its management. As technology advances, these assessment techniques can be adapted and refined to improve the detection of pathological changes of ocular tissue and their impact on visual function. Enhancements in optical medical devices including spectacle, contact, and intraocular lenses have allowed for a better understanding of the mechanism and amelioration of presbyopia and myopia control. Advancements in imaging technology have enabled improved quantification of the tear film and ocular surface, informing diagnosis and treatment strategies. Miniaturized electronics, large processing power, and in-built sensors in smartphones and tablets capacitate more portable assessment tools for clinicians, facilitate self-monitoring and treatment compliance, and aid communication with patients. This article gives an overview of how technology has been used in many areas of eye care to improve assessments and treatment and provides a snapshot of some of my studies validating and using technology to inform better evidence-based patient management.

Analysis of morphological and quantitative changes in pathological myopia and perioperative changes in posterior scleral reinforcement using three-dimensional magnet resonance imaging

Objective: To compare the morphological and quantitative changes in pathological myopia (PM) and the perioperative changes in posterior scleral reinforcement (PSR) using three-dimensional magnetic resonance images (3D MRI). Methods: A total of 49 patients with high myopia (HM; 98 eyes), 15 with pathological myopia (PM; 19 eyes), and 10 without high myopia (NORM; 20 eyes) were recruited between September 2019 and July 2021. The patients underwent measurements of refractive error and axial length, as well as 3D MRI of the eyeball. Python was used to analyze the 3D MRI images, calculate the vitreous volume, establish a topography of the height of the eyeball posterior surface, and calculate the rate of change in height (H). For the PM group undergoing PSR, changes in vitreous volume and the highest point of the eyeball posterior surface in four quadrants (temporal, subtemporal, nasal, and subnasal) were compared before and after PSR. Results: The vitreous volume was smaller in the NORM group compared to the HM and PM groups (p < 0.01). The PM group had a larger volume than the HM group (p < 0.01). The H for the PM group was higher than that of the NORM and HM groups (p < 0.01). After PSR in the PM group, the total vitreous volume, as well as the volume in the subnasal and supratemporal quadrants, decreased (p < 0.05). Additionally, the highest point of the eyeball's posterior surface was generally shifted to the upper nasal side. Finally, the shape and position of the scleral band after PSR were plotted. Conclusion: 3D MRI is capable of a quantitative description of the eyeball morphology in PM and PSR. It allows for precise calculations of changes in vitreous volume and the H of the posterior surface. It also facilitates a meticulous analysis of the specific details of the scleral band following PSR.

Seasonal and Annual Change in Physiological Ocular Growth of 7- to 11-Year-Old Norwegian Children

Purpose

To investigate seasonal and annual change in physiological eye growth in Norwegian school children.

Methods

Measurements of ocular biometry, non-cycloplegic spherical equivalent autorefraction (SER), and choroidal thickness (ChT) were obtained for 92 children (44 females) aged 7 to 11 years at four time points over a year (November 2019-November 2020). Seasons (3- and 5-month intervals) were classified as winter (November-January), winter-spring (January-June), and summer-autumn (June-November). Cycloplegic SER was obtained in January and used to group children. The seasonal and annual changes were tested with a linear mixed-effects model (P values were adjusted for multiple comparisons).

Results

All the children experienced annual ocular growth, irrespective of SER, but less so during the summer-autumn. The baseline SER was lower (P < 0.001), axial length (AL) was longer (P < 0.038), and choroids were thicker in 10- to 11-year-old than 7- to 8-year-old mild hyperopes (P = 0.002). Assuming mild hyperopes (n = 65) experience only physiological eye growth, modeling revealed seasonal and annual increases in AL across sex and age (P < 0.018), with less change during the summer-autumn than winter-spring. The 7- to 8-year-olds had a larger decrease annually and over winter-spring in SER (P ≤ 0.036) and in ChT over winter-spring than the 10- to 11-year-olds (P = 0.006).

Conclusions

There were significant seasonal and annual changes in AL in children who had physiological eye growth irrespective of age within this cohort. Annual changes in SER and seasonal choroidal thinning were only observed in 7- to 8-year-old children. This indicates continued emmetropization in 7- to 8-year-olds and a transition to maintaining emmetropia in 10- to 11-year-olds.

Gene-environment interaction in myopia

Myopia is a health issue that has attracted global attention due to its high prevalence and vision-threatening complications. It is well known that the onset and progression of myopia are related to both genetic and environmental factors: more than 450 common genetic loci have been found to be associated with myopia, while near work and outdoor time are the main environmental risk factors. As for many complex traits, gene-environment interactions are implicated in myopia development. To date, several genetic loci have been found to interact with near work or educational level. Gene-environment interaction research on myopia could yield models that provide more accurate risk predictions, thus improving targeted treatments and preventive strategies. Additionally, such investigations might have the potential to reveal novel genetic information. In this review, we summarised the findings in this field and proposed some topics for future investigations.

Widespread Involvement of Acetylation in the Retinal Metabolism of Form-Deprivation Myopia in Guinea Pigs

Myopia has become the major cause of visual impairment worldwide. Although the pathogenesis of myopia remains controversial, proteomic studies suggest that dysregulation of retinal metabolism is potentially involved in the pathology of myopia. Lysine acetylation of proteins plays a key role in regulating cellular metabolism, but little is known about its role in the form-deprived myopic retina. Hence, a comprehensive analysis of proteomic and acetylomic changes in the retinas of guinea pigs with form-deprivation myopia was performed. In total, 85 significantly differential proteins and 314 significantly differentially acetylated proteins were identified. Notably, the differentially acetylated proteins were markedly enriched in metabolic pathways such as glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, retinol metabolism, and the HIF-1 signaling pathway. HK2, HKDC1, PKM, LDH, GAPDH, and ENO1 were the key enzymes in these metabolic pathways with decreased acetylation levels in the form-deprivation myopia group. Altered lysine acetylation of key enzymes in the form-deprived myopic retina might affect the dynamic balance of metabolism in the retinal microenvironment by altering their activity. In conclusion, as the first report on the myopic retinal acetylome, this study provides a reliable basis for further studies on myopic retinal acetylation.

Parasympathetic and sympathetic control of emmetropization in chick

Emmetropization can be altered by temporal visual stimulation and the spectral properties of the visual environment. The goal of the current experiment is to test the hypothesis that there is an interaction between these properties and autonomic innervation. For that purpose, selective lesions of the autonomic nervous system were performed in chickens followed by temporal stimulation. Parasympathetic lesioning involved transection of both the ciliary ganglion and the pterygopalatine ganglion (PPG_CGX; n = 38), while sympathetic lesioning involved transection of the superior cervical ganglion (SCGX; n = 49). After one week of recovery, chicks were then exposed to temporally modulated light (3 days, 2 Hz, Mean: 680 lux) that was either achromatic (with blue [RGB], or without blue [RG]), or chromatic (with blue [B/Y] or without blue [R/G]). Control birds with lesions, or unlesioned, were exposed to white [RGB] or yellow [RG] light. Ocular biometry and refraction (Lenstar and a Hartinger refractometer) was measured before and after exposure to light stimulation. Measurements were statistically analyzed for the effects of a lack of autonomic input and the type of temporal stimulation. In PPG_CGX lesioned eyes, there was no effect of the lesions one-week post-surgery. However, after exposure to achromatic modulation, the lens thickened (with blue) and the choroid thickened (without blue) but there was no effect on axial growth. Chromatic modulation thinned the choroid with R/G. In the SGX lesioned eye, there was no effect of the lesion 1-week post-surgery. However, after exposure to achromatic modulation (without blue), the lens thickened and there was a reduction in vitreous chamber depth and axial length. Chromatic modulation caused a small increase in vitreous chamber depth with R/G. Both autonomic lesion and visual stimulation were necessary to affect the growth of ocular components. The bidirectional responses observed in axial growth and in choroidal changes suggest that autonomic innervation combined with spectral cues from longitudinal chromatic aberration may provide a mechanism for homeostatic control of emmetropization.

Influencing factors associated with high myopia in Chinese college students

Background

High myopia (HM) may elicit irreversible pathological changes in the fundus and severely impair visual quality, thereby becoming a major public health issue in China. However, the influencing factors associated with HM remain unknown in Chinese college students, whose visual quality is crucial to country development.

Methods

This is a cross-sectional observational study. Two thousand three hundred and fifteen undergraduate and graduate students were initially recruited from various majors in 3 universities in Tianjin, China. Under the principle of voluntary participation and informed consent, simple random sampling was conducted in the recruited subjects while maintaining balanced number of subjects from each major. After screening with inclusion and exclusion criteria, 96 undergraduate and graduate students (186 eyes) were finally included and divided into non-HM and HM groups. The eyes of subjects were examined by optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) for vessel density and structure thickness at the macula and optic disc, and the subjects were surveyed by an itemized questionnaire on lifestyles and study habits.

Results

The OCTA and questionnaire results revealed 10 factors, including hemodynamic and anatomic parameters and lifestyle metrics, with statistical significance between the non-HM and HM groups. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that vessel density of the inner retina at the macula, vessel density of the radial peripapillary capillary at the optic disc, smartphone usage time, continuous near work time, and sleeping after midnight had superior values of area under the curve (AUC > 0.700). Therefore, these 5 factors were selected for univariant and multivariant logistic regression analyses. A prediction model comprising the 5 influencing factors had an AUC of 0.940 and 95% CI of 0.908-0.972.

Conclusion

This study for the first time identified the vessel density of the inner retina at the macula, the vessel density of the radial peripapillary capillary at the optic disc, smartphone usage time, continuous near work time, and sleeping after midnight as influencing factors associated with HM in Chinese college students. A prediction model comprising the 5 influencing factors was proposed for calculating likelihood of a Chinese college student developing HM, based on which lifestyle improvement and medical intervention might be recommended.

The causal mutation in ARR3 gene for high myopia and progressive color vision defect

The ARR3 gene, also known as cone arrestin, belongs to the arrestin family and is expressed in cone cells, inactivating phosphorylated-opsins and preventing cone signals. Variants of ARR3 reportedly cause X-linked dominant female-limited early-onset (age < 7 years old) high myopia (< - 6D). Here, we reveal a new mutation (c.228T>A, p.Tyr76*) in ARR3 gene that can cause early-onset high myopia (eoHM) limited to female carriers. Protan/deutan color vision defects were also found in family members, affecting both genders. Using ten years of clinical follow-up data, we identified gradually worsening cone dysfunction/color vision as a key feature among affected individuals. We present a hypothesis that higher visual contrast due to the mosaic of mutated ARR3 expression in cones contributes to the development of myopia in female carriers.

Three-year change in refractive error and its risk factors: results from the Shahroud School Children Eye Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

To determine spherical equivalent (SE) progression among children in the Shahroud School Children Eye Cohort Study.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study recruited children aged 6 to 12 years in 2015 (baseline) with a follow-up in 2018. Cycloplegic autorefraction and axial length (AL) measurements were included. SE progression over 3 years was analysed in non-myopic (SE ≥ + 0.76 D), pre-myopic (PM; SE between +0.75 D and -0.49 D), low myopic (LM; SE between -0.5 D and -5.99 D), and high myopic (HM; SE ≤ - 6 D) eyes. Age, sex, near work, outdoor time, living place, parental myopia, mother's education, and baseline SE were evaluated as risk factors for SE progression (≤ -0.50 D).

RESULTS

Data were available for 3989 children (7945 eyes). At baseline, 40.3% (n = 3205), 3.4% (n = 274) and 0.1% (n = 7) eyes had PM, LM and HM, respectively. At the 3-year follow-up, 40.5% (n = 3216), 7.5% (n = 599) and 0.2% (n = 15) eyes had PM, LM, and HM, respectively. SE progression in eyes with LM and HM was -1.08 ± 0.76 D and -1.60 ± 1.19 D, respectively. SE progression was associated with age at baseline (Odds Ratio [OR] = 1.14; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.08-1.21), female sex (OR = 1.80; 95% CI: 1.48-2.18), near work (OR = 1.08; 95% CI: 1.02-1.14), parental myopia (OR = 1.20; 95% CI: 1.01-1.42) and baseline SE (OR = 2.28; 95% CI: 1.88-2.78).

CONCLUSION

A myopic shift was associated with older age, female sex, near work, parental myopia and greater myopic baseline SE. These results help identifying children at risk of progression that may benefit from treatment and lifestyle counselling.

IMI 2023 Digest

Myopia is a dynamic and rapidly moving field, with ongoing research providing a better understanding of the etiology leading to novel myopia control strategies. In 2019, the International Myopia Institute (IMI) assembled and published a series of white papers across relevant topics and updated the evidence with a digest in 2021. Here, we summarize findings across key topics from the previous 2 years. Studies in animal models have continued to explore how wavelength and intensity of light influence eye growth and have examined new pharmacologic agents and scleral cross-linking as potential strategies for slowing myopia. In children, the term premyopia is gaining interest with increased attention to early implementation of myopia control. Most studies use the IMI definitions of ≤-0.5 diopters (D) for myopia and ≤-6.0 D for high myopia, although categorization and definitions for structural consequences of high myopia remain an issue. Clinical trials have demonstrated that newer spectacle lens designs incorporating multiple segments, lenslets, or diffusion optics exhibit good efficacy. Clinical considerations and factors influencing efficacy for soft multifocal contact lenses and orthokeratology are discussed. Topical atropine remains the only widely accessible pharmacologic treatment. Rebound observed with higher concentration of atropine is not evident with lower concentrations or optical interventions. Overall, myopia control treatments show little adverse effect on visual function and appear generally safe, with longer wear times and combination therapies maximizing outcomes. An emerging category of light-based therapies for children requires comprehensive safety data to enable risk versus benefit analysis. Given the success of myopia control strategies, the ethics of including a control arm in clinical trials is heavily debated. IMI recommendations for clinical trial protocols are discussed.

A new polygenic score for refractive error improves detection of children at risk of high myopia but not the prediction of those at risk of myopic macular degeneration

BACKGROUND

High myopia (HM), defined as a spherical equivalent refractive error (SER) ≤ -6.00 diopters (D), is a leading cause of sight impairment, through myopic macular degeneration (MMD). We aimed to derive an improved polygenic score (PGS) for predicting children at risk of HM and to test if a PGS is predictive of MMD after accounting for SER.

METHODS

The PGS was derived from genome-wide association studies in participants of UK Biobank, CREAM Consortium, and Genetic Epidemiology Research on Adult Health and Aging. MMD severity was quantified by a deep learning algorithm. Prediction of HM was quantified as the area under the receiver operating curve (AUROC). Prediction of severe MMD was assessed by logistic regression.

FINDINGS

In independent samples of European, African, South Asian and East Asian ancestry, the PGS explained 19% (95% confidence interval 17-21%), 2% (1-3%), 8% (7-10%) and 6% (3-9%) of the variation in SER, respectively. The AUROC for HM in these samples was 0.78 (0.75-0.81), 0.58 (0.53-0.64), 0.71 (0.69-0.74) and 0.67 (0.62-0.72), respectively. The PGS was not associated with the risk of MMD after accounting for SER: OR = 1.07 (0.92-1.24).

INTERPRETATION

Performance of the PGS approached the level required for clinical utility in Europeans but not in other ancestries. A PGS for refractive error was not predictive of MMD risk once SER was accounted for.

FUNDING

Supported by the Welsh Government and Fight for Sight (24WG201).

Familial Whole Exome Sequencing Study of 30 Families With Early-Onset High Myopia

Purpose

This study was conducted to investigate potential candidate pathogenic genes in early-onset high myopia (eoHM) in families with eoHM.

Methods

Whole-exome sequencing was performed on probands with eoHM to identify potential pathogenic genes. Sanger sequencing was used to verify the identified gene mutations causing eoHM in first-degree relatives of the proband. The identified mutations were screened out by bioinformatics analysis combined with segregation analysis.

Results

A total of 131 variant loci, involving 97 genes, were detected in the 30 families. A total of 28 genes (37 variants), which were carried by 24 families, were verified and analyzed by Sanger sequencing. We identified five genes and 10 loci associated with eoHM, which have not been reported in previous research. Hemizygous mutations in COL4A5, NYX, and CACNA1F were detected in this study. Inherited retinal disease-associated genes were found in 76.67% (23/30) of families. Genes that can be expressed in the retina in the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man database were found in 33.33% (10/30) of families. Mutations in the genes associated with eoHM, including CCDC111, SLC39A5, P4HA2, CPSF1, P4HA2, and GRM6, were detected. The mutual correlation between candidate genes and phenotype of fundus photography was revealed in our study. The eoHM candidate gene mutation types contain five categories: missense mutations (78.38%), nonsense (8.11%), frameshift mutation (5.41%), classical splice site mutation (5.41%), and initiation codon mutation (2.70%).

Conclusions

Candidate genes carried by patients with eoHM are closely related to inherited retinal diseases. Genetic screening in children with eoHM facilitates the early identification and intervention of syndromic hereditary ocular disorders and certain hereditary ophthalmopathies.

Effect of Repeated Low-level Red Light on Myopia Prevention Among Children in China With Premyopia: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

Myopia is a global concern, but effective prevention measures remain limited. Premyopia is a refractive state in which children are at higher risk of myopia, meriting preventive interventions.

Objective

To assess the efficacy and safety of a repeated low-level red-light (RLRL) intervention in preventing incident myopia among children with premyopia.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This was a 12-month, parallel-group, school-based randomized clinical trial conducted in 10 primary schools in Shanghai, China. A total of 139 children with premyopia (defined as cycloplegic spherical equivalence refraction [SER] of -0.50 to 0.50 diopter [D] in the more myopic eye and having at least 1 parent with SER ≤-3.00 D) in grades 1 to 4 were enrolled between April 1, 2021, and June 30, 2021; the trial was completed August 31, 2022.

Interventions

Children were randomly assigned to 2 groups after grade stratification. Children in the intervention group received RLRL therapy twice per day, 5 days per week, with each session lasting 3 minutes. The intervention was conducted at school during semesters and at home during winter and summer vacations. Children in the control group continued usual activities.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcome was the 12-month incidence rate of myopia (defined as SER ≤-0.50 D). Secondary outcomes included the changes in SER, axial length, vision function, and optical coherence tomography scan results over 12 months. Data from the more myopic eyes were analyzed. Outcomes were analyzed by means of an intention-to-treat method and per-protocol method. The intention-to-treat analysis included participants in both groups at baseline, while the per-protocol analysis included participants in the control group and those in the intervention group who were able to continue the intervention without interruption by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Results

There were 139 children (mean [SD] age, 8.3 [1.1] years; 71 boys [51.1%]) in the intervention group and 139 children (mean [SD] age, 8.3 [1.1] years; 68 boys [48.9%]) in the control group. The 12-month incidence of myopia was 40.8% (49 of 120) in the intervention group and 61.3% (68 of 111) in the control group, a relative 33.4% reduction in incidence. For children in the intervention group who did not have treatment interruption secondary to the COVID-19 pandemic, the incidence was 28.1% (9 of 32), a relative 54.1% reduction in incidence. The RLRL intervention significantly reduced the myopic shifts in terms of axial length and SER compared with the control group (mean [SD] axial length, 0.30 [0.27] mm vs 0.47 [0.25] mm; difference, 0.17 mm [95% CI, 0.11-0.23 mm]; mean [SD] SER, -0.35 [0.54] D vs -0.76 [0.60] D; difference, -0.41 D [95% CI, -0.56 to -0.26 D]). No visual acuity or structural damage was noted on optical coherence tomography scans in the intervention group.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this randomized clinical trial, RLRL therapy was a novel and effective intervention for myopia prevention, with good user acceptability and up to 54.1% reduction in incident myopia within 12 months among children with premyopia.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04825769.

Effectiveness of myopia control interventions: A systematic review of 12 randomized control trials published between 2019 and 2021

Purpose

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of interventions to control myopia progression. In this systematic review, the primary outcomes were mean differences (MD) between treatment and control groups in myopia progression (D) and axial length (AL) elongation (mm).

Results

The following interventions were found to be effective (p < 0.001): highly aspherical lenslets (HAL, 0.80 D, 95% CI, 0.77-0.83; -0.35 mm, 95% CI -0.36 to -0.34), MiSight contact lenses (0.66 D, 95% CI, 0.63-0.69; -0.28 mm, 95% CI -0.29 to -0.27), low dose atropine 0.05% (0.54 D, 95% CI, 0.38-0.70; -0.21 mm, 95% CI-0.28 to -0.14), Biofinity +2.50 D (0.45 D, 95% CI, 0.29, 0.61; -0.24 mm, 95% CI -0.33 to -0.15), defocus incorporated multiple segments [DIMS] (0.44 D, 95% CI, 0.42-0.46; -0.34 mm, 95% CI -0.35 to -0.33) and ortho-k lenses (-0.24 mm, 95% CI -0.33 to -01.5).

Conclusion

Low-dose atropine 0.01% was not effective in reducing AL progression in two studies. Treatment efficacy with low-dose atropine of 0.05% showed good efficacy. Spectacles (HAL and DIMS) and contact lenses (MiSight and Biofinity) may confer a comparable treatment benefit compared to atropine, to slow myopia progression.

TikTok and adolescent vision health: Content and information quality assessment of the top short videos related to myopia

Background

Despite the increasing recognition of the public health value of social media platforms, TikTok short videos focusing on adolescent vision health have not received much attention. We aimed to evaluate the content, sources, and information quality of myopia-related videos on TikTok.

Methods

The top 200 most-liked myopia-related videos on the Chinese version of TikTok were queried and screened on March 12, 2022. The descriptive characteristics, contents, and sources of the selected 168 videos were obtained, and their overall quality, reliability, understandability, and actionability were assessed using the validated scoring instruments DISCERN and PEMAT-A/V.

Results

Medical professionals were the main source (45.8%, 77/168) of videos. Misinformation (10.1%, 17/168) was mainly attributable to for-profit organizations (20%, 3/15) and individual non-medical users (31.3%, 10/32). However, their videos enjoyed the highest numbers of "likes," "comments," and "shares" (P < 0.05). The mean reliability and overall quality regarding treatment choice were (2.5 ± 0.5) and (3.1 ± 0.9), respectively. Videos on TikTok showed relatively high understandability (84.7%) and moderate actionability (74.9%). Video producers tended to partly or fully provide information regarding management (81.5%, 137/168) and outcome (82.1%, 138/168), and to ignore or only slightly mention content related to definition (86.9%, 146/169) and signs (82.1%, 138/168). The five video sources showed significant differences in the prevalence of misleading information (P < 0.001), publication reliability (P < 0.001), overall quality (P = 0.039), content score (P = 0.019), and understandability (P = 0.024).

Conclusion

Considering the moderate-to-poor reliability and variable quality across video sources, the substantial myopia-related content on TikTok should be treated with caution. Nevertheless, TikTok videos may serve as a surrogate or supplement for information dissemination if providers can ensure more comprehensive and accurate content.

Topical Review: Studies on Management of Myopia Progression from 2019 to 2021

SIGNIFICANCE

Myopia is a common eye condition that increases the risk of sight-threatening complications. Each additional diopter increases the chance of complications. The purpose of this review was to make an overview of myopia control treatment options for children with myopia progression.In this nonsystematic review, we searched PubMed and Cochrane databases for English-language studies published from 2019 to September 2021. Emphasis was given to selection of randomized controlled trials. Nineteen randomized controlled trials and two retrospective studies were included. Topical atropine and orthokeratology remain the most used treatments, whereas lenses with novel designs are emerging treatments. Overall myopia progression in the treatment groups for low-dose atropine and orthokeratology was lower than in the control groups, and their efficacy was reported in several randomized controlled trials and confirmed by various systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The findings of myopia progression and axial elongation for the MiSight, defocus incorporated multiple segment spectacle lens, highly aspherical lenslets, and diffusion optics technology spectacle lens were comparable. Public health interventions to optimize environmental influences may also be important strategies to control myopia. Optimal choice of management of myopia depends on treatment availability, acceptability to child and parents, and specific patient features such as age, baseline myopia, and lifestyle. Eye care providers need to understand the advantages and disadvantages of each therapy to best counsel parents of children with myopia.

[Progression of Myopia - which Preventive Measures Can be Recommended?]

The prevalence of myopia shows a worldwide increase with large regional differences. Especially high myopia enhances the risk of irreversible vision loss due to myopic maculopathy or other secondary effects. Reducing the prevalence and progression of myopia in schoolchildren is therefore a main goal in ophthalmology. Spending at least two hours a day outdoors is the easiest way to reduce myopia progression. Another modifiable factor is to reduce continuous near work with distances of less than 30 cm. Low-dose atropine eye drops administered once daily over two or more years have been shown to reduce myopia progression. Optical interventions which have been effective are multifocal contact lenses or orthokeratology contact lenses, but these have the risk of microbial keratitis. Whereas neither under- nor overcorrection of myopia have been proven effective, new so-called multisegment glasses have reduced myopia progression. Most of the studies concerning atropine and optic interventions have been performed in groups of Asian children, which are known to have more severe myopia progression, although actually there are many studies being conducted on Caucasian children. Still, there is also a lack of studies contrasting pharmacologic against optic interventions and comparing these with a combination of methods. The decision to start optic or pharmacologic measures can therefore only be an individual decision and is mainly based on age, refraction and progression in the past, while environmental factors should be assessed first.

Myopie(progression) – welche präventiven Ansätze sind sinnvoll?

Weltweit nimmt die Anzahl myoper Menschen stark zu, und damit wird zukünftig auch die Zahl der Patienten mit Folgeerkrankungen wie myoper Makulopathie und Netzhautablösungen steigen. Daher sind präventive Ansätze in den Fokus gerückt, die die Progression der Myopie im Kindes- und Jugendalter reduzieren sollen. Neben der Modifikation von Umweltfaktoren sind pharmakologische und optische Methoden möglich.

Assessing the contribution of genetic nurture to refractive error

Parents pass on both their genes and environment to offspring, prompting debate about the relative importance of nature versus nurture in the inheritance of complex traits. Advances in molecular genetics now make it possible to quantify an individual's genetic predisposition to a trait via his or her 'polygenic score'. However, part of the risk captured by an individual's polygenic score may actually be attributed to the genotype of their parents. In the most well-studied example of this indirect 'genetic nurture' effect, about half the genetic contribution to educational attainment was found to be attributed to parental alleles, even if those alleles were not inherited by the child. Refractive errors, such as myopia, are a common cause of visual impairment and pose high economic and quality-of-life costs. Despite strong evidence that refractive errors are highly heritable, the extent to which genetic risk is conferred directly via transmitted risk alleles or indirectly via the environment that parents create for their children is entirely unknown. Here, an instrumental variable analysis in 1944 pairs of adult siblings from the United Kingdom was used to quantify the proportion of the genetic risk ('single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) heritability') of refractive error contributed by genetic nurture. We found no evidence of a contribution from genetic nurture: non-within-family SNP-heritability estimate = 0.213 (95% confidence interval 0.134-0.310) and within-family SNP-heritability estimate = 0.250 (0.152-0.372). Our findings imply the genetic contribution to refractive error is principally an intrinsic effect from alleles transmitted from parents to offspring.

Effect of peripheral refractive errors on driving performance

The effect of peripheral refractive errors on driving while performing secondary tasks at 40° of eccentricity was studied in thirty-one young drivers. They drove a driving simulator under 7 different induced peripheral refractive errors (baseline (0D), spherical lenses of +/- 2D, +/- 4D and cylindrical lenses of +2D and +4D). Peripheral visual acuity and contrast sensitivity were also evaluated at 40°. Driving performance was significantly impaired by the addition of myopic defocus (4D) and astigmatism (4D). Worse driving significantly correlated with worse contrast sensitivity for the route in general, but also with worse visual acuity when participants interacted with the secondary task. Induced peripheral refractive errors may negatively impact driving when performing secondary tasks.

Short-Term Peripheral Contrast Reduction Affects Central Chromatic and Achromatic Contrast Sensitivity

Peripheral retinal contrast reduction is suggested as a potential myopia control strategy. However, the underlying mechanism is yet unknown. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of peripheral contrast reduction on central chromatic and achromatic contrast sensitivity (CS). A total of 19 participants were included. Peripheral contrast reduction was induced via Bangerter foils of 0.4 and 0.8 density, each with a clear central zone of 8.0 mm diameter. Central achromatic and chromatic (for S-, M-, and L-cone types) CS was measured at 3 and 12 cpd in a 2-IFC psychophysical procedure. CS was tested monocularly at 0, 30, and 90 min of adaptation time, while the fellow eye was covered by an infrared filter. With the filter in place, pupil size was controlled to be smaller than the clear central aperture. Data were analyzed using linear mixed models. Cone-type CS showed significant differences among each other (all p < 0.05), except for the achromatic and L-cone type (p = 0.87). The minimum sensitivity was found with the S-cone type and the maximum with the M-cone type. Central achromatic and chromatic CS were equally affected by diffusion. The level of peripheral diffusion also influenced CS, while the 0.8 Bangerter foil led to a higher reduction in CS compared to the 0.4 Bangerter foil (p = 0.0008) and the control condition (p = 0.05). A significant reduction in CS occurred between 30 and 90 min of adaptation time (p < 0.0001). The current study found that peripheral contrast reduction impacted central achromatic and chromatic CS equally. It further showed that the amplitude of reduction was influenced by the level of diffusion, with the reduction becoming more pronounced over time.

Impact of COVID-19 Home Confinement in Children's Refractive Errors

Background: Myopia is a public health problem, with estimations that 50% of the world population will be myopic by 2050. Some environmental factors, such as time spent outdoors, doing near work, and using digital devices, influence the development of myopia in children. Home confinement in Spain has increased these risk factors, so this study aims to investigate the impact of home confinement during the COVID-19 outbreak in the vision of school-aged children; Methods: A cross-sectional study in children between 5 and 7 years old that completed a visual screening and a questionnaire about their lifestyles at opticians in Spain in September and October of 2019 and 2020. Statistical analysis to compare lifestyles pre and post confinement, and vision in 2020 versus a similar cohort examined at the same opticians in 2019, was conducted; Results: Spanish children spent less time outdoors and more time doing near work in 2020 than in 2019 (p ≤ 0.001). There was a significant decrease of the spherical equivalent (mean ± standard deviation; 0.66 ± 2.03 D in 2019 vs. 0.48 ± 1.81 D in 2020; p ≤ 0.001); Conclusions: Lifestyles of Spanish children changed during the home confinement at the beginning of 2020. Together with changes in their lifestyles, spherical equivalents have decreased, which implies higher figures of myopia for children aged between 5 and 7.

IMI 2021 Reports and Digest - Reflections on the Implications for Clinical Practice

The International Myopia Institute's (IMI) mission is to advance research, education, and management of myopia to decrease future vision impairment and blindness associated with increasing myopia. Its approach is to bring together scientists, clinicians, policymakers, government members, and educators into the field of myopia to stimulate collaboration and sharing of knowledge. The latest reports are on pathologic myopia, the impact of myopia, risk factors for myopia, accommodation and binocular vision in myopia development and progression, and the prevention of myopia and its progression. Together with the digest updating the 2019 International Myopia Institute white papers using the research published in the last 18 months, these evidence-based consensus white papers help to clarify the imperative for myopia control and the role of environmental modification initiatives, informing an evidence-based clinical approach. This guidance includes who to treat and when to start or stop treatment, and the advantages and limitations of different management approaches.