Root Branching Is a Leading Root Trait of the Plant Economics Spectrum in Temperate Trees

Environmental factors drive latitudinal patterns of fine-root architectures of 96 xerophytic species in the dry valleys of Southwest China

Fine-root architecture is critical feature reflecting root explorative and exploitative strategies for soil resources and soil space occupancy. Yet, studies on the variation of fine-root architecture across different species are scare and little work has been done to integrate the potential drivers on these variations along a biogeographical gradient in arid ecosystems. We measured root branching intensity, topological index, and root branching ratios as well as morphological traits (root diameter and length) in dry valley along a 1000 km latitudinal gradient. Influence of phylogeny, environmental factors on fine-root architecture and trade-offs among root traits were evaluated. With increasing latitude, the topological index and second to third root order branching ratio decreased, whereas first-to-second branching ratio increased. Root branching intensity was associated with short and thin fine roots, but has no significant latitudinal pattern. As a whole, soil microbial biomass was the most important driver in the variation of root branching intensity, and soil texture was the strongest predictor of topological index. Additionally, mean annual temperature was an important factor influencing first-to-second branching ratio. Our results suggest variations in fine-root architectures were more dependent on environmental variables than phylogeny, signifying that fine-root architecture is sensitive to environmental variations.

Charting the evolutionary path of the SUMO modification system in plants reveals molecular hardwiring of development to stress adaptation

SUMO modification is part of the spectrum of Ubiquitin-like (UBL) systems that give rise to proteoform complexity through post-translational modifications (PTMs). Proteoforms are essential modifiers of cell signaling for plant adaptation to changing environments. Exploration of the evolutionary emergence of Ubiquitin-like (UBL) systems unveils their origin from prokaryotes, where it is linked to the mechanisms that enable sulfur uptake into biomolecules. We explore the emergence of the SUMO machinery across the plant lineage from single-cell to land plants. We reveal the evolutionary point at which plants acquired the ability to form SUMO chains through the emergence of SUMO E4 ligases, hinting at its role in facilitating multicellularity. Additionally, we explore the possible mechanism for the neofunctionalization of SUMO proteases through the fusion of conserved catalytic domains with divergent sequences. We highlight the pivotal role of SUMO proteases in plant development and adaptation, offering new insights into target specificity mechanisms of SUMO modification during plant evolution. Correlating the emergence of adaptive traits in the plant lineage with established experimental evidence for SUMO in developmental processes, we propose that SUMO modification has evolved to link developmental processes to adaptive functions in land plants.

Distinct effects of canopy vs understory and organic vs inorganic N deposition on root resource acquisition strategies of subtropical Moso bamboo plants

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition inevitably alters soil nutrient status, subsequently prompting plants to modify their root morphology (i.e., adopting a do-it-yourself strategy), mycorrhizal symbioses (i.e., outsourcing strategy), and root exudation (i.e., nutrient-mining strategy) linking with resource acquisition. However, how N deposition influences the integrated pattern of these resource-acquisition strategies remains unclear. Furthermore, most studies in forest ecosystems have focused on understory N and inorganic N deposition, neglecting canopy-associated processes (e.g., N interception and assimilation) and the impacts of organic N on root functional traits. In this study, we compared the effects of canopy vs understory, organic vs inorganic N deposition on eight root functional traits of Moso bamboo plants. Our results showed that N deposition significantly decreased arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) colonization, altered root exudation rate and root foraging traits (branching intensity, specific root area, and length), but did not influence root tissue density and N concentration. Moreover, the impacts of N deposition on root functional traits varied significantly with deposition approach (canopy vs. understory), form (organic vs. inorganic), and their interaction, showing variations in both intensity and direction (positive/negative). Furthermore, specific root area and length were positively correlated with AMF colonization under canopy N deposition and root exudation rate in understory N deposition. Root trait variation under understory N deposition, but not under canopy N deposition, was classified into the collaboration gradient and the conservation gradient. These findings imply that coordination of nutrient-acquisition strategies dependent on N deposition approach. Overall, this study provides a holistic understanding of the impacts of N deposition on root resource-acquisition strategies. Our results indicate that the evaluation of N deposition on fine roots in forest ecosystems might be biased if N is added understory.

Plant trait relationships are maintained within a major crop species: lack of artificial selection signal and potential for improved agronomic performance

The exploration of phenotypic spaces of large sets of plant species has considerably increased our understanding of diversification processes in the plant kingdom. Nevertheless, such advances have predominantly relied on interspecific comparisons that hold several limitations. Here, we grew in the field a unique set of 179 inbred lines of durum wheat, Triticum turgidum spp. durum, characterized by variable degrees of artificial selection. We measured aboveground and belowground traits as well as agronomic traits to explore the functional and agronomic trait spaces and to investigate trait-to-agronomic performance relationships. We showed that the wheat functional trait space shared commonalities with global cross-species spaces previously described, with two main axes of variation: a root foraging axis and a slow-fast trade-off axis. Moreover, we detected a clear signature of artificial selection on the variation of agronomic traits, unlike functional traits. Interestingly, we identified alternative phenotypic combinations that can optimize crop performance. Our work brings insightful knowledge about the structure of phenotypic spaces of domesticated plants and the maintenance of phenotypic trade-offs in response to artificial selection, with implications for trade-off-free and multi-criteria selection in plant breeding.

Species phylogeny, ecology, and root traits as predictors of root exudate composition

Root traits including root exudates are key factors affecting plant interactions with soil and thus play an important role in determining ecosystem processes. The drivers of their variation, however, remain poorly understood. We determined the relative importance of phylogeny and species ecology in determining root traits and analyzed the extent to which root exudate composition can be predicted by other root traits. We measured different root morphological and biochemical traits (including exudate profiles) of 65 plant species grown in a controlled system. We tested phylogenetic conservatism in traits and disentangled the individual and overlapping effects of phylogeny and species ecology on traits. We also predicted root exudate composition using other root traits. Phylogenetic signal differed greatly among root traits, with the strongest signal in phenol content in plant tissues. Interspecific variation in root traits was partly explained by species ecology, but phylogeny was more important in most cases. Species exudate composition could be partly predicted by specific root length, root dry matter content, root biomass, and root diameter, but a large part of variation remained unexplained. In conclusion, root exudation cannot be easily predicted based on other root traits and more comparative data on root exudation are needed to understand their diversity.

Root-associated fungal communities are influenced more by soils than by plant-host root traits in a Chinese tropical forest

Forest fungal communities are shaped by the interactions between host tree root systems and the associated soil conditions. We investigated how the soil environment, root morphological traits, and root chemistry influence root-inhabiting fungal communities in three tropical forest sites of varying successional status in Xishuangbanna, China. For 150 trees of 66 species, we measured root morphology and tissue chemistry. Tree species identity was confirmed by sequencing rbcL, and root-associated fungal (RAF) communities were determined using high-throughput ITS2 sequencing. Using distance-based redundancy analysis and hierarchical variation partitioning, we quantified the relative importance of two soil variables (site average total phosphorus and available phosphorus), four root traits (dry matter content, tissue density, specific tip abundance, and forks), and three root tissue elemental concentrations (nitrogen, calcium, and manganese) on RAF community dissimilarity. The root and soil environment collectively explained 23% of RAF compositional variation. Soil phosphorus explained 76% of that variation. Twenty fungal taxa differentiated RAF communities among the three sites. Soil phosphorus most strongly affects RAF assemblages in this tropical forest. Variation in root calcium and manganese concentrations and root morphology among tree hosts, principally an architectural trade-off between dense, highly branched vs less-dense, herringbone-type root systems, are important secondary determinants.

Complementary belowground strategies underlie species coexistence in an early successional forest

Unravelling belowground strategies is critical for understanding species coexistence and successional dynamics; yet, our knowledge of nutrient acquisition strategies of forest species at different successional stages remains limited. We measured morphological (diameter, specific root length, and root tissue density), architectural (branching ratio), physiological (ammonium, nitrate, and glycine uptake rates) root traits, and mycorrhizal colonisation rates of eight coexisting woody species in an early successional plantation forest in subtropical China. By incorporating physiological uptake efficiency, we revealed a bi-dimensional root economics space comprising of an 'amount-efficiency' dimension represented by morphological and physiological traits, and a 'self-symbiosis' dimension dominated by architectural and mycorrhizal traits. The early pioneer species relied on root-fungal symbiosis, developing densely branched roots with high mycorrhizal colonisation rates for foraging mobile soil nitrate. The late pioneer species invested in roots themselves and allocated effort towards improving uptake efficiency of less-mobile ammonium. Within the root economics space, the covariation of axes with soil phosphorus availability also distinguished the strategy preference of the two successional groups. These results demonstrate the importance of incorporating physiological uptake efficiency into root economics space, and reveal a trade-off between expanding soil physical space exploration and improving physiological uptake efficiency for successional species coexistence in forests.

Perennial grass root system specializes for multiple resource acquisitions with differential elongation and branching patterns

Roots optimize the acquisition of limited soil resources, but relationships between root forms and functions have often been assumed rather than demonstrated. Furthermore, how root systems co-specialize for multiple resource acquisitions is unclear. Theory suggests that trade-offs exist for the acquisition of different resource types, such as water and certain nutrients. Measurements used to describe the acquisition of different resources should then account for differential root responses within a single system. To demonstrate this, we grew Panicum virgatum in split-root systems that vertically partitioned high water availability from nutrient availability so that root systems must absorb the resources separately to fully meet plant demands. We evaluated root elongation, surface area, and branching, and we characterized traits using an order-based classification scheme. Plants allocated approximately 3/4th of primary root length towards water acquisition, whereas lateral branches were progressively allocated towards nutrients. However, root elongation rates, specific root length, and mass fraction were similar. Our results support the existence of differential root functioning within perennial grasses. Similar responses have been recorded in many plant functional types suggesting a fundamental relationship. Root responses to resource availability can be incorporated into root growth models via maximum root length and branching interval parameters.

Plant Traits and Phylogeny Predict Soil Carbon and Nutrient Cycling in Mediterranean Mixed Forests

Soil functioning is closely linked to the interactions between biological communities with the physical environment. Yet, the impact of plant community attributes on metabolic processes promoting soil nutrient cycling remains largely unknown. We hypothesized that the plant community acts as a regulating agent of nutrient mobilization in soils according to the phylogenetic and morpho-functional traits of plant species of which it is composed. Rhizosphere soils were collected in autumn and spring under 32 tree and shrub species in two Mediterranean mixed forests (four plots in each) located in southern Spain, and nine soil enzymatic activities related to C, N and P mobilization were assessed. Phylogeny and morpho-functional traits of plant species were recorded and their imprint in soil enzymatic activities across forests was determined. The results showed a plant phylogenetic signal for N mobilization in both forests, while it varied across forests for non-labile C and P mobilization. The plant phylogenetic signals were primarily driven by lineages that diversified through the Miocene, about 25 Myr ago. In addition, leaf traits and plant’s mycorrhizal type explained soil enzymatic activities independently from phylogeny. C and P mobilization increased under ectomycorrhizal plants, whilst enhanced N mobilization did occur under arbuscular mycorrhizal ones. The plant community composition led to a different carbon and nutrient mobilization degree, which in turn was mediated by distinct microbial communities mirroring differentiated resource-acquisition strategies of plants. Our results highlight the role of plant traits and mycorrhizal interactions in modulating carbon and nutrient cycling in Mediterranean mixed forest soils.

Response strategies of fine root morphology of Cupressus funebris to the different soil environment

Understanding fine root morphology is crucial to uncover water and nutrient acquisition and transposition of fine roots. However, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding how the soil environment affects the fine root morphology of various root orders in the stable forest ecosystem. Therefore, this experiment assessed the response strategies of fine root morphology (first- to fifth -order fine roots) in four different soil environments. The results showed that fine root morphology was related to soil environment, and there were significant differences in specific root length (SRL), specific surface area (SRA), diameter (D), and root tissue density (RTD) of first- and second -order fine roots. Soil total nitrogen (TN), alkaline nitrogen (AN) and available phosphorus (AP) were positively correlated with SRL and SRA and negatively correlated with D and RTD. Soil moisture (SW) was positively correlated with the D and RTD of first- and second-order fine roots and negatively correlated with the SRL and SRA. Soil temperature (ST), organic carbon (OC), soil bulk density (SBD) and soil porosity (SP) were not significantly correlated with the D, SRL, SRA, and RTD of the first- and second -order fine roots. AN was positively correlated with SRL and SRA and negatively correlated with both D and RTD in the first- and second -order fine roots, and the correlation coefficient was very significant. Therefore, we finally concluded that soil AN was the most critical factor affecting root D, SRL, SRA and RTD of fine roots, and mainly affected the morphology of first- and second -order fine roots. In conclusion, our research provides support for understanding the relationship between fine root morphology and soil environment, and indicates that soil nutrient gradient forms good root morphology at intraspecific scale.

Temperate Lianas Have More Acquisitive Strategies than Host Trees in Leaf and Stem Traits, but Not Root Traits

Increasingly, tropical studies based on aboveground traits have suggested that lianas have a more acquisitive strategy than trees, thereby possibly explaining the increase in lianas relative to trees in many tropical forests under global change. However, few studies have tested whether this pattern can be extended to root traits and temperate forests. In this study, we sampled 61 temperate liana-host tree pairs and quantified 11 commonly studied functional traits representative of plant economics in roots, stems, and leaves; we aimed to determine whether root, stem and leaf traits are coordinated across lifeforms, and whether temperate lianas are also characterized by more fast and acquisitive traits than trees. Our results showed that leaf and stem traits were coordinated across lifeforms but not with root traits, suggesting that aboveground plant economics is not always correlated with belowground economics, and leaf and stem economic spectra cannot be expanded to the root directly. Compared with host trees, lianas had more acquisitive leaf and stem traits, such as higher specific leaf area and lower leaf dry matter content, leaf carbon content, leaf mass per area, and wood density, suggesting that lianas have a more acquisitive strategy than host trees in the temperate forest. The differences between lianas and trees in plant strategy may drive their contrasting responses to the changing temperate forest environment under global change.

Holm oak decline is determined by shifts in fine root phenotypic plasticity in response to belowground stress

Climate change and pathogen outbreaks are the two major causes of decline in Mediterranean holm oak trees (Quercus ilex L. subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.). Crown-level changes in response to these stressful conditions have been widely documented but the responses of the root systems remain unexplored. The effects of environmental stress over roots and its potential role during the declining process need to be evaluated. We aimed to study how key morphological and architectural root parameters and nonstructural carbohydrates of roots are affected along a holm oak health gradient (i.e. within healthy, susceptible and declining trees). Holm oaks with different health statuses had different soil resource-uptake strategies. While healthy and susceptible trees showed a conservative resource-uptake strategy independently of soil nutrient availability, declining trees optimized soil resource acquisition by increasing the phenotypic plasticity of their fine root system. This increase in fine root phenotypic plasticity in declining holm oaks represents an energy-consuming strategy promoted to cope with the stress and at the expense of foliage maintenance. Our study describes a potential feedback loop resulting from strong unprecedented belowground stress that ultimately may lead to poor adaptation and tree death in the Spanish dehesa.

Seedling age of Abies georgei var. smithii reveals functional trait coordination in high-altitude habitats in southeast tibet

Functional trait-based plant ecology is often used to study plant survival strategies and growth processes. In this work, the variation regularity of functional traits and their correlations were studied in Abies georgei var. smithii seedlings of different seedling ages found along the altitude gradient (3,800–4,400 m) in Sejila Mountain, Southeast Tibet. The following functional traits of seedlings in five age classes were determined: above-ground functional traits∼leaf thickness (T), leaf area (LA), specific leaf area (SLA), and leaf dry matter content (LDMC); below-ground functional traits∼specific stem length (SSL), specific root length (SRL), specific root surface area (SRA), root tissue density (RTD), and root dry matter content (RDMC). Results showed that (1) except for LDMC, most of the functional traits of the seedlings at different altitudes showed a regular change trend over time. The changes in traits caused by seedling age had significant effects on other traits (p < 0.05). Altitude only had significant effects on T, LA, SLA, SRA, RTD, and RDMC (p < 0.05). (2) The correlation between the above- and below-ground traits was more significant in 5-6-year-old seedlings than in other age classes (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis (PCA) results showed that LA and SLA were the dominant traits of fir seedlings in five age categories Pearson correlation analysis indicated a correlation between RTD and above-ground traits, thus validating the correlation between the above- and below-ground traits of seedlings of Abies georgei var. smithii of different ages. (3) Available potassium, total potassium, and total organic carbon (TOC) had the greatest influence on the traits of 5-6-year-old seedlings. This study revealed that the functional traits of Abies georgei var. smithii seedlings at different altitudesdynamically change with seedling age. The findings help in understanding the growth strategies of seedlings during early development. Future research on the combination of soil factors and seedling traits will provide a theoretical basis for artificial cultivation and protection of native vegetation.

Mycorrhizal symbiosis pathway and edaphic fertility frame root economics space among tree species

The root economics space (RES) is multidimensional and largely shaped by belowground biotic and abiotic influences. However, how root-fungal symbioses and edaphic fertility drive this complexity remains unclear. Here, we measured absorptive root traits of 112 tree species in temperate and subtropical forests of China, including traits linked to functional differences between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) hosts. Our data, from known mycorrhizal tree species, revealed a 'fungal-symbiosis' dimension distinguishing AM from ECM species. This divergence likely resulted from the contrasting mycorrhizal evolutionary development of AM vs ECM associations. Increased root tissue cortical space facilitates AM symbiosis, whereas increased root branching favours ECM symbiosis. Irrespective of mycorrhizal type, a 'root-lifespan' dimension reflecting aspects of root construction cost and defence was controlled by variation in specific root length and root tissue density, which was fully independent of root nitrogen content. Within this function-based RES, we observed a substantial covariation of axes with soil phosphorus and nitrate levels, highlighting the role played by these two axes in nutrient acquisition and conservation. Overall, our findings demonstrate the importance of evolved mycorrhizal symbiosis pathway and edaphic fertility in framing the RES, and provide theoretical and mechanistic insights into the complexity of root economics.

Response Strategies of Root System Architecture to Soil Environment: A Case Study of Single-Species Cupressus funebris Plantations

The root system architecture (RSA), being a key characteristic of the root economic spectrum, describes the spatial arrangement and positioning of roots that determines the plant's exploration of water and nutrients in the soil. Still, it remains poorly understood how the RSA of woody plants responds to the demand for water and nutrients in different soil environments and how the uptake of these resources is optimized. Here we selected single-species plantations of Cupressus funebris and determined their topological index (TI), revised topological index (q _a and q _b ), root link length (RLL), root branching rate (R _b and R _i :R _i+1), and in situ soil physicochemical properties to assess which root foraging strategies adopt in different soil environments among Guang'an City (GA), Suining City (SN), Mianyang City (MY), and Deyang City (DY) in China. We also tested the potential effects of different nutrients upon RSA according to its plastic phenotype. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that levels of soil nutrients were the highest at DY, followed by MY and SN, and lower at GA. A dichotomous branching pattern was observed for GA, SN, and MY, but a herringbone branching pattern for DY. The RLL was ranked as GA, > SN, > MY > DY. The R _b of GA, SN, and MY was significantly lower than that of DY (p < 0.05). Among the different city regions, values of R ₁ /R ₂ were the largest in different regions and those of R ₄ /R ₅ the smallest. The cross-sectional area of the root system did not differ between any two connected branch orders. The TI, q _a , and RLL were significantly and negatively correlated with soil's water content, porosity, total nitrogen, total potassium, available nitrogen, and available phosphorus (p < 0.05), whereas they all had significant, positive relationships with soil temperature (p < 0.05). The R _b was significantly and positively correlated with total potassium in soil (p < 0.05). Redundancy analysis showed that total potassium was the main factor driving variation in RSA. Our results emphasize that the RSA is capable of corresponding plastic alterations by changing its number of internal or external links and the root link length of fine roots vis-à-vis a heterogeneous environment, thereby optimizing the rates of water capture and space utilization.

Tree functional traits, forest biomass, and tree species diversity interact with site properties to drive forest soil carbon

Forests constitute important ecosystems in the global carbon cycle. However, how trees and environmental conditions interact to determine the amount of organic carbon stored in forest soils is a hotly debated subject. In particular, how tree species influence soil organic carbon (SOC) remains unclear. Based on a global compilation of data, we show that functional traits of trees and forest standing biomass explain half of the local variability in forest SOC. The effects of functional traits on SOC depended on the climatic and soil conditions with the strongest effect observed under boreal climate and on acidic, poor, coarse-textured soils. Mixing tree species in forests also favours the storage of SOC, provided that a biomass over-yielding occurs in mixed forests. We propose that the forest carbon sink can be optimised by (i) increasing standing biomass, (ii) increasing forest species richness, and (iii) choosing forest composition based on tree functional traits according to the local conditions.

Forests constitute important ecosystems in the global carbon cycle. This study investigates how tree species influence soil organic carbon using a global dataset, showing the importance of tree functional traits and forest standing biomass to optimise forest carbon sink.

Morphological Variation in Absorptive Roots in Downy Birch (Betula pubescens) and Norway Spruce (Picea abies) Forests Growing on Drained Peat Soils

Peatland drainage based on ditch systems is a widely used forestry management practice in the boreal and hemiboreal forests to improve tree growth. This study investigated the morphological variation in absorptive roots (first- and second-order roots) across the distance gradient from the ditch with four sampling plots (5, 15, 40, and 80 m) in six drained peatland forests dominated by Downy birch and Norway spruce. The dominating tree species had a significant effect on the variation in absorptive root morphological traits. The absorptive roots of birch were thinner with a higher specific root area and length (SRA and SRL), higher branching intensity (BI), and lower root tissue density (RTD) than spruce. The distance from the ditch affected the absorptive root morphological traits (especially SRA and RTD), but this effect was not dependent on tree species and was directionally consistent between birch and spruce. With increased distance from the ditch (from plot 5 to plot 80), the mean SRA increased by about 10% in birch and 5% in spruce; by contrast, the mean RTD decreased by about 10% in both tree species, indicating a potential shift in nutrient foraging. However, soil physical and chemical properties were not dependent on the distance from the ditch. We found a species-specific response in absorptive root morphological traits to soil properties such as peat depth, pH, and temperature. Our results should be considered when evaluating the importance of morphological changes in absorptive roots when trees acclimate to a changing climate.

The Right-Skewed Distribution of Fine-Root Size in Three Temperate Forests in Northeastern China

Trees can build fine-root systems with high variation in root size (e.g., fine-root diameter) and root number (e.g., branching pattern) to optimize belowground resource acquisition in forest ecosystems. Compared with leaves, which are visible above ground, information about the distribution and inequality of fine-root size and about key associations between fine-root size and number is still limited. We collected 27,573 first-order fine-roots growing out of 3,848 second-order fine-roots, covering 51 tree species in three temperate forests (Changbai Mountain, CBS; Xianrendong, XRD; and Maoershan, MES) in Northeastern China. We investigated the distribution and inequality of fine-root length, diameter and area (fine-root size), and their trade-off with fine-root branching intensity and ratio (fine-root number). Our results showed a strong right-skewed distribution in first-order fine-root size across various tree species. Unimodal frequency distributions were observed in all three of the sampled forests for first-order fine-root length and area and in CBS and XRD for first-order fine-root diameter, whereas a marked bimodal frequency distribution of first-order fine-root diameter appeared in MES. Moreover, XRD had the highest and MES had the lowest inequality values (Gini coefficients) in first-order fine-root diameter. First-order fine-root size showed a consistently linear decline with increasing root number. Our findings suggest a common right-skewed distribution with unimodality or bimodality of fine-root size and a generalized trade-off between fine-root size and number across the temperate tree species. Our results will greatly improve our thorough understanding of the belowground resource acquisition strategies of temperate trees and forests.

Mycorrhizal roots slow the decay of belowground litters in a temperate hardwood forest

There is increasing evidence that plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi, whether living or dead, play a central role in soil carbon (C) cycling. Root-mycorrhizal-microbial interactions can both suppress and enhance litter decay, with the net result dependent upon belowground nutrient acquisition strategies and soil nutrient availability. We measured the net effect of living roots and mycorrhizal fungi on the decay of dead roots and fungal hyphae in a hardwood forest dominated by either sugar maple (Acer saccharum) or white oak (Quercus alba) trees. Root and fungal litter were allowed to decompose within root-ingrowth bags and root-exclusion cores. In conjunction with root effects on decay, we assessed foraging responses and root induced changes in soil moisture, nitrogen (N) availability and enzyme activity. After 1 year, maple root production increased, and mycorrhizal fungal colonization decreased in the presence of decaying litter. In addition, we found that actively foraging roots suppressed the decay of root litter (- 14%) more than fungal litter (- 3%), and suppression of root decay was stronger for oak (- 20%) than maple roots (- 8%). Suppressive effects of oak roots on decay were greatest when roots also reduced soil N availability, which corresponded with reductions in hydrolytic enzyme activity and enhanced oxidative enzyme activities. These findings further our understanding of context-dependent drivers of root-mycorrhizal-microbial interactions and demonstrate that such interactions can play an underappreciated role in soil organic matter accumulation and turnover in temperate forests.

An integrated framework of plant form and function: the belowground perspective

Plant trait variation drives plant function, community composition and ecosystem processes. However, our current understanding of trait variation disproportionately relies on aboveground observations. Here we integrate root traits into the global framework of plant form and function. We developed and tested an overarching conceptual framework that integrates two recently identified root trait gradients with a well-established aboveground plant trait framework. We confronted our novel framework with published relationships between above- and belowground trait analogues and with multivariate analyses of above- and belowground traits of 2510 species. Our traits represent the leaf and root conservation gradients (specific leaf area, leaf and root nitrogen concentration, and root tissue density), the root collaboration gradient (root diameter and specific root length) and the plant size gradient (plant height and rooting depth). We found that an integrated, whole-plant trait space required as much as four axes. The two main axes represented the fast-slow 'conservation' gradient on which leaf and fine-root traits were well aligned, and the 'collaboration' gradient in roots. The two additional axes were separate, orthogonal plant size axes for height and rooting depth. This perspective on the multidimensional nature of plant trait variation better encompasses plant function and influence on the surrounding environment.

Fine-root traits in the global spectrum of plant form and function

Plant traits determine how individual plants cope with heterogeneous environments. Despite large variability in individual traits, trait coordination and trade-offs^1,2 result in some trait combinations being much more widespread than others, as revealed in the global spectrum of plant form and function (GSPFF³) and the root economics space (RES⁴) for aboveground and fine-root traits, respectively. Here we combine the traits that define both functional spaces. Our analysis confirms the major trends of the GSPFF and shows that the RES captures additional information. The four dimensions needed to explain the non-redundant information in the dataset can be summarized in an aboveground and a fine-root plane, corresponding to the GSPFF and the RES, respectively. Both planes display high levels of species aggregation, but the differentiation among growth forms, families and biomes is lower on the fine-root plane, which does not include any size-related trait, than on the aboveground plane. As a result, many species with similar fine-root syndromes display contrasting aboveground traits. This highlights the importance of including belowground organs to the GSPFF when exploring the interplay between different natural selection pressures and whole-plant trait integration.

Anatomical patterns of condensed tannin in fine roots of tree species from a cool-temperate forest

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Condensed tannin (CT) is an important compound in plant biological structural defence and for tolerance of herbivory and environmental stress. However, little is known of the role and location of CT within the fine roots of woody plants. To understand the role of CT in fine roots across diverse species of woody dicot, we evaluated the localization of CT that accumulated in root tissue, and examined its relationships with the stele and cortex tissue in cross-sections of roots in 20 tree species forming different microbial symbiotic groups (ectomycorrhiza and arbuscular mycorrhiza).

METHODS

In a cool-temperate forest in Japan, cross-sections of sampled roots in different branching order classes, namely, first order, second to third order, fourth order, and higher than fourth order (higher order), were measured in terms of the length-based ratios of stele diameter and cortex thickness to root diameter. All root samples were then stained with ρ-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde solution and we determined the ratio of localized CT accumulation area to the root cross-section area (CT ratio).

KEY RESULTS

Stele ratio tended to increase with increasing root order, whereas cortex ratio either remained unchanged or decreased with increasing order in all species. The CT ratio was significantly positively correlated to the stele ratio and negatively correlated to the cortex ratio in second- to fourth-order roots across species during the shift from primary to secondary root growth. Ectomycorrhiza-associated species mostly had a higher stele ratio and lower cortex ratio than arbuscular mycorrhiza-associated species across root orders. Compared with arbuscular mycorrhiza species, there was greater accumulation of CT in response to changes in the root order of ectomycorrhiza species.

CONCLUSIONS

Different development patterns of the stele, cortex and CT accumulation along the transition from root tip to secondary roots could be distinguished between different mycorrhizal associations. The CT in tissues in different mycorrhizal associations could help with root protection in specific branching orders during shifts in stele and cortex development before and during cork layer formation.

Effect of Pisolithus tinctorious on Physiological and Hormonal Traits in Cistus Plants to Water Deficit: Relationships among Water Status, Photosynthetic Activity and Plant Quality

Cistus species can form ectomycorrhizae and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus that can bring benefits when plants are under water stress conditions. However, the application of some ectomycorrhizae on the water uptake under drought through physiological traits and hormonal regulation is less known. The experiment was performed during three months in a growth chamber with Cistus albidus plants in which the combined effect of the ectomycorrhiza Pisolithus tinctorious inoculation and two irrigation treatments (control and water-stressed plants) were applied. Irrigation absence caused significant decrease in aerial growth and tended to decrease soil water potential at the root surface, leading to a decrease in leaf water potential. Under these conditions, the abscisic acid and salicylic acid content increased while the precursor of ethylene decreased. Although the mycorrhization percentages were not high, the inoculation of P. tinctorious improved the water status and slightly cushioned the rise in leaf temperature of water-stressed plants. The ectomycorrhiza decreased the scopoletin values in leaves of plants subjected to deficit irrigation, indicating that inoculated plants had been able to synthesize defense mechanisms. Therefore, Pisolithus tinctorious alleviated some of the harmful effects of water scarcity in Cistus plants, being its use a sustainable option in gardening or restoration projects.

Selection of nitrogen responsive root architectural traits in spinach using machine learning and genetic correlations

The efficient acquisition and transport of nutrients by plants largely depend on the root architecture. Due to the absence of complex microbial network interactions and soil heterogeneity in a restricted soilless medium, the architecture of roots is a function of genetics defined by the soilless matrix and exogenously supplied nutrients such as nitrogen (N). The knowledge of root trait combinations that offer the optimal nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is far from being conclusive. The objective of this study was to define the root trait(s) that best predicts and correlates with vegetative biomass under differed N treatments. We used eight image-derived root architectural traits of 202 diverse spinach lines grown in two N concentrations (high N, HN, and low N, LN) in randomized complete blocks design. Supervised random forest (RF) machine learning augmented by ranger hyperparameter grid search was used to predict the variable importance of the root traits. We also determined the broad-sense heritability (H) and genetic (r_g) and phenotypic (r_p) correlations between root traits and the vegetative biomass (shoot weight, SWt). Each root trait was assigned a predicted importance rank based on the trait’s contribution to the cumulative reduction in the mean square error (MSE) in the RF tree regression models for SWt. The root traits were further prioritized for potential selection based on the r_g and SWt correlated response (CR). The predicted importance of the eight root traits showed that the number of root tips (Tips) and root length (RLength) under HN and crossings (Xsings) and root average diameter (RAvdiam) under LN were the most relevant. SWt had a highly antagonistic r_g (− 0.83) to RAvdiam, but a high predicted indirect selection efficiency (− 112.8%) with RAvdiam under LN; RAvdiam showed no significant rg or rp to SWt under HN. In limited N availability, we suggest that selecting against larger RAvdiam as a secondary trait might improve biomass and, hence, NUE with no apparent yield penalty under HN.

Topography as a factor driving small-scale variation in tree fine root traits and root functional diversity in a species-rich tropical montane forest

We investigated the variation in tree fine root traits and their functional diversity along a local topographic gradient in a Neotropical montane forest to test if fine root trait variation along the gradient is consistent with the predictions of the root economics spectrum on a shift from acquisitive to conservative traits with decreasing resource supply. We measured five fine root functional traits in 179 randomly selected tree individuals of 100 species and analysed the variation of single traits (using Bayesian phylogenetic multilevel models) and of functional trait diversity with small-scale topography. Fine roots exhibited more conservative traits (thicker diameters, lower specific root length and nitrogen concentration) at upper slope compared with lower slope positions, but the largest proportion of variation (40-80%) was explained by species identity and phylogeny. Fine root functional diversity decreased towards the upper slopes. Our results suggest that local topography and the related soil fertility and moisture gradients cause considerable small-scale variation in fine root traits and functional diversity along tropical mountain slopes, with conservative root traits and greater trait convergence being associated with less favourable soil conditions due to environmental filtering. We provide evidence of a high degree of phylogenetic conservation in fine root traits.

Root exudation as a major competitive fine-root functional trait of 18 coexisting species in a subtropical forest

Root exudation stimulates microbial decomposition and enhances nutrient availability to plants. It remains difficult to measure and predict this carbon flux in natural conditions, especially for mature woody plants. Based on a known conceptual framework of root functional traits coordination, we proposed that root functional traits may predict root exudation. We measured root exudation and other seven root morphological/chemical/physiological traits for 18 coexisting woody species in a deciduous-evergreen mixed forest in subtropical China. Root exudation, respiration, diameter and nitrogen (N) concentration all exhibited significant phylogenetic signals. We found that root exudation positively correlated with competitive traits (root respiration, N concentration) and negatively with a conservative trait (root tissue density). Furthermore, these relationships were independent of phylogenetic signals. A principal component analysis showed that root exudation and morphological traits loaded on two perpendicular axes. Root exudation is a competitive trait in a multidimensional fine-root functional coordination. The metabolic dimension on which root exudation loaded was relatively independent of the morphological dimension, indicating that increasing nutrient availability by root exudation might be a complementary strategy for plant nutrient acquisition. The positive relationship between root exudation and root respiration and N concentration is a promising approach for the future prediction of root exudation.

Climate and phylogenetic history structure morphological and architectural trait variation among fine-root orders

Fine roots mediate below-ground resource acquisition, yet understanding of how fine-root functional traits vary along environmental gradients, within branching orders and across phylogenetic scales remains limited. Morphological and architectural fine-root traits were measured on individual root orders of 20 oak species (genus Quercus) from divergent climates of origin that were harvested after three growing seasons in a glasshouse. These were then compared with similar measurements obtained from a phylogenetically diverse dataset of woody species from the Fine-Root Ecology Database (FRED). For the oaks, only precipitation seasonality and growing season moisture availability were correlated to aspects of root diameter and branching. Strong correlations among root diameters and architecture of different branch orders were common, while correlations between diameter and length were weakly negative. By contrast, the FRED dataset showed strong positive correlations between diameter and length and fewer correlations between root diameter and architectural traits. Our findings suggest that seasonal patterns of water availability are more important drivers of root adaptation in oaks than annual averages in precipitation and temperature. Furthermore, contrasting patterns of trait relationships between the oak and FRED datasets suggest that branching patterns are differentially constrained at narrow vs broad phylogenetic scales.

Correlated evolution of leaf and root anatomic traits in Dendrobium (Orchidaceae)

The whole-plant economic spectrum concept predicts that leaf and root traits evolve in coordination to cope with environmental stresses. However, this hypothesis is difficult to test in many species because their leaves and roots are exposed to different environments, above- and below-ground. In epiphytes, both leaves and roots are exposed to the atmosphere. Thus, we suspect there are consistent water conservation strategies in leaf and root traits of epiphytes due to similar selection pressures. Here, we measured the functional traits of 21 species in the genus Dendrobium, which is one of the largest epiphytic taxa in the family Orchidaceae, and used phylogenetically independent contrasts to test the relationships among traits, and between traits and the environment. Our results demonstrate that species with a thicker velamen tended to have thicker roots, a thicker root cortex and vascular cylinder, and a larger number of vessels in the root. Correspondingly, these species also had higher leaf mass per area, and thicker leaf lower cuticles. Leaf and root traits associated with water conservation showed significantly positive relationships. The number of velamen layers, leaf density and the ratio of vascular cylinder radius to root radius were significantly affected by the species' differing environments. Thus, traits related to water conservation and transport may play an important role in helping Dendrobium cope with the cool and dry conditions found at high elevations. These findings confirmed the hypothesis that leaf and root traits have evolved in coordination, and also provide insights into trait evolution and ecological adaptation in epiphytic orchids.

Linking Aboveground Traits to Root Traits and Local Environment: Implications of the Plant Economics Spectrum

The plant economics spectrum proposes that ecological traits are functionally coordinated and adapt along environmental gradients. However, empirical evidence is mixed about whether aboveground and root traits are consistently linked and which environmental factors drive functional responses. Here we measure the strength of relationships between aboveground and root traits, and examine whether community-weighted mean trait values are adapted along gradients of light and soil fertility, based on the seedling censuses of 57 species in a subtropical forest. We found that aboveground traits were good predictors of root traits; specific leaf area, dry matter, nitrogen and phosphorus content were strongly correlated with root tissue density and specific root length. Traits showed patterns of adaptation along the gradients of soil fertility and light; species with fast resource-acquisitive strategies were more strongly associated with high soil phosphorus, potassium, openness, and with low nitrogen, organic matter conditions. This demonstrates the potential to estimate belowground traits from known aboveground traits in seedling communities, and suggests that soil fertility is one of the main factors driving functional responses. Our results extend our understanding of how ecological strategies shape potential responses of plant communities to environmental change.

Intraspecific Fine-Root Trait-Environment Relationships across Interior Douglas-Fir Forests of Western Canada

Variation in resource acquisition strategies enables plants to adapt to different environments and may partly determine their responses to climate change. However, little is known about how belowground plant traits vary across climate and soil gradients. Focusing on interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) in western Canada, we tested whether fine-root traits relate to the environment at the intraspecific level. We quantified the variation in commonly measured functional root traits (morphological, chemical, and architectural traits) among the first three fine-root orders (i.e., absorptive fine roots) and across biogeographic gradients in climate and soil factors. Moderate but consistent trait-environment linkages occurred across populations of Douglas-fir, despite high levels of within-site variation. Shifts in morphological traits across regions were decoupled from those in chemical traits. Fine roots in colder/drier climates were characterized by a lower tissue density, higher specific area, larger diameter, and lower carbon-to-nitrogen ratio than those in warmer/wetter climates. Our results showed that Douglas-fir fine roots do not rely on adjustments in architectural traits to adapt rooting strategies in different environments. Intraspecific fine-root adjustments at the regional scale do not fit along a single axis of root economic strategy and are concordant with an increase in root acquisitive potential in colder/drier environments.

Plasticity of Fine-Root Traits Under Long-Term Irrigation of a Water-Limited Scots Pine Forest

Trait-based approaches are increasingly used to investigate plant strategies for resource acquisition, growth, or competition between individual organisms or across species. However, the characterization of responses to environmental stimuli by fine-root systems of trees at the trait level is rather limited, particularly regarding the timing and degree of plasticity of the traits involved. These aspects become especially relevant under current climate-driven shifts in environmental conditions. In the present study, we examined the responses of the fine roots of Scots pines to increased soil water availability from long-term irrigation starting in the year 2003. The Scots pine forest is situated in a water-limited region in the central European Alps where increased tree mortality has been observed over the last two decades. The fine-root traits investigated include root system traits, root dynamic traits, architectural traits, and morphological traits. A first survey of fine-root traits in 2005 using ingrowth cores did not reveal any trait-based responses resulting from the irrigation treatment over a three-year period. Fine-root biomass, as periodically recorded by coring the topsoil from 2003 to 2016, showed a significant increase compared to the non-irrigated controls between three and nine years after the start of treatment. Overall, a maximum biomass increase due to the irrigation treatment was recorded in 2016 with about 80% higher biomass compared to controls. The analysis of fine-root traits revealed that irrigation significantly increased biomass, length, and production, but did not alter morphological and architectural traits, such as diameter, frequency of tips, specific root length (SRL), and root tissue density (RTD). In contrast, clear significant differences were found for all traits except for length when comparing the two root sampling methods, namely, ingrowth cores and soil coring. However, there were no interactions between the irrigation treatment and the sampling methods used and, therefore, the methods used did not affect the documented patterns, just the actual measured trait values.

Plant evolutionary history mainly explains the variance in biomass responses to climate warming at a global scale

Evolutionary history shapes the interspecific relatedness and intraspecific variation, which has a profound influence on plant functional traits and productivity. However, it is far from clear how the phylogenetic relatedness among species and intraspecific variation could contribute to the observed variance in plant biomass responses to climate warming. We compiled a dataset with 284 species from warming experiments to explore the relative importance of phylogenetic, intraspecific, experimental and ecological factors to warming effects on plant biomass, using phylogenetic eigenvector regression and variance decomposition. Our results showed that phylogenetic relatedness could account for about half the total variance in biomass responses to warming, which were correlated with leaf economic traits at the family level but not at species level. The intraspecific variation contributed to approximately one-third of the variance, whereas the experimental design and ecological characteristics only explained 7-17%. These results suggest that intrinsic factors (evolutionary history) play more important roles than extrinsic factors (experimental treatment and environment) in determining the responses of plant biomass to warming at the global scale. This highlights the urgent need for land surface models to include evolutionary aspects in predicting ecosystem functions under climate change.

Fine-root traits are linked to species dynamics in a successional plant community

Despite the importance of fine roots for the acquisition of soil resources such as nitrogen and water, the study of linkages between traits and both population and community dynamics remains focused on aboveground traits. We address this gap by investigating associations between belowground traits and metrics of species dynamics. Our analysis included 85 species from a long-term data set on the transition from old field to forest in eastern North America (the Buell-Small Succession Study) and the new Fine-Root Ecology Database. Given the prominent roles of life form (woody vs. non-woody) and species origin (native vs. exotic) in defining functional relationships, we also assessed whether traits or their relationships with species dynamics differed for these groups. Species that reached their peak abundance early in succession had fine-root traits corresponding to resource acquisitive strategies (i.e., they were thinner, less dense, and had higher nitrogen concentrations) while species that peaked progressively later had increasingly conservative strategies. In addition to having more acquisitive root traits than native species, exotics diverged from the above successional trend, having consistently thinner fine roots regardless of the community context. Species with more acquisitive fine-root morphologies typically had faster rates of abundance increase and achieved their maximal rates in fewer years. Decreasing soil nutrient availability and increasing belowground competition may become increasingly strong filters in successional communities, acting on root traits to promote a transition from acquisitive to conservative foraging. However, disturbances that increase light and soil resource availability at local scales may allow acquisitive species, especially invasive exotics, to continue colonizing late into the community transition to forest.

Physical and Functional Constraints on Viable Belowground Acquisition Strategies

Since their emergence onto land, terrestrial plants have developed diverse strategies to acquire soil resources. However, we lack a framework that adequately captures how these strategies vary among species. Observations from around the world now allow us to quantify the variation observed in commonly-measured fine-root traits but it is unclear how root traits are interrelated and whether they fall along an "economic" spectrum of acquisitive to conservative strategies. We assessed root trait variation and mycorrhizal colonization rates by leveraging the largest global database of fine-root traits (the Fine-Root Ecology Database; FRED). We also developed a heuristic model to explore the role of mycorrhizal fungi in defining belowground exploration efficiency across a gradient of thin- to thick-diameter roots. In support of the expectations of the "root economic spectrum," we found that root diameter was negatively related to specific root length (Pearson's r=-0.76). However, we found an unexpected negative relationship between root diameter and root tissue density (Pearson's r = -0.40), and we further observed that root nitrogen content was largely unrelated to other economic traits. Mycorrhizal colonization was most closely associated with root diameter (Pearson's r = 0.62) and was unrelated to root tissue density and root nitrogen. The heuristic model demonstrated that while thinner roots have inherently greater capacity to encounter soil resources based on higher surface area per unit mass, the potential for increased associations with mycorrhizal fungi in thicker roots, combined with greater hyphal growth, can result in equally acquisitive strategies for both thin- and thick roots. Taken together, our assessments of root trait variation, trade-offs with mycorrhizal fungi, and broader connections to root longevity allowed us to propose a series of fundamental constraints on belowground resource acquisition strategies. Physical tradeoffs based on root construction (i.e., economic traits) and functional limitations related to the capacity of a root to encounter and acquire soil resources combine to limit the two-dimensional belowground trait space. Within this trait space there remains a diversity of additional variation in root traits that facilitates a wide range of belowground resource acquisition strategies.

Ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity increases phosphorus uptake efficiency of European beech

Increases in summer droughts and nitrogen (N) deposition have raised concerns of widespread biodiversity loss and nutrient imbalances, but our understanding of the ecological role of ectomycorrhizal fungal (ECMF) diversity in mediating root functions remains a major knowledge gap. We used different global change scenarios to experimentally alter the composition of ECMF communities colonizing European beech saplings and examined the consequences for phosphorus (P) uptake (H₃³³ PO₄ feeding experiment) and use efficiencies of trees. Specifically, we simulated increases in temperature and N deposition and decreases in soil moisture and P availability in a factorial experiment. Here, we show that ECMF α diversity is a major factor contributing to root functioning under global change. P uptake efficiency of beech significantly increased with increasing ECMF species richness and diversity, as well as with decreasing P availability. As a consequence of decreases in ECMF diversity, P uptake efficiency decreased when soil moisture was limiting. By contrast, P use efficiencies were a direct (negative) function of P availability and not of ECMF diversity. We conclude that increasing summer droughts may reduce ECMF diversity and the complementarity of P uptake by ECMF species, which will add to negative growth effects expected from nutrient imbalances under global change.

Maternal auxin supply contributes to early embryo patterning in Arabidopsis

The angiosperm seed is composed of three genetically distinct tissues: the diploid embryo that originates from the fertilized egg cell, the triploid endosperm that is produced from the fertilized central cell, and the maternal sporophytic integuments that develop into the seed coat¹. At the onset of embryo development in Arabidopsis thaliana, the zygote divides asymmetrically, producing a small apical embryonic cell and a larger basal cell that connects the embryo to the maternal tissue². The coordinated and synchronous development of the embryo and the surrounding integuments, and the alignment of their growth axes, suggest communication between maternal tissues and the embryo. In contrast to animals, however, where a network of maternal factors that direct embryo patterning have been identified^3,4, only a few maternal mutations have been described to affect embryo development in plants^5-7. Early embryo patterning in Arabidopsis requires accumulation of the phytohormone auxin in the apical cell by directed transport from the suspensor^8-10. However, the origin of this auxin has remained obscure. Here we investigate the source of auxin for early embryogenesis and provide evidence that the mother plant coordinates seed development by supplying auxin to the early embryo from the integuments of the ovule. We show that auxin response increases in ovules after fertilization, due to upregulated auxin biosynthesis in the integuments, and this maternally produced auxin is required for correct embryo development.