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Aldhshan MS, Jhanji G, Poritsanos NJ, Mizuno TM. Glucose Stimulates Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Gene Expression in Microglia through a GLUT5-Independent Mechanism. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137073. [PMID: 35806073 PMCID: PMC9266953 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Feeding-regulating neurotrophic factors are expressed in both neurons and glial cells. However, nutritional regulation of anorexigenic glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and orexigenic mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF) expression in specific cell types remains poorly understood. Hypothalamic glucose sensing plays a critical role in the regulation of food intake. It has been theorized that local glucose concentration modulates microglial activity partially via glucose transporter 5 (GLUT5). We hypothesized that an increased local glucose concentration stimulates GDNF expression while inhibiting MANF expression in the hypothalamus and microglia via GLUT5. The present study investigated the effect of glucose on Gdnf and Manf mRNA expression in the mouse hypothalamus and murine microglial cell line SIM-A9. Intracerebroventricular glucose treatment significantly increased Gdnf mRNA levels in the hypothalamus without altering Manf mRNA levels. Exposure to high glucose caused a significant increase in Gdnf mRNA expression and a time-dependent change in Manf mRNA expression in SIM-A9 cells. GLUT5 inhibitor treatment did not block glucose-induced Gdnf mRNA expression in these cells. These findings suggest that microglia are responsive to changes in the local glucose concentration and increased local glucose availability stimulates the expression of microglial GNDF through a GLUT5-independent mechanism, contributing to glucose-induced feeding suppression.
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The Molecular Basis and Therapeutic Potential of Leukemia Inhibitory Factor in Cancer Cachexia. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14122955. [PMID: 35740622 PMCID: PMC9221449 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14122955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The mechanism of cancer cachexia is linked to a variety of factors, and inflammatory factors are thought to play a key role. We summarize the main roles of LIF in the development of cancer cachexia, including promoting fat loss, inducing skeletal muscle atrophy and causing anorexia nervosa. The main aim of this review is to increase the understanding of the effects of LIF in cachexia and to provide new insights into the treatment of cancer cachexia. Abstract Cachexia is a chronic metabolic syndrome that is characterized by sustained weight and muscle mass loss and anorexia. Cachexia can be secondary to a variety of diseases and affects the prognosis of patients significantly. The increase in inflammatory cytokines in plasma is deeply related to the occurrence of cachexia. As a member of the IL-6 cytokine family, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) exerts multiple biological functions. LIF is over-expressed in the cancer cells and stromal cells of various tumors, promoting the malignant development of tumors via the autocrine and paracrine systems. Intriguingly, increasing studies have confirmed that LIF contributes to the progression of cachexia, especially in patients with metastatic tumors. This review combines all of the evidence to summarize the mechanism of LIF-induced cachexia from the following four aspects: (i) LIF and cancer-associated cachexia, (ii) LIF and alterations of adipose tissue in cachexia, (iii) LIF and anorexia nervosa in cachexia, and (iv) LIF and muscle atrophy in cachexia. Considering the complex mechanisms in cachexia, we also focus on the interactions between LIF and other key cytokines in cachexia and existing therapeutics targeting LIF.
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3
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Hypothalamic Inflammation at a Crossroad of Somatic Diseases. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2018; 39:11-29. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-018-0631-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Santiago CP, Keuthan CJ, Boye SL, Boye SE, Imam AA, Ash JD. A Drug-Tunable Gene Therapy for Broad-Spectrum Protection against Retinal Degeneration. Mol Ther 2018; 26:2407-2417. [PMID: 30078764 PMCID: PMC6171322 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal degenerations are a large cluster of diseases characterized by the irreversible loss of light-sensitive photoreceptors that impairs the vision of 9.1 million people in the US. An attractive treatment option is to use gene therapy to deliver broad-spectrum neuroprotective factors. However, this approach has had limited clinical translation because of the inability to control transgene expression. To address this problem, we generated an adeno-associated virus vector named RPF2 that was engineered to express domains of leukemia inhibitory factor fused to the destabilization domain of bacterial dihydrofolate reductase. Fusion proteins containing the destabilization domain are degraded in mammalian cells but can be stabilized with the binding of the drug trimethoprim. Our data show that expression levels of RPF2 are tightly regulated by the dose of trimethoprim and can be reversed by trimethoprim withdrawal. We further show that stabilized RPF2 can protect photoreceptors and prevent blindness in treated mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clayton P Santiago
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Casey J Keuthan
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sanford L Boye
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Shannon E Boye
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Aisha A Imam
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - John D Ash
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Khan AM, Grant AH, Martinez A, Burns GAPC, Thatcher BS, Anekonda VT, Thompson BW, Roberts ZS, Moralejo DH, Blevins JE. Mapping Molecular Datasets Back to the Brain Regions They are Extracted from: Remembering the Native Countries of Hypothalamic Expatriates and Refugees. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2018; 21:101-193. [PMID: 30334222 PMCID: PMC6310046 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-94593-4_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This article focuses on approaches to link transcriptomic, proteomic, and peptidomic datasets mined from brain tissue to the original locations within the brain that they are derived from using digital atlas mapping techniques. We use, as an example, the transcriptomic, proteomic and peptidomic analyses conducted in the mammalian hypothalamus. Following a brief historical overview, we highlight studies that have mined biochemical and molecular information from the hypothalamus and then lay out a strategy for how these data can be linked spatially to the mapped locations in a canonical brain atlas where the data come from, thereby allowing researchers to integrate these data with other datasets across multiple scales. A key methodology that enables atlas-based mapping of extracted datasets-laser-capture microdissection-is discussed in detail, with a view of how this technology is a bridge between systems biology and systems neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshad M Khan
- UTEP Systems Neuroscience Laboratory, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA.
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA.
- Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA.
| | - Alice H Grant
- UTEP Systems Neuroscience Laboratory, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
- Graduate Program in Pathobiology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
| | - Anais Martinez
- UTEP Systems Neuroscience Laboratory, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
- Graduate Program in Pathobiology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
| | - Gully A P C Burns
- Information Sciences Institute, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA, USA
| | - Brendan S Thatcher
- VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Office of Research and Development Medical Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Vishwanath T Anekonda
- VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Office of Research and Development Medical Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Benjamin W Thompson
- VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Office of Research and Development Medical Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Zachary S Roberts
- VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Office of Research and Development Medical Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Daniel H Moralejo
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - James E Blevins
- VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Office of Research and Development Medical Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Seattle, WA, USA
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
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Fioravante M, Bombassaro B, Ramalho AF, Dragano NR, Morari J, Solon C, Tobar N, Ramos CD, Velloso LA. Inhibition of hypothalamic leukemia inhibitory factor exacerbates diet-induced obesity phenotype. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:178. [PMID: 28865476 PMCID: PMC5581454 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0956-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The consumption of large amounts of dietary fats can trigger an inflammatory response in the hypothalamus and contribute to the dysfunctional control of caloric intake and energy expenditure commonly present in obesity. The objective of this study was to identify chemokine-related transcripts that could be involved in the early stages of diet-induced hypothalamic inflammation. Methods We used immunoblot, PCR array, real-time PCR, immunofluorescence staining, glucose and insulin tolerance tests, and determination of general metabolic parameters to evaluate markers of inflammation, body mass variation, and glucose tolerance in mice fed a high-fat diet. Results Using a real-time PCR array, we identified leukemia inhibitory factor as a chemokine/cytokine undergoing a rapid increase in the hypothalamus of obesity-resistant and a rapid decrease in the hypothalamus of obesity-prone mice fed a high-fat diet for 1 day. We hypothesized that the increased hypothalamic expression of leukemia inhibitory factor could contribute to the protective phenotype of obesity-resistant mice. To test this hypothesis, we immunoneutralized hypothalamic leukemia inhibitory factor and evaluated inflammatory and metabolic parameters. The immunoneutralization of leukemia inhibitory factor in the hypothalamus of obesity-resistant mice resulted in increased body mass gain and increased adiposity. Body mass gain was mostly due to increased caloric intake and reduced spontaneous physical activity. This modification in the phenotype was accompanied by increased expression of inflammatory cytokines in the hypothalamus. In addition, the inhibition of hypothalamic leukemia inhibitory factor was accompanied by glucose intolerance and insulin resistance. Conclusion Hypothalamic expression of leukemia inhibitory factor may protect mice from the development of diet-induced obesity; the inhibition of this protein in the hypothalamus transforms obesity-resistant into obesity-prone mice. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-017-0956-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Fioravante
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Bruna Bombassaro
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Albina F Ramalho
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Nathalia R Dragano
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Joseane Morari
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Carina Solon
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Natalia Tobar
- Department of Radiology, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Celso D Ramos
- Department of Radiology, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil
| | - Licio A Velloso
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-970, Brazil.
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7
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Licursi M, Alberto CO, Dias A, Hirasawa K, Hirasawa M. High-fat diet-induced downregulation of anorexic leukemia inhibitory factor in the brain stem. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2016; 24:2361-2367. [PMID: 27663886 DOI: 10.1002/oby.21647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE High-fat diet (HFD) is known to induce low-grade hypothalamic inflammation. Whether inflammation occurs in other brain areas remains unknown. This study tested the effect of short-term HFD on cytokine gene expression and identified leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) as a responsive cytokine in the brain stem. Thus, functional and cellular effects of LIF in the brain stem were investigated. METHODS Male rats were fed chow or HFD for 3 days, and then gene expression was analyzed in different brain regions for IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and LIF. The effect of intracerebroventricular injection of LIF on chow intake and body weight was also tested. Patch clamp recording was performed in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). RESULTS HFD increased pontine TNF-α mRNA while downregulating LIF in all major parts of the brain stem, but not in the hypothalamus or hippocampus. LIF injection into the cerebral aqueduct suppressed food intake without conditioned taste aversion, suggesting that LIF can induce anorexia via lower brain regions without causing malaise. In the NTS, a key brain stem nucleus for food intake regulation, LIF induced acute changes in neuronal excitability. CONCLUSIONS HFD-induced downregulation of anorexic LIF in the brain stem may provide a permissive condition for HFD overconsumption. This may be at least partially mediated by the NTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Licursi
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Christian O Alberto
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Alex Dias
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Kensuke Hirasawa
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Michiru Hirasawa
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada.
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8
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Burgos-Ramos E, Chowen JA, Argente J, Barrios V. Regional and temporal differences in leptin signaling in rat brain. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2010; 167:143-52. [PMID: 20138175 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2010.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Revised: 12/28/2009] [Accepted: 01/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Leptin regulates energy homeostasis through activation of different hypothalamic pathways. Evidence indicates that leptin is a pleiotropic hormone that acts on many brain areas, altering food intake, metabolism, and locomotion, among other functions. Because short-term effects of leptin infusion and intracellular pathways in other brain areas involved in food regulation have not been thoroughly analysed, we have studied the acute effect of intracerebroventricular leptin administration on the levels of the long form of leptin receptor (Ob-Rb), as well as on activation of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), protein kinase B (Akt), extracellular regulated kinases (ERKs) and levels of suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS3) in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, frontal cortex and cerebellum of adult male Wistar rats at 15min, 1 and 6h. The levels of Ob-Rb increased at 6h in hypothalamus only. Leptin activated the JAK2/STAT3 pathway in all areas, although in a temporally specific pattern. In contrast, this hormone decreased Akt activation in hypothalamus, hippocampus and cerebellum and ERK activation in frontal cortex, while it increased ERK activation in hypothalamus and hippocampus. These differences in modulation of Ob-Rb levels and signaling indicate that the rapid effects of leptin in non-hypothalamic areas are mediated, at least in part, through the intracellular pathways involved in hypothalamic energy balance, but in a temporally specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Burgos-Ramos
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid E-28009, Spain
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9
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Grossberg AJ, Scarlett JM, Marks DL. Hypothalamic mechanisms in cachexia. Physiol Behav 2010; 100:478-89. [PMID: 20346963 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2010] [Accepted: 03/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The role of nutrition and balanced metabolism in normal growth, development, and health maintenance is well known. Patients affected with either acute or chronic diseases often show disorders of nutrient balance. In some cases, a devastating state of malnutrition known as cachexia arises, brought about by a synergistic combination of a dramatic decrease in appetite and an increase in metabolism of fat and lean body mass. Other common features that are not required for the diagnosis include decreases in voluntary movement, insulin resistance, and anhedonia. This combination is found in a number of disorders including cancer, cystic fibrosis, AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis, renal failure, and Alzheimer's disease. The severity of cachexia in these illnesses is often the primary determining factor in both quality of life, and in eventual mortality. Indeed, body mass retention in AIDS patients has a stronger association with survival than any other current measure of the disease. This has led to intense investigation of cachexia and the proposal of numerous hypotheses regarding its etiology. Most authors suggest that cytokines released during inflammation and malignancy act on the central nervous system to alter the release and function of a number of neurotransmitters, thereby altering both appetite and metabolic rate. This review will discuss the salient features of cachexia in human diseases, and review the mechanisms whereby inflammation alters the function of key brain regions to produce stereotypical illness behavior. The paper represents an invited review by a symposium, award winner or keynote speaker at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior [SSIB] Annual Meeting in Portland, July 2009.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J Grossberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
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10
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Grossberg AJ, Scarlett JM, Zhu X, Bowe DD, Batra AK, Braun TP, Marks DL. Arcuate nucleus proopiomelanocortin neurons mediate the acute anorectic actions of leukemia inhibitory factor via gp130. Endocrinology 2010; 151:606-16. [PMID: 20016025 PMCID: PMC2817620 DOI: 10.1210/en.2009-1135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The proinflammatory cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is induced in disease states and is known to inhibit food intake when administered centrally. However, the neural pathways underlying this effect are not well understood. We demonstrate that LIF acutely inhibits food intake by directly activating pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. We show that arcuate POMC neurons express the LIF-R, and that LIF stimulates the release of the anorexigenic peptide, alpha-MSH from ex vivo hypothalami. Transgenic mice lacking gp130, the signal transducing subunit of the LIF-R complex, specifically in POMC neurons fail to respond to LIF. Furthermore, LIF does not stimulate the release of alpha-MSH from the transgenic hypothalamic explants. These findings indicate that POMC neurons mediate the acute anorectic actions of central LIF administration and provide a mechanistic link between inflammation and food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J Grossberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health and Science University, Mail Code L-481, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA
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11
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Slaets H, Hendriks JJA, Van den Haute C, Coun F, Baekelandt V, Stinissen P, Hellings N. CNS-targeted LIF expression improves therapeutic efficacy and limits autoimmune-mediated demyelination in a model of multiple sclerosis. Mol Ther 2010; 18:684-91. [PMID: 20068552 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2009.311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) with an inflammatory and a neurodegenerative component. The neuropoietic cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is expressed in MS lesions, but its effect on lesion development is far from understood. LIF is an interesting candidate for MS therapy, as it has neuroprotective properties and may also promote the survival of myelinating oligodendrocytes (OLGs). However, therapeutic administration of LIF is complicated by its limited ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and its pleiotropic actions outside the CNS. In this study, lentiviral vectors (LVs) were used to achieve stable expression and secretion of LIF in the CNS of adult mice. CNS-targeted expression of LIF significantly reduced demyelination in a murine model of MS. In addition, local expression of LIF ameliorated clinical symptoms with enhanced efficacy compared to systemic treatment with recombinant protein. These findings demonstrate that gene therapeutic administration of LIF is a promising approach to limit lesion burden and clinical symptoms in neuroinflammatory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Slaets
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute and transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Diepenbeek, Belgium
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12
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Benomar Y, Berthou F, Vacher CM, Bailleux V, Gertler A, Djiane J, Taouis M. Leptin but not ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) induces phosphotyrosine phosphatase-1B expression in human neuronal cells (SH-SY5Y): putative explanation of CNTF efficacy in leptin-resistant state. Endocrinology 2009; 150:1182-91. [PMID: 19008309 DOI: 10.1210/en.2008-1097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Growing evidences suggest that obesity is associated with hypothalamic leptin resistance, leading to the alteration of food intake control. Alternative treatment using ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) has been suggested because CNTF exerts a leptin-like effect, even in leptin-resistant states, but the mechanisms by which CNTF maintains this effect are not yet understood. Both leptin and CNTF act in the hypothalamus through similar signaling pathways including janus kinase-2/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-3 pathway. To explore the differences and interactions between leptin and CNTF signaling pathways, differentiated human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) were exposed to either leptin or CNTF and then challenged for each cytokine. Leptin pretreatment completely abolished leptin-dependent STAT-3 and ERK 1/2 phosphorylations without affecting CNTF action. The lack of cross-desensitization between leptin and CNTF signaling pathways occurred despite the induction of suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 in response to both cytokines. Interestingly, leptin as well as insulin induced the expression of phosphotyrosine phosphatase (PTP)-1B, whereas CNTF treatment did not affect its expression. In addition, acute leptin treatment but not CNTF induced PTP-1B expression in mouse hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. Furthermore, the overexpression of human PTP-1B in SH-SY5Y cells completely abolished leptin- and insulin-dependent janus kinase-2, STAT-3, and ERK 1/2 phosphorylations, but CNTF action was not altered. Collectively, our results suggest that PTP-1B constitutes a key divergent element between leptin/insulin and CNTF signaling pathways at the neuronal level, which may constitute a possible mechanism that explains the efficacy of CNTF in leptin-resistant states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yacir Benomar
- Neuroendocrinologie Moléculaire de la Prise Alimentaire, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1197, Université Paris-Sud 11, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Orsay, France
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Paulsen SJ, Larsen LK, Jelsing J, Janssen U, Gerstmayer B, Vrang N. Gene expression profiling of individual hypothalamic nuclei from single animals using laser capture microdissection and microarrays. J Neurosci Methods 2008; 177:87-93. [PMID: 18955080 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 09/18/2008] [Accepted: 09/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In order to identify novel genes involved in appetite and body weight regulation we have developed a microarray based method suitable for detecting small changes in gene expression in discrete groups of hypothalamic neurons. The method is based on a combination of stereological sampling, laser capture microdissection (LCM), PCR based amplification (SuperAmp), and one-color cDNA microarray analysis. To validate the method we assessed and compared fasting induced changes in mRNA levels of Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) of diet-induced obese rats using cDNA microarrays, quantitative PCR and in situ hybridization. All methods revealed statistically significant fasting-induced changes in NPY and POMC expression. An additional 3480 differentially expressed probes (fold change >1.22, t-test p=0.05) were identified in the microarray analysis. Our findings demonstrate a consistent gene expression pattern across three different gene expression detection methods and strongly suggest that LCM coupled microarray analysis combined with SuperAmp can be used as a semi-quantitative mRNA profiling tool. Importantly, the sensitivity of the method greatly improves the usefulness of the microarray technology for gene expression profiling in non-homogeneous tissues such as the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Juel Paulsen
- Rheoscience A/S, Glerupvej 1, DK-2610 Rødovre, Denmark; University of Southern Denmark, BMB, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark.
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14
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Yeh SS, Blackwood K, Schuster MW. The cytokine basis of cachexia and its treatment: are they ready for prime time? J Am Med Dir Assoc 2008; 9:219-36. [PMID: 18457797 DOI: 10.1016/j.jamda.2008.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2008] [Accepted: 01/04/2008] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Cachexia is a hypercatabolic condition that is often associated with the terminal stages of many diseases, in which the patient's resting metabolic rate is high and loss of muscle and fat tissue mass occur at an alarming rate. The patient also usually has concurrent anorexia, amplifying the wasting syndrome that is cachexia. The greater the extent of cachexia (regardless of underlying disease), the worse the prognosis. Efforts to treat cachexia over the years have fallen short of satisfactorily reversing the wasting syndrome. This article reviews the pathophysiology of cachexia, enumerating the different pro-inflammatory cytokines that contribute to the syndrome and attempting to illustrate their interwoven pathways. We also review the different treatments that have been explored, as well as the recent literature addressing the use of anti-cytokine therapy to treat cachexia.
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15
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CNTF: a target therapeutic for obesity-related metabolic disease? J Mol Med (Berl) 2008; 86:353-61. [DOI: 10.1007/s00109-007-0286-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2007] [Revised: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 10/24/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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16
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Davis CD, Milner JA. Biomarkers for diet and cancer prevention research: potentials and challenges. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2007; 28:1262-73. [PMID: 17723162 DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-7254.2007.00678.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
As cancer incidence is projected to increase for decades there is a need for effective preventive strategies. Fortunately, evidence continues to mount that altering dietary habits is an effective and cost-efficient approach for reducing cancer risk and for modifying the biological behavior of tumors. Predictive, validated and sensitive biomarkers, including those that reliably evaluate "intake" or exposure to a specific food or bioactive component, that assess one or more specific biological "effects" that are linked to cancer, and that effectively predict individual "susceptibility" as a function of nutrient-nutrient interactions and genetics, are fundamental to evaluating who will benefit most from dietary interventions. These biomarkers must be readily accessible, easily and reliably assayed, and predictive of a key process(es) involved in cancer. The response to a food is determined not only by the effective concentration of the bioactive food component(s) reaching the target tissue, but also by the amount of the target requiring modification. Thus, this threshold response to foods and their components will vary from individual to individual. The key to understanding a personalized response is a greater knowledge of nutrigenomics, proteomics and metabolomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy D Davis
- Nutritional Science Research Group, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD 20892, USA.
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17
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Abstract
Obesity and its related cluster of pathophysiologic conditions including insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, dyslipidemia, and hypertension are recognized as growing threats to world health. It is now estimated that 10% of the world's population is overweight or obese. As a result, new therapeutic options for the treatment of obesity are clearly warranted. Recent research has focused on the role that gp130 receptor ligands may play as potential therapeutic targets in obesity. One cytokine in particular, ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), acts both centrally and peripherally and mimics the biologic actions of the appetite control hormone leptin, but unlike leptin, CNTF appears to be effective in obesity and as such may have therapeutic potential. In addition, CNTF suppresses inflammatory signaling cascades associated with lipid accumulation in liver and skeletal muscle. This review examines the potential role of gp130 receptor ligands as part of a therapeutic strategy to treat obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Febbraio
- Cellular and Molecular Metabolism Laboratory, Division of Diabetes and Metabolism, Baker Heart Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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Bauer S, Kerr BJ, Patterson PH. The neuropoietic cytokine family in development, plasticity, disease and injury. Nat Rev Neurosci 2007; 8:221-32. [PMID: 17311007 DOI: 10.1038/nrn2054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Neuropoietic cytokines are well known for their role in the control of neuronal, glial and immune responses to injury or disease. Since this discovery, it has emerged that several of these proteins are also involved in nervous system development, in particular in the regulation of neurogenesis and stem cell fate. Recent data indicate that these proteins have yet more functions, as key modulators of synaptic plasticity and of various behaviours. In addition, neuropoietic cytokines might be a factor in the aetiology of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvian Bauer
- Physiologie Neurovégétative, UMR 6153 CNRS, 1147 INRA, Université Paul Cézanne-Aix-Marseille-3, Ave. Escadrille Normandie-Niemen, BP 351-352, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
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19
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Ambati S, Duan J, Duff E, Choi YH, Hartzell DL, Della-Fera MA, Baile CA. Gene expression in arcuate nucleus-median eminence of rats treated with leptin or ciliary neurotrophic factor. Biofactors 2007; 31:133-44. [PMID: 18806317 DOI: 10.1002/biof.5520310204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and leptin are cytokine-like% hormones and act on their corresponding receptors in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC). The present study was designed to assess effects of intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of leptin and CNTF on gene expression in micropunched hypothalamic arcuate nucleus-median eminence (ARC-ME) complex samples from rats. Male Sprague Dawley rats were implanted with lateral cerebroventricular cannulas for administration of control, 10 microg/d leptin or 5 microg/d CNTF for four days. Real-time Taqmantrade mark RT-PCR was used to quantitatively compare the mRNA levels of selected genes in the ARC-ME complex. Leptin and CNTF increased ARC-ME mRNA levels of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) by 64.5 and 124.7% (p<0.01), suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) by 258.9 and 1063.9% (p<0.01), cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART) by 102.7 and 123.1% (p<0.01), and proopiomelanocortin (POMC2) by 374.1 and 264.9% (p<0.01), respectively. Leptin increased growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) by 309.9% (p<0.01), while CNTF increased janus kinase 2 (JAK2) mRNA by 31.7% (p<0.01) and decreased gonadotropin releasing hormone 1 (GNRH1) by 59.7% (p<0.01), mitogen activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) by 19.4% (p<0.05) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) by 74.5% (p<0.05). Significant reduction in daily food intake and body weights by both the treatments was observed. Also, decrease in weights of fat pads was concomitant with lowered serum insulin and leptin levels. Our findings show that leptin and CNTF engage both convergent and divergent pathways involved in feeding, cellular signaling, inflammation, and other related regulatory systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Ambati
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2771, USA
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20
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Janoschek R, Plum L, Koch L, Münzberg H, Diano S, Shanabrough M, Müller W, Horvath TL, Brüning JC. gp130 signaling in proopiomelanocortin neurons mediates the acute anorectic response to centrally applied ciliary neurotrophic factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:10707-12. [PMID: 16818888 PMCID: PMC1502296 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0600425103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) exerts anorectic effects by overcoming leptin resistance via activation of hypothalamic neurons. However, the exact site of CNTF action in the hypothalamus has not yet been identified. Using Cre-loxP-mediated recombination in vivo, we have selectively ablated the common cytokine signaling chain gp130, which is required for functional CNTF signaling, in proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-expressing neurons. POMC-specific gp130 knockout mice exhibit unaltered numbers of POMC cells and normal energy homeostasis under standard and high fat diet. Endotoxin (LPS) and stress-induced anorexia and adrenocorticotropin regulation were unaffected in these animals. Strikingly, the anorectic effect of centrally administered CNTF was abolished in POMC-specific gp130 knockout mice. Correspondingly, in these animals, CNTF failed to activate STAT3 phosphorylation in POMC neurons and to induce c-Fos expression in the paraventricular nucleus. These data reveal POMC neurons as a critical site of CNTF action in mediating its anorectic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Janoschek
- *Institute for Genetics and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Department of Mouse Genetics and Metabolism, University of Cologne, D-50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Leona Plum
- *Institute for Genetics and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Department of Mouse Genetics and Metabolism, University of Cologne, D-50674 Cologne, Germany
- Klinik II und Poliklinik für Innere Medizin, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Linda Koch
- *Institute for Genetics and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Department of Mouse Genetics and Metabolism, University of Cologne, D-50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Heike Münzberg
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, Departments of Internal Medicine and Molecular Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0638
| | - Sabrina Diano
- Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and
- Neurobiology and
| | | | - Werner Müller
- German Research Centre for Biotechnology, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany; and Departments of
| | - Tamas L. Horvath
- Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and
- Neurobiology and
- **Section of Comparative Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| | - Jens C. Brüning
- *Institute for Genetics and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Department of Mouse Genetics and Metabolism, University of Cologne, D-50674 Cologne, Germany
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
Institute for Genetics, Department of Mouse Genetics and Metabolism, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Strasse 47, D-50674 Cologne, Germany. E-mail:
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Zeinoaldini S, Swarts HJM, Van de Heijning BJM. Effects of central infusion and immunoneutralization of growth hormone on the timing of puberty and plasma leptin levels in the female rat. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 134:158-63. [PMID: 16626817 DOI: 10.1016/j.regpep.2006.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2005] [Revised: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 03/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) levels increase during puberty though its role in puberty onset is still unclear. An interaction is suggested between GH and leptin, as triggering factor of puberty. To evaluate the role of GH on the timing of puberty and its relation with leptin, we centrally administered recombinant human GH (rhGH; 1 microg/day) to normally fed or food-restricted (FR) prepubertal female rats, and monitored time of vaginal opening (VO). Median time of VO was equally postponed in FR animals and in normally fed rhGH-infused rats: median time of VO was respectively 35 and 34 vs. 27 d. Central infusion of rhGH in FR rats partially restored the delay in VO. Plasma leptin levels were increased in rhGH-infused animals, normally fed or FR. Centrally infused anti-rat GH (0.6 microg/day) did not affect plasma leptin levels, but advanced median time of VO (25 vs. 28 d) in pair-fed female rats but not in ad lib-fed animals. The effects of the centrally infused compounds appear to depend on the dietary regime imposed on the prepubertal animals. Furthermore, plasma leptin levels show no direct or predictive relation to the time of VO. The data indicate an involvement of GH in puberty onset, but do not explain the mechanism employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Zeinoaldini
- Haarweg 10, 6709 PJ, Human and Animal Physiology Group, Animal Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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22
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Warrington KH, Herzog RW. Treatment of human disease by adeno-associated viral gene transfer. Hum Genet 2006; 119:571-603. [PMID: 16612615 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-006-0165-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2006] [Accepted: 02/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
During the past decade, in vivo administration of viral gene transfer vectors for treatment of numerous human diseases has been brought from bench to bedside in the form of clinical trials, mostly aimed at establishing the safety of the protocol. In preclinical studies in animal models of human disease, adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors have emerged as a favored gene transfer system for this approach. These vectors are derived from a replication-deficient, non-pathogenic parvovirus with a single-stranded DNA genome. Efficient gene transfer to numerous target cells and tissues has been described. AAV is particularly efficient in transduction of non-dividing cells, and the vector genome persists predominantly in episomal forms. Substantial correction, and in some instances complete cure, of genetic disease has been obtained in animal models of hemophilia, lysosomal storage disorders, retinal diseases, disorders of the central nervous system, and other diseases. Therapeutic expression often lasted for months to years. Treatments of genetic disorders, cancer, and other acquired diseases are summarized in this review. Vector development, results in animals, early clinical experience, as well as potential hurdles and challenges are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth H Warrington
- Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32615-9586, USA
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23
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Abstract
A sedentary life-style and an environment of caloric abundance have contributed to the recent rise in the incidence of obesity. Treating such a complex disease requires an understanding of its underlying molecular mechanisms that has only recently become possible with the sequencing of the human genome and the mapping of hundreds of genes associated with increased risk of obesity. With few safe and efficacious weight-maintenance drugs available on the market, gene therapy offers an alternative long-term treatment modality. Still in its infancy, gene therapy for obesity is poised for significant progress, due in large part to a wide variety of available gene targets and the development of novel systems to control gene expression. Coincidently, novel vectors are being developed based on adeno-associated virus providing efficient and sustained expression of a transgene in metabolically important tissues. These advances are driving the development of gene therapy as a viable therapeutic option in treating obesity and its associated disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei Zolotukhin
- University of Florida, Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, 13706 Innovation Drive, Progress Park, Alachua, FL 32615-9586, USA.
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Jobst EE, Enriori PJ, Sinnayah P, Cowley MA. Hypothalamic regulatory pathways and potential obesity treatment targets. Endocrine 2006; 29:33-48. [PMID: 16622291 DOI: 10.1385/endo:29:1:33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2005] [Revised: 11/30/1999] [Accepted: 11/08/2005] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
With an ever-growing population of obese people as well as comorbidities associated with obesity, finding effective weight loss strategies is more imperative than ever. One of the challenges in curbing the obesity crisis is designing successful strategies for long-term weight loss and weight-loss maintenance. Currently, weight-loss strategies include promotion of therapeutic lifestyle changes (diet and exercise), pharmacological therapy, and bariatric surgery. This review focuses on several pharmacological targets that activate central nervous system pathways that normally limit food intake and body weight. Though it is likely that no single therapy will prove effective for everyone, this review considers several recent pre-clinical targets, and several compounds that have been in human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E Jobst
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA.
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25
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Kalra SP, Kalra PS. Gene-transfer technology: a preventive neurotherapy to curb obesity, ameliorate metabolic syndrome and extend life expectancy. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2005; 26:488-95. [PMID: 16125798 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2005.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2005] [Revised: 07/25/2005] [Accepted: 08/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Leptin insufficiency at crucial target sites in the hypothalamic circuitries that integrate energy intake and expenditure underlies abnormal rates of fat accumulation. The payload of this "fat burden" is metabolic syndrome, a cluster of life-threatening metabolic afflictions, and a shorter lifespan. Currently available therapies employed to combat obesity have disadvantages such as poor compliance for lifestyle modification or transient effectiveness and undesirable side-effects of pharmacological interventions. Recent studies suggest that neurotherapy comprising a single central administration of recombinant adeno-associated virus vector encoding the leptin gene severely depletes fat and ameliorates the major symptoms of metabolic syndrome for extended periods in rodents. These persistent benefits avert the deleterious impact of the "fat burden" and extend life expectancy. Thus, the novel approach of central gene-transfer technology has distinct advantages over current therapies and has the potential to correct or slow the progression of inherited or acquired hypothalamic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satya P Kalra
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida McKnight Brain Institute, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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Suzuki S, Goncalves CG, Meguid MM. Catabolic outcome from non-gastrointestinal malignancy-related malabsorption leading to malnutrition and weight loss. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2005; 8:419-27. [PMID: 15930968 DOI: 10.1097/01.mco.0000172583.25009.ab] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Malnutrition of cancer patients is a significant cause of mortality and morbidity. RECENT FINDINGS The contributory factors in cancers anatomically involving the gastrointestinal tract are self-evident. However, how non-gastrointestinal malignancies affect gastrointestinal structure and function is not clear. The aim of this paper is to review the relationship between non-gastrointestinal malignancies and malabsorption, which leads to malnutrition, weight loss and increased mortality. In non-gastrointestinal cancer patients, intestinal morphological atrophy occurs, whereas in the jejunum absorption is impaired. Cytokines including IL-1 and TNF-alpha primarily induce delayed gastric emptying and also act directly on intestinal mucosa to induce malabsorption. These cytokines also directly act on several gastrointestinal hormones including cholecystokinin, neuropeptides including corticotropin-releasing factor, and via the vagus to decrease gastrointestinal motility. SUMMARY The combination of small intestine atrophy and delayed gastrointestinal motility are some of the reasons for malabsorption in cancer patients with non-gastrointestinal malignancies that contribute to the catabolic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sususmu Suzuki
- Surgical Metabolism and Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University Hospital, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York 13210, USA
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