The Many Faces of CD4+ T Cells: Immunological and Structural Characteristics

AP-1 activates KCNN4-mediated Ca2+ signaling to induce the Th1/Th17 differentiation of CD4+ cells in chronic non-bacterial prostatitis

The intraprostatic inflammatory infiltrate is characterized by Th1 CD4+ T cells, and its molecular mechanism is not well defined. This study explored the mechanisms responsible for the alteration of Th1/Th17 differentiation of CD4+ T cells in chronic non-bacterial prostatitis (CNP). CNP rats were induced by the administration of testosterone and 17β-estradiol. The Th1/Th17 cell percentage was increased in the prostate tissue of CNP rats, which was accompanied by increased IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-17A, and IL-22 levels. Transcriptome sequencing was performed, followed by KEGG pathway enrichment analysis. Activator protein-1 (AP-1) was enhanced in CD4+ T cells from CNP rats, and its inhibitor SR11302 suppressed Th1/Th17 differentiation and delayed CNP. AP-1 transcriptionally activated the expression of KCNN4, which potentiated mTORC1 in CD4+ T cells by enhancing Ca2+ signaling, thereby promoting Th1/Th17 differentiation. Rapamycin-mediated autophagy activation reversed AP-1/KCNN4/mTORC1-promoted Th1/Th17 differentiation, thereby inhibiting CNP. These results suggest that AP-1-mediated KCNN4 transcription promotes the inhibition of autophagy by mTORC1 through Ca2+ signaling, which supports Th1/Th17 differentiation of CD4+ T cells, resulting in the transformation of CNP to prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and adenocarcinoma.

Influence of Donor-Specific Characteristics on Cytokine Responses in H3N2 Influenza A Virus Infection: New Insights from an Ex Vivo Model

Influenza A virus (IAV) is known for causing seasonal epidemics ranging from flu to more severe outcomes like pneumonia, cytokine storms, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The innate immune response and inflammasome activation play pivotal roles in sensing, preventing, and clearing the infection, as well as in the potential exacerbation of disease progression. This study examines the complex relationships between donor-specific characteristics and cytokine responses during H3N2 IAV infection using an ex vivo model. At 24 h post infection in 31 human lung explant tissue samples, key cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) were upregulated. Interestingly, a history of lung cancer did not impact the acute immune response. However, cigarette smoking and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression on macrophages significantly increased IL-2 levels. Conversely, age inversely affected IL-4 levels, and diabetes mellitus negatively influenced IL-6 levels. Additionally, both diabetes mellitus and programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) expression on CD3+/CD4+ T cells negatively impacted TNF-α levels, while body mass index was inversely associated with IFN-γ production. Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) expression emerged as crucial in mediating acute innate and adaptive immune responses. These findings highlight the intricate interplay between individual physiological traits and immune responses during influenza infection, underscoring the importance of tailored and personalized approaches in IAV treatment and prevention.

Effects of exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) content from paint on automobile paint workers in Nsukka, South Eastern Nigeria

Background

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) fume in the workplace can act as an inducing agent to many health disorders.

Objectives

This work investigated the effects of exposure to VOCs content from paint on the automobile paint workers in South Eastern Nigeria.

Methods

A total of fifty (50) respondent participated in the study. Following the completion of informed consent form and well-structured questionnaire, blood samples were drawn and used for biochemical analysis.

Results

The results of the haematological analysis showed a significant (p < 0.05) increase in white blood cell (WBC) cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4), and platelet (PLT), and a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin (HB), lymphocytes (LYM) and eosinophil (EOS) of the exposed automobile paint workers compared to the control (unexposed workers). Results also showed significant (p < 0.05) increase in liver marker indices; alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), total bilirubin (TB) and albumin (ALB) as well as significant (p < 0.05) decrease in Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total protein (TP), direct bilirubin (DB). There was significant (p < 0.05) increase in urea, creatinine, potassium (K+), uric acid and nitric oxide concentrations and decrease in sodium (Na+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) Again, results showed significant increase in Glutathione (GSH), and Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and significant (p < 0.05) decrease in Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT). The Malondialdehyde MDA concentration showed varied significant (p < 0.05) difference based on ages. There was significant (p < 0.05) increase in luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the Testosterone (TET) concentrations of the exposed automobile paint workers compared to the unexposed workers.

Conclusions

Result of this study suggests a toxic outcome due to exposure to VOCs in spray paint workers.

Peripheral CD4+ T helper lymphocytes alterations in major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Previous research has shown that patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) develop immune dysfunction. However, the exact alterations of cluster of differentiation (CD)4+ T helper (Th) lymphocytes in MDD remains unclear. This meta-analysis aimed to examine the specific changes in CD4+ Th cells. A comprehensive search of PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and PsycINFO databases was conducted to identify studies investigating CD4+ Th, Th1, Th2, Th17, and T regulatory (Treg) cell counts in the peripheral blood of MDD patients and healthy controls (HCs), covering the period up to June 22, 2024. Our findings revealed that patients with MDD might exhibit higher CD4+ Th cells (SMD=0.26, 95 %CI, 0.02 to 0.50), CD4+/CD8+ cell ratios (SMD=0.51, 95 %CI, 0.14 to 0.89), Th1/Th2 cell ratios (SMD=0.15, 95 %CI, 0.01 to 0.30) and lower Th1 (SMD=-0.17, 95 %CI, -0.30 to -0.03), Th2 (SMD=-0.25, 95 %CI, -0.40 to -0.11), and Treg cells (SMD=-0.69, 95 %CI, -1.27 to -0.11). However, no significant difference was observed in terms of Th17 cells and Th17/Treg cell ratios between MDD patients and the HCs. Heterogeneity was large (I2:18.1-95.2 %), and possible sources of heterogeneity were explored (e.g., age, depression scale, country, and antidepressant use). Our findings indicate that peripheral CD4+ T cells in depressed patients exhibit features of adaptive immune dysfunction, as evidenced by increased CD4+ Th cells and CD4+/CD8+ and decreased Treg cells. These findings offer insights into the underlying mechanism of MDD.

Dissecting the immune response of CD4+ T cells in Alzheimer's disease

The formation of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques is a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD), however, these pathological aggregates can also be found in the brains of cognitively unimpaired elderly population. In that context, individual variations in the Aβ-specific immune response could be key factors that determine the level of Aβ-induced neuroinflammation and thus the propensity to develop AD. CD4+ T cells are the cornerstone of the immune response that coordinate the effector functions of both adaptive and innate immunity. However, despite intensive research efforts, the precise role of these cells during AD pathogenesis is still not fully elucidated. Both pathogenic and beneficial effects have been observed in various animal models of AD, as well as in humans with AD. Although this functional duality of CD4+ T cells in AD can be simply attributed to the vast phenotype heterogeneity of this cell lineage, disease stage-specific effect have also been proposed. Therefore, in this review, we summarized the current understanding of the role of CD4+ T cells in the pathophysiology of AD, from the aspect of their antigen specificity, activation, and phenotype characteristics. Such knowledge is of practical importance as it paves the way for immunomodulation as a therapeutic option for AD treatment, given that currently available therapies have not yielded satisfactory results.

Metformin Restrains the Proliferation of CD4+ T Lymphocytes by Inducing Cell Cycle Arrest in Normo- and Hyperglycemic Conditions

CD4+ T lymphocytes play a key role in the modulation of the immune response by orchestrating both effector and regulatory functions. The effect of metformin on the immunometabolism of CD4+ T lymphocytes has been scarcely studied, and its impact under high glucose conditions, particularly concerning effector responses and glucose metabolism, remains unknown. This study aims to evaluate the effect of metformin on the modulation of the effector functions and glucose metabolism of CD4+ T lymphocytes under normo- and hyperglycemic conditions. CD4+ T lymphocytes, obtained from peripheral blood from healthy volunteers, were anti-CD3/CD28-activated and cultured for 4 days with three concentrations of metformin (0.1 mM, 1 mM, and 5 mM) under normoglycemic (5.5 mM) and hyperglycemic (25 mM) conditions. Effector functions such as proliferation, cell count, cell cycle analysis, activation markers and cytokine secretion were analyzed by flow cytometry. Glucose uptake was determined using the 2-NBDG assay, and levels of glucose, lactate, and phosphofructokinase (PFK) activity were assessed by colorimetric assays. Metformin at 5 mM restrained the cell counts and proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes by arresting the cell cycle in the S/G2 phase at the beginning of the cell culture, without affecting cell activation, cytokine production, and glucose metabolism. In fact, CD69 expression and IL4 secretion by CD4+ T lymphocytes was higher in the presence of 5 mM than the untreated cells in both glucose conditions. Overall, metformin inhibited proliferation through mechanisms associated with cell cycle arrest, leading to an increase in the S/G2 phases at the expense of G1 in activated CD4+ T lymphocytes in normo- and hyperglycemic conditions. Despite the cell cycle arrest, activated CD4+ T lymphocytes remained metabolically, functionally, and phenotypically activated.

Dynamic Changes in the Immune Microenvironment in Tumor-Draining Lymph Nodes of a Lewis Lung Cancer Mouse Model After Microwave Ablation

Purpose

Microwave ablation (MWA) is a minimally invasive technique for treating lung cancer. It can induce immune response; however, its effect on the immune microenvironment in tumor-draining lymph nodes (TdLN) is not well understood. This study aims to identify changes in the immune microenvironment in TdLN following MWA in a Lewis lung cancer (LLC) mouse model.

Methods

LLC mouse model was established and followed by MWA. TdLN were collected at various time points, including pre-MWA and days 1, 2, 4, and 8 post-MWA. Flow cytometry was used to determine the frequencies of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, regulatory T (Treg) cells, natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells (DCs) and other immune cells in the TdLN. Certain cytokines were also detected.

Results

Compared with pre-MWA, the frequency of CD4+ T cells significantly increased from day 1 to day 8 post-MWA. The frequency of CD8+ T cells decreased significantly on days 2 and 4, but no significant changes occurred on days 1 and 8. Significant decreases in the frequencies of Treg cells and Klrg1+ Treg cells were observed from day 1 to day 4. On days 4 and 8, there was a significant increase in the frequency of NK cells. The frequency of resident cDC2 significantly increased on day 4, whereas CD11b+ migratory cDCs increased on day 1. Additionally, on day 4, a notable rise was observed in the frequency of NK cells secreting IFN-γ, while on day 8, there was a significant increase in the frequency of CD8+ T cells secreting both IFN-γ and TNF-α.

Conclusion

MWA of lung cancer can alter the immune microenvironment in the TdLN, triggering immune responses. These changes are particularly evident and intricate within the initial 4 days post-MWA. Treatment combined with MWA within a certain period may significantly enhance anti-tumor immunity.

SARS-CoV-2 inflammation durably imprints memory CD4 T cells

Memory CD4 T cells are critical to human immunity, yet it is unclear whether viral inflammation during memory formation has long-term consequences. Here, we compared transcriptional and epigenetic landscapes of Spike (S)-specific memory CD4 T cells in 24 individuals whose first exposure to S was via SARS-CoV-2 infection or mRNA vaccination. Nearly 2 years after memory formation, S-specific CD4 T cells established by infection remained enriched for transcripts related to cytotoxicity and for interferon-stimulated genes, likely because of a chromatin accessibility landscape altered by inflammation. Moreover, S-specific CD4 T cells primed by infection had reduced proliferative capacity in vitro relative to vaccine-primed cells. Furthermore, the transcriptional state of S-specific memory CD4 T cells was minimally altered by booster immunization and/or breakthrough infection. Thus, infection-associated inflammation durably imprints CD4 T cell memory, which affects the function of these cells and may have consequences for long-term immunity.

Interactions Between HDL and CD4+ T Cells: A Novel Understanding of HDL Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Several studies in animal models and human cohorts have recently suggested that HDLs (high-density lipoproteins) not only modulate innate immune responses but also adaptative immune responses, particularly CD4+ T cells. CD4+ T cells are central effectors and regulators of the adaptive immune system, and any alterations in their homeostasis contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases, autoimmunity, and inflammatory diseases. In this review, we focus on how HDLs and their components affect CD4+ T-cell homeostasis by modulating cholesterol efflux, immune synapsis, proliferation, differentiation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. While the effects of apoB-containing lipoproteins on T cells have been relatively well established, this review focuses specifically on new connections between HDL and CD4+ T cells. We present a model where HDL may modulate T cells through both direct and indirect mechanisms.

Failed Induction of the TH1 System in TH2 Dominant Patients: The Cancer-Permissive Immune Macroenvironment

Tumor microenvironment infiltration by cells of the T helper cell type 1 (TH1) system, including TH1 cells, M1 macrophages, natural killer cells, and CD8+ T cells, is associated with better cancer prognosis. In contrast, tumor microenvironment infiltration by cells of the TH2 system, including TH2 cells, M2 macrophages, and innate lymphoid cells type 2, as well as immune suppressive myeloid-derived suppressor cells and regulatory T cells, is associated with poorer cancer prognosis. Beyond the tumor itself and a myriad of other modifying factors, such as genetic and epigenetic influences on tumorigenesis, the overall immune state of the patient, termed the macroenvironment, has also been shown to significantly influence cancer outcomes. Alterations in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (TCA cycle breaks) involving loss of function of succinate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and fumarate hydratase have been shown to be associated with an intracellular metabolic shift away from oxidative phosphorylation and into glycolysis in cells that are transforming into cancer cells. The same loss of function of succinate dehydrogenase and isocitrate dehydrogenase has also been identified as inducing a shift in macrophages toward glycolysis that is associated with M1 macrophage polarization. M1 macrophages make interleukin 12, which stimulates TH1 cells and natural killer cells to produce interferon gamma (IFN-γ), which in turn stimulates M1 macrophage activity, forming an activation loop. IFN-γ also drives activation of CD8+ T cells. Thus, M1 macrophage activation initiates and sustains activation of the TH1 system of cells. In this fashion, TCA cycle breaks at succinate dehydrogenase and isocitrate dehydrogenase that promote cellular transformation into cancer cells are also associated with upregulation of the TH1 system that provides anti-cancer immune surveillance. The TH1 and TH2 systems are known to inhibit each other's activation. It is this author's hypothesis that, in patients whose macroenvironment is sufficiently TH2-dominant, the metabolic shift toward glycolysis induced by TCA cycle breaks that gives rise to mutagenic changes in tissue parenchymal cells is not counterbalanced by adequate activation of M1 macrophages, thus giving rise to cancer cell development. For instance, the atopic TH2-high asthma phenotype, a TH2 dominance-based comorbidity, is associated with a more than doubled incidence of colon, breast, lung, and prostate cancer, compared with non-asthmatics. Failure of TCA cycle breaks to induce M1 polarization of tissue-resident macrophages yields a tissue environment in which the tissue-resident macrophages fail to routinely perform M1-associated functions such as phagocytizing newly developing cancer cells. Failure of M1 phenotypic expression in both tissue-resident macrophages and monocyte-derived macrophages recruited to the tumor microenvironment yields both a loss of direct antitumor M1 macrophage actions and failure of TH1 system activation in general, including failure of CD8+ T cell activation, yielding a cancer-permissive tumor microenvironment and a poorer prognosis in patients with existing cancers. This paper proposes a conceptual framework that connects established elements in the existing research and points to the utility of a patient profiling process, aimed at personalization of treatment through identification and targeting of elements in each patient's tumor microenvironment and macroenvironment that contribute to unfavorable prognosis.

T-cell dysfunctions in myelodysplastic syndromes

ABSTRACT

Escape from immune surveillance is a hallmark of cancer. Immune deregulation caused by intrinsic and extrinsic cellular factors, such as altered T-cell functions, leads to immune exhaustion, loss of immune surveillance, and clonal proliferation of tumoral cells. The T-cell immune system contributes to the pathogenesis, maintenance, and progression of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). Here, we comprehensively reviewed our current biological knowledge of the T-cell compartment in MDS and recent advances in the development of immunotherapeutic strategies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and T-cell- and antibody-based adoptive therapies that hold promise to improve the outcome of patients with MDS.

Beyond schistosomiasis: unraveling co-infections and altered immunity

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the helminth Schistosoma spp. and has the second highest global impact of all parasites. Schistosoma are transmitted through contact with contaminated fresh water predominantly in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and South America. Due to the widespread prevalence of Schistosoma, co-infection with other infectious agents is common but often poorly described. Herein, we review recent literature describing the impact of Schistosoma co-infection between species and Schistosoma co-infection with blood-borne protozoa, soil-transmitted helminths, various intestinal protozoa, Mycobacterium, Salmonella, various urinary tract infection-causing agents, and viral pathogens. In each case, disease severity and, of particular interest, the immune landscape, are altered as a consequence of co-infection. Understanding the impact of schistosomiasis co-infections will be important when considering treatment strategies and vaccine development moving forward.

Immunophenotyping of peripheral circulating lymphocytes and serum selenium levels in calves with neonatal diarrhea

This work aims to: (1) elucidate the immune response exhibited by CD4 + and CD8 + T lymphocyte cells in response to various infectious agents in calves suffering with neonatal diarrhea; and (2) determine and investigate the association between serum selenium levels and T lymphocyte subtypes in neonatal calves afflicted with neonatal diarrhea and infected with various infectious agents. The study encompassed a cohort of 50 calves, encompassing both sexes and various breeds, within the neonatal age range (1-28 days old). Subdivided into distinct groups, the calves were categorized based on the causative agents of neonatal diarrhea, including Rotavirus (n = 10), Cryptosporidium parvum (C.parvum) (n = 10), Coronavirus (n = 5), Rotavirus+C.parvum (n = 5), and a Control group (n = 20). Blood samples were meticulously obtained from the vena jugularis of all animals utilizing specific techniques-8 ml in tubes devoid of anticoagulant and 3 ml in blood collection tubes containing EDTA. Serum selenium levels were analyzed by ICP-MS. Flow Cytometry device was used to determine CD4 + and CD8 +T lymphocyte levels. In this study, although there was no statistically significant difference in serum selenium levels between all study groups, it was found that the selenium level in the control group was not sufficient. CD4 T lymphocyte levels, the rotavirus+C.parvum group exhibited a statistically significant elevation compared to the coronavirus group. Regarding CD8 + T lymphocyte levels, the coronavirus group demonstrated a statistically significant increase when compared to the control group. In intragroup analyses of CD8 + T lymphocyte levels, the coronavirus group exhibited a significant elevation compared to the rotavirus group, C.parvum group, and the C.parvum + Rotavirus group. A significant negative correlation was detected between selenium levels and CD4 + T lymphocytes, while no correlation was found between CD8 + T lymphocytes. Fibrinogen concentration exhibited statistical significance, being higher in the Rotavirus group (p < 0.008) compared to the control group, in the C.parvum group (p < 0.004) compared to the control group, and in the Coronavirus group (p < 0.001) compared to the control group. The leukocyte count demonstrated statistical significance, being higher in the Rotavirus group compared to the control group (p < 0.001), in the Rotavirus+C.parvum group compared to the control group (p < 0.002), and in the Coronavirus group compared to the control group (p < 0.011). In conclusion, the data derived from this study illuminate discernible disparities in CD4 + and CD8 + T lymphocyte immune responses, contingent upon the specific etiological agent associated with neonatal diarrhea. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of considering selenium deficiency as a relevant factor in calves affected by neonatal diarrhea.

Dynamic immune signatures of patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer for infection prediction after immunotherapy

Background

Pulmonary infections are a crucial health concern for patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Whether the clinical outcome of pulmonary infection is influenced by immunotherapy(IO) remains unclear. By evaluating immune signatures, this study investigated the post-immunotherapy risk of pulmonary infection in patients with lung cancer and identified circulating biomarkers that predict post-immunotherapy infection.

Methods

Blood specimens were prospectively collected from patients with NSCLC before and after chemotherapy(C/T) and/or IO to explore dynamic changes in immune signatures. Real-world clinical data were extracted from medical records for outcome evaluation. Mass cytometry and ELISA were employed to analyze immune signatures and cytokine profiles to reveal potential correlations between immune profiles and the risk of infection.

Results

The retrospective cohort included 283 patients with advanced NSCLC. IO was associated with a lower risk of pneumonia (odds ratio=0.46, p=0.012). Patients receiving IO and remained pneumonia-free exhibited the most favorable survival outcomes compared with those who received C/T or developed pneumonia (p<0.001). The prospective cohort enrolled 30 patients. The proportion of circulating NK cells significantly increased after treatment in IO alone (p<0.001) and C/T+IO group (p<0.01). An increase in cell densities of circulating PD-1+CD8+(cytotoxic) T cells (p<0.01) and PD-1+CD4+ T cells (p<0.01) were observed in C/T alone group after treatment. In IO alone group, a decrease in cell densities of TIM-3+ and PD-1+ cytotoxic T cells (p<0.05), and PD-1+CD4+ T cells (p<0.01) were observed after treatment. In C/T alone and C/T+IO groups, cell densities of circulating PD-1+ cytotoxic T cells significantly increased in patients with pneumonia after treatment(p<0.05). However, in IO alone group, cell density of PD-1+ cytotoxic T cells significantly decreased in patients without pneumonia after treatment (p<0.05). TNF-α significantly increased after treatment with IO alone (p<0.05) but decreased after C/T alone (p<0.01).

Conclusions

Our results indicate that the incorporation of immunotherapy into treatment regimens may potentially offer protective effects against pulmonary infection. Protective effects are associated with reduction of exhausted T-cells and augmentation of TNF-α and NK cells. Exhausted T cells, NK cells, and TNF-α may play crucial roles in immune responses against infections. These observations highlight the potential utility of certain circulating biomarkers, particularly exhausted T cells, for predicting post-treatment infections.

Enhanced detection of antigen-specific T cells by a multiplexed AIM assay

Broadly applicable methods to identify and characterize antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are key to immunology research, including studies of vaccine responses and immunity to infectious diseases. We developed a multiplexed activation-induced marker (AIM) assay that presents several advantages compared to single pairs of AIMs. The simultaneous measurement of four AIMs (CD69, 4-1BB, OX40, and CD40L) creates six AIM pairs that define CD4+ T cell populations with partial and variable overlap. When combined in an AND/OR Boolean gating strategy for analysis, this approach enhances CD4+ T cell detection compared to any single AIM pair, while CD8+ T cells are dominated by CD69/4-1BB co-expression. Supervised and unsupervised clustering analyses show differential expression of the AIMs in defined T helper lineages and that multiplexing mitigates phenotypic biases. Paired and unpaired comparisons of responses to infections (HIV and cytomegalovirus [CMV]) and vaccination (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 [SARS-CoV-2]) validate the robustness and versatility of the method.

The RNA m6A writer METTL3 in tumor microenvironment: emerging roles and therapeutic implications

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a heterogeneous ecosystem comprising cancer cells, immune cells, stromal cells, and various non-cellular components, all of which play critical roles in controlling tumor progression and response to immunotherapies. Methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3), the core component of N 6-methyladenosine (m6A) writer, is frequently associated with abnormalities in the m6A epitranscriptome in different cancer types, impacting both cancer cells and the surrounding TME. While the impact of METTL3 on cancer cells has been extensively reviewed, its roles in TME and anti-cancer immunity have not been comprehensively summarized. This review aims to systematically summarize the functions of METTL3 in TME, particularly its effects on tumor-infiltrating immune cells. We also elaborate on the underlying m6A-dependent mechanism. Additionally, we discuss ongoing endeavors towards developing METTL3 inhibitors, as well as the potential of targeting METTL3 to bolster the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Radiogenomic biomarkers for immunotherapy in glioblastoma: A systematic review of magnetic resonance imaging studies

Background

Immunotherapy is an effective "precision medicine" treatment for several cancers. Imaging signatures of the underlying genome (radiogenomics) in glioblastoma patients may serve as preoperative biomarkers of the tumor-host immune apparatus. Validated biomarkers would have the potential to stratify patients during immunotherapy clinical trials, and if trials are beneficial, facilitate personalized neo-adjuvant treatment. The increased use of whole genome sequencing data, and the advances in bioinformatics and machine learning make such developments plausible. We performed a systematic review to determine the extent of development and validation of immune-related radiogenomic biomarkers for glioblastoma.

Methods

A systematic review was performed following PRISMA guidelines using the PubMed, Medline, and Embase databases. Qualitative analysis was performed by incorporating the QUADAS 2 tool and CLAIM checklist. PROSPERO registered: CRD42022340968. Extracted data were insufficiently homogenous to perform a meta-analysis.

Results

Nine studies, all retrospective, were included. Biomarkers extracted from magnetic resonance imaging volumes of interest included apparent diffusion coefficient values, relative cerebral blood volume values, and image-derived features. These biomarkers correlated with genomic markers from tumor cells or immune cells or with patient survival. The majority of studies had a high risk of bias and applicability concerns regarding the index test performed.

Conclusions

Radiogenomic immune biomarkers have the potential to provide early treatment options to patients with glioblastoma. Targeted immunotherapy, stratified by these biomarkers, has the potential to allow individualized neo-adjuvant precision treatment options in clinical trials. However, there are no prospective studies validating these biomarkers, and interpretation is limited due to study bias with little evidence of generalizability.

Biology of Interleukin-17 and Novel Therapies for Hidradenitis Suppurativa

Skin disorders affect ∼40% of the human population. One of the most debilitating cutaneous disorders is Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS), a noncommunicable chronic inflammatory disease with an estimated global prevalence of 0.4% to 2.5%. In January 2011, high levels of IL-17 were discovered in skin lesions of HS patients. In the following years, translational and clinical research led to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of HS. In June 2023, more than 12 years after the initial note, secukinumab, an anti-IL-17A monoclonal antibody, was approved for the treatment of moderate to severe HS. This is the next milestone in improving the treatment of these patients after the approval of the anti-TNF-α monoclonal antibody adalimumab in 2015. In this review article, we present the IL-17 pathway in HS and discuss the use of secukinumab as a therapeutic option for this disease. Our review starts with a description of the epidemiology, clinical features, etiology, and pathogenesis of HS. An overview of the IL-17/IL-17 receptor system in general and a detailed description of the known facts about the expression and action of IL-17 in HS follow. Afterward, we consider the results of clinical trials evaluating the safety and efficacy of IL-17 inhibitors in HS. Finally, a comparison is made between secukinumab and adalimumab and the characteristics of the patients that may be particularly suitable for each of these biologics are described.

The effect of PD-1/PD-L1 signaling axis on the interaction between CD19+B cells and CD4+T cells in peripheral blood of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

BACKGROUND

The defect of B cell self-tolerance and the continuous antigen presentation by T cells (TCs) mediated by autoreactive B cells (BCs) play a key role in the occurrence and development of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). PD-1/PD-L1 signaling axis negatively regulates the immune response of TCs after activation and maintains immune tolerance. However, the effect of PD-1/PD-L1 signaling axis on the interaction between CD19+B/CD4+TCs in the peripheral blood of patients with SLE has not been studied in detail.

METHODS

PD-1/PD-L1 and Ki-67 levels in peripheral blood (PB) of 50 SLE patients and 41 healthy controls (HCs) were detected through flow cytometry, and then the expression of PD-1+/-cells and PD-L1+/-cells Ki-67 was further analyzed. CD19+B/CD4+TCs were separated for cell culture and the supernatant was collected to determine proliferation and differentiation of TCs. IL-10 and IFN-γ secretion in the supernatant was also determined using ELISA.

RESULTS

The PD-1, PD-L1, and Ki-67 levels on CD19+B/CD4+TCs in patients with SLE were higher than HCs. In CD19+B/CD4+TCs of SLE patients, the proliferative activity of PD-L1+ cells was higher than that of PD-L1- cells, and the proliferative activity of PD-1+ cells was higher than that of PD-1- cells. In the system co-culturing CD19+B/CD4+TCs from HCs/SLE patients, activated BCs promoted TCs proliferation and PD-L1 expression among TCs. Addition of anti-PD-L1 to co-culture system restored the proliferation of TCs, and inhibited IL-10/IFN-γ level. The addition of anti-PD-L1 to co-culture system also restored Tfh and downregulated Treg in HCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Axis of PD-1/PD-L1 on CD19+B/CD4+TCs in PB of SLE patients is abnormal, and cell proliferation is abnormal. In CD19+B/CD4+TCs of SLE patients, the proliferative activity of PD-L1+ and PD-1+ cells compared with PD-L1- and PD-1- cells in SLE patients, respectively. CD19+B/CD4+TCs in SLE patients can interact through PD-1/PD-L1.

CD4+ T-cell subsets in autoimmune hepatitis: A review

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic autoimmune liver disease that can lead to hepatocyte destruction, inflammation, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver failure. The diagnosis of AIH requires the identification of lymphoblast cell interface hepatitis and serum biochemical abnormalities, as well as the exclusion of related diseases. According to different specific autoantibodies, AIH can be divided into AIH-1 and AIH-2. The first-line treatment for AIH is a corticosteroid and azathioprine regimen, and patients with liver failure require liver transplantation. However, the long-term use of corticosteroids has obvious side effects, and patients are prone to relapse after drug withdrawal. Autoimmune diseases are characterized by an imbalance in immune tolerance of self-antigens, activation of autoreactive T cells, overactivity of B cells, and increased production of autoantibodies. CD4+ T cells are key players in adaptive immunity and can secrete cytokines, activate B cells to produce antibodies, and influence the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells. According to their characteristics, CD4+ T cells can be divided into different subsets. In this review, we discuss the changes in T helper (Th)1, Th2, Th17, Th9, Th22, regulatory T cell, T follicular helper, and T peripheral helper cells and their related factors in AIH and discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting CD4+ T-cell subsets in AIH.

A History and Atlas of the Human CD4+ T Helper Cell

CD4+ T cells have orchestrated and regulated immunity since the introduction of jawed vertebrates, yet our understanding of CD4+ T cell evolution, development, and cellular physiology has only begun to be unearthed in the past few decades. Discoveries of genetic diseases that ablate this cellular population have provided insight into their critical functions while transcriptomics, proteomics, and high-resolution microscopy have recently revealed new insights into CD4+ T cell anatomy and physiology. This article compiles historical, microscopic, and multi-omics data that can be used as a reference atlas and index to dissect cellular physiology within these influential cells and further understand pathologies like HIV infection that inflict human CD4+ T cells.

Immune cell subpopulations and serum neurofilament light chain are associated with increased risk of disease worsening in multiple sclerosis

Changes is lymphocyte subpopulations in peripheral blood have been proposed as biomarkers for evaluation of disease activity in multiple sclerosis (MS). Serum neurofilament light chain (sNfL) is a biomarker reflecting neuro-axonal injury in MS that could be used to monitor disease activity, response to drugs and to prognosticate disease course. Here we show a moderate correlation between sNfL and lymphocyte cell subpopulations, and our data furthermore suggest that sNfL and specific immune cell subpopulations together could predict future disease worsening in MS.

Reprogramming of Treg cells in the inflammatory microenvironment during immunotherapy: a literature review

Regulatory T cells (Treg), as members of CD4+ T cells, have garnered extensive attention in the research of tumor progression. Treg cells have the function of inhibiting the immune effector cells, preventing tissue damage, and suppressing inflammation. Under the stimulation of the tumor inflammatory microenvironment (IM), the reprogramming of Treg cells enhances their suppression of immune responses, ultimately promoting tumor immune escape or tumor progression. Reducing the number of Treg cells in the IM or lowering the activity of Treg cells while preventing their reprogramming, can help promote the body's anti-tumor immune responses. This review introduces a reprogramming mechanism of Treg cells in the IM; and discusses the regulation of Treg cells on tumor progression. The control of Treg cells and the response to Treg inflammatory reprogramming in tumor immunotherapy are analyzed and countermeasures are proposed. This work will provide a foundation for downregulating the immunosuppressive role of Treg in the inflammatory environment in future tumor immunotherapy.

Significance of Th17 and Treg in Treatment Efficacy and Outcome in Pediatric Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia represents a malignant proliferation of lymphoid cells blocked at an early stage of cell differentiation. It is the most common cancer occurring in children. Despite favorable prognosis, the survival rate of patients with poor treatment response or relapse remains dismal. The interaction between leukemic cells and the tumor immune microenvironment is pivotal in mediating tumor progression. In this study we evaluated associations between Treg and Th17 lymphocytes and the clinical presentation of ALL pediatric patients to validate their value in monitoring treatment outcome. The peripheral blood and bone marrow aspirates from 35 pediatric patients with ALL and 48 healthy control subjects were selected for the experiment. We demonstrated the numbers of Th17 lymphocytes and Tregs were increased in the bone marrow of ALL patients at the moment of diagnosis compared to the healthy control group, with the latter significantly decreasing during the course of ALL treatment. Patients with lower Th17 were found to demonstrate higher risk of blasts prevalence in bone marrow at day 33. ALL patients with lower WBC demonstrated higher frequency of Tregs. In summary, we identified a significant role of Th17 and Treg lymphocytes in ALL of pediatric patients and their contribution to disease-related parameters.

Cancer-testis antigen CEP55 serves as a prognostic biomarker and is correlated with immune infiltration and immunotherapy efficacy in pan-cancer

Background: Centrosomal Protein 55 (CEP55) was initially described as a main participant in the final stage of cytokinesis. Further research identified CEP55 as a cancer-testis antigen (CTA) that is aberrantly expressed in different malignancies and a cancer vaccination candidate. The current study aimed to disclose the complete expression of CEP55, its effect on various malignancy prognoses, and its role in the tumor microenvironment. Methods: Transcriptional information regarding tumor and normal tissues, as well as externally validated and protein expression data were gathered from the Cancer Genome Atlas, Genotype-Tissue Expression project, Gene Expression Omnibus, and Human Protein Atlas. We examined the effect of CEP55 on tumor prognosis using Kaplan-Meier (KM) and univariate Cox regression analyses. In addition, we investigated the connections between CEP55 expression and hallmark cancer pathways, immune cell infiltration, and immune regulator expression across malignancies. We constructed and validated a CEP55-related risk model for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and explored the correlations between CEP55 expression and HCC molecular subtypes. Finally, we investigated putative small-molecule drugs targeting CEP55 using a connectivity map (CMap) database and validated them using molecular docking analysis. Findings: CEP55 was aberrantly expressed in most cancers and revealed a prognostic value for several malignancies. Cancers with high CEP55 expression showed significantly enhanced cell cycle, proliferation, and immune-related pathways. For most malignancies, elevated CEP55 expression was associated with the infiltration of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and Th2 cells. In addition, CEP55 expression was linked to immunomodulators and the potential prediction of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) responses, and strongly associated with distinct molecular HCC subtypes, whereby the CEP55-based nomogram performed well in predicting short- and long-term HCC survival. Finally, we used connectivity map (CMap) and molecular docking analyses to discover three candidate small-molecule drugs that could directly bind to CEP55. Conclusion: CEP55 affected the occurrence and development of various cancers and possibly the regulation of the tumor immune microenvironment. Our findings suggest that CEP55 is a potential biomarker for prognosis and a powerful biomarker for ICI efficacy prediction.

Interleukin-17 receptor C is essential for the pro-inflammatory pathogenicity of granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating factor-producing T helper cells in experimental autoimmune uveitis

Autoimmune uveitis is an inflammatory disorder of the eye triggered by the responses of autoreactive T cells to ocular autoantigens. This study aims to understand the role of granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-producing T helper (ThGM) cells in the pathophysiology of mouse experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). We established an EAU model by immunizing mice with interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) 651-670. Splenic or eye-infiltrating ThGM cells were analyzed and enriched by flow cytometry according to the levels of an array of surface markers, transcription factors, and cytokines. Lentiviral transduction was conducted to silence or overexpress the target gene in differentiated ThGM cells. The adoptive transfer was applied to determine the pathogenicity of ThGM cells in vivo. We found that ThGM cells were present in the spleen and the eye after EAU induction. Both splenic and eye-infiltrating ThGM cells were phenotypically CD4⁺CCR7^-CXCR3^-CCR6^-CCR10^hi. Eye-infiltrating ThGM cells up-regulated interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-17 receptor C (IL-17RC) relative to splenic ThGM cells. IL-17RC overexpression enabled interleukin-17A (IL-17A)-induced up-regulation of IL-1β and IL-6 production in ThGM cells. Adoptive transfer of IL-17RC overexpressing ThGM cells exacerbated EAU severity, as evidenced by a higher histology score as well as increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammatory cells in the eye. However, IL-17RC-silenced ThGM cells did not impact EAU. Therefore, for the first time, this study unveils the essential pro-inflammatory role of IL-17RC-expressing ThGM cells in EAU pathophysiology. We discovered a novel mechanism underlying the pathophysiology of autoimmune uveitis.

Inflammation durably imprints memory CD4+ T cells

Adaptive immune responses are induced by vaccination and infection, yet little is known about how CD4+ T cell memory differs when primed in these two contexts. Notably, viral infection is generally associated with higher levels of systemic inflammation than is vaccination. To assess whether the inflammatory milieu at the time of CD4+ T cell priming has long-term effects on memory, we compared Spike-specific memory CD4+ T cells in 22 individuals around the time of the participants' third SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination, with stratification by whether the participants' first exposure to Spike was via virus or mRNA vaccine. Multimodal single-cell profiling of Spike-specific CD4+ T cells revealed 755 differentially expressed genes that distinguished infection- and vaccine-primed memory CD4+ T cells. Spike-specific CD4+ T cells from infection-primed individuals had strong enrichment for cytotoxicity and interferon signaling genes, whereas Spike-specific CD4+ T cells from vaccine-primed individuals were enriched for proliferative pathways by gene set enrichment analysis. Moreover, Spike-specific memory CD4+ T cells established by infection had distinct epigenetic landscapes driven by enrichment of IRF-family transcription factors, relative to T cells established by mRNA vaccination. This transcriptional imprint was minimally altered following subsequent mRNA vaccination or breakthrough infection, reflecting the strong bias induced by the inflammatory environment during initial memory differentiation. Together, these data suggest that the inflammatory context during CD4+ T cell priming is durably imprinted in the memory state at transcriptional and epigenetic levels, which has implications for personalization of vaccination based on prior infection history.

Relationship between IL-22 and IL-22BP in diabetic cognitive dysfunction

BACKGROUND

CD4 + T helper (Th)22 cells play a regulatory role in autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes mellitus. The Th22-related cytokine interleukin (IL)-22, the expression of which is increased in diabetes mellitus (DM), can act as a neurotrophic factor to protect neurons from apoptosis. Paradoxically, neuronal apoptosis and learning and memory decline occur in DM. In this study, we investigated the relationship between IL-22 and its receptors IL-22Rα1 and IL-22 binding protein (IL-22BP, a soluble inhibitor of IL-22) in diabetic encephalopathy (DE) and the effects of IL-22 on hippocampal neurons, learning and memory.

METHODS

A C57BL/6 mouse model of diabetes was constructed by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. The mice were randomly divided into 4 groups: the control group, diabetes group, diabetes + recombinantIL-22 (rIL-22) group and diabetes + IL-22BP group. The Morris water maze test was used to evaluate learning and memory, the expression of IL-22 was measured by ELISA, and Evans Blue staining was used to evaluate blood-brain barrier permeability. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was used to measure the mRNA expression of IL-22 and IL-22Rα1 in the hippocampus. The morphology and number of hippocampal neurons were assessed by Nissl staining, and TUNEL staining was used to detect hippocampal neuronal apoptosis. Immunofluorescence was used to analyze IL-22Rα1 expression and localization in hippocampus, and Western blotting was used to evaluate the expression of IL-22, IL-22Rα1, IL-22BP, and the apoptosis related proteins Caspase-3 and C-caspase-3.

RESULTS

Compared with those in the control group, mice in the diabetes group showed cognitive decline; apoptosis of hippocampal neurons; increased expression of hippocampal Caspase-3, C-Caspase-3, IL-22, IL-22Rα1, and IL-22BP; and a decreased IL-22/IL-22BP ratio. Learning and memory were improved, neuronal apoptosis was attenuated, IL-22Rα1 expression and the IL-22/IL-22BP ratio were increased, and caspase-3 and C-caspase-3 expression was decreased in the rIL-22-treated group compared with the diabetes group. IL-22BP treatment aggravated diabetic cognitive dysfunction and pathological alterations in the hippocampus, decreased the IL-22/IL-22BP ratio, and increased the expression of caspase-3 and C-caspase-3 in mice with diabetes.

CONCLUSION

A decrease in the IL-22/IL-22BP ratio plays an important role in diabetic cognitive dysfunction, and rIL-22 can effectively alleviate DE. Herein, we shed light on the interaction between IL-22 and IL-22BP as therapeutic targets for DM.

The relationship between CD4+ T cell glycolysis and their functions

CD4⁺ T cells are effector T cells (Teffs) produced by the differentiation of initial T cells in peripheral lymphoid tissue after being attacked by antigens, and have an indispensable role in the development and activation of B cells and CD8⁺ T cells to regulate and assist immunity. In this review, we provide a new perspective on the relationship between CD4⁺ T cell glycolysis and its function. We summarize the effects of changes in the glycolysis level of CD4⁺ T cells on their activation, differentiation, proliferation, and survival. In addition, we emphasize that regulation of the glycolysis level of CD4⁺ T cells changes their inflammatory phenotypes and function. The study of immune metabolism has received more attention recently, but more work is needed to answer many open questions.

Immune cells and their related genes provide a new perspective on the common pathogenesis of ankylosing spondylitis and inflammatory bowel diseases

Background

The close relationship between ankylosing spondylitis (AS) and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) has been supported by many aspects, including but not limited to clinical manifestations, epidemiology and pathogenesis. Some evidence suggests that immune cells actively participated in the pathogenesis of both diseases. However, information on which cells are primarily involved in this process and how these cells mobilize, migrate and interact is still limited.

Methods

Datasets were downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Common differentially expressed genes (coDEGs) were identified by package “limma”. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) were used to analyze the interactions between coDEGs. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis and inverse cumulative distribution function were applied to identify common differential pathways, while Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was used to confirm the significance. Correlation analysis between coDEGs and immune cells led to the identification of critical immune-cell-related coDEGs. The diagnostic models were established based on least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression, while receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to identify the ability of the model. Validation datasets were imported to demonstrate the significant association of coDEGs with specific immune cells and the capabilities of the diagnostic model.

Results

In total, 67 genes were up-regulated and 185 genes were down-regulated in both diseases. Four down-regulated pathways and four up-regulated pathways were considered important. Up-regulated coDEGs were firmly associated with neutrophils, while down-regulated genes were significantly associated with CD8+ T−cells and CD4+ T−cells in both AS and IBD datasets. Five up-regulated and six down-regulated key immue-cell-related coDEGs were identified. Diagnostic models based on key immue-cell-related coDEGs were established and tested. Validation datasets confirmed the significance of the correlation between coDEGs and specific immune cells.

Conclusion

This study provides fresh insights into the co-pathogenesis of AS and IBD. It is proposed that neutrophils and T cells may be actively involved in this process, however, in opposite ways. The immue-cell-related coDEGs, revealed in this study, may be relevant to their regulation, although relevant research is still lacking.

Microbial Components and Effector Molecules in T Helper Cell Differentiation and Function

The mammalian intestines harbor trillions of commensal microorganisms composed of thousands of species that are collectively called gut microbiota. Among the microbiota, bacteria are the predominant microorganism, with viruses, protozoa, and fungi (mycobiota) making up a relatively smaller population. The microbial communities play fundamental roles in the maturation and orchestration of the immune landscape in health and disease. Primarily, the gut microbiota modulates the immune system to maintain homeostasis and plays a crucial role in regulating the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of inflammatory, neuronal, and metabolic disorders. The microbiota modulates the host immune system through direct interactions with immune cells or indirect mechanisms such as producing short-chain acids and diverse metabolites. Numerous researchers have put extensive efforts into investigating the role of microbes in immune regulation, discovering novel immunomodulatory microbial species, identifying key effector molecules, and demonstrating how microbes and their key effector molecules mechanistically impact the host immune system. Consequently, recent studies suggest that several microbial species and their immunomodulatory molecules have therapeutic applicability in preclinical settings of multiple disorders. Nonetheless, it is still unclear why and how a handful of microorganisms and their key molecules affect the host immunity in diverse diseases. This review mainly discusses the role of microbes and their metabolites in T helper cell differentiation, immunomodulatory function, and their modes of action.

Current Knowledge of Th22 Cell and IL-22 Functions in Infectious Diseases

T helper 22 (Th22) cells, a newly defined CD4+ T-cell lineage, are characterized by their distinct cytokine profile, which primarily consists of IL-13, IL-22 and TNF-α. Th22 cells express a wide spectrum of chemokine receptors, such as CCR4, CCR6 and CCR10. The main effector molecule secreted by Th22 cells is IL-22, a member of the IL-10 family, which acts by binding to IL-22R and triggering a complex downstream signaling system. Th22 cells and IL-22 have been found to play variable roles in human immunity. In preventing the progression of infections such as HIV and influenza, Th22/IL-22 exhibited protective anti-inflammatory characteristics, and their deleterious proinflammatory activities have been demonstrated to exacerbate other illnesses, including hepatitis B and Helicobacter pylori infection. Herein, we review the current understanding of Th22 cells, including their definition, differentiation and mechanisms, and the effect of Th22/IL-22 on human infectious diseases. According to studies on Th22 cells, Th22/IL-22 may be a promising therapeutic target and an effective treatment strategy for various infections.

A Highly Sensitive Flow Cytometric Approach to Detect Rare Antigen-Specific T Cells: Development and Comparison to Standard Monitoring Tools

Personalized vaccines against patient-unique tumor-associated antigens represent a promising new approach for cancer immunotherapy. Vaccine efficacy is assessed by quantification of changes in the frequency and/or the activity of antigen-specific T cells. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) and flow cytometry (FCM) are methodologies frequently used for assessing vaccine efficacy. We tested these methodologies and found that both ELISpot and standard FCM [monitoring CD3/CD4/CD8/IFNγ/Viability+CD14+CD19 (dump)] demonstrate background IFNγ secretion, which, in many cases, was higher than the antigen-specific signal measured by the respective methodology (frequently ranging around 0.05-0.2%). To detect such weak T-cell responses, we developed an FCM panel that included two early activation markers, 4-1BB (CD137) and CD40L (CD154), in addition to the above-cited markers. These two activation markers have a close to zero background expression and are rapidly upregulated following antigen-specific activation. They enabled the quantification of rare T cells responding to antigens within the assay well. Background IFNγ-positive CD4 T cell frequencies decreased to 0.019% ± 0.028% and CD8 T cells to 0.009% ± 0.013%, which are 19 and 13 times lower, respectively, than without the use of these markers. The presented methodology enables highly sensitive monitoring of T-cell responses to tumor-associated antigens in the very low, but clinically relevant, frequencies.

Analysis of ferroptosis-associated genes in Crohn's disease based on bioinformatics

Background

Ferroptosis, a novel mode of apoptosis has recently been shown to be associated with fibrosis, tumor, cardiovascular, and other diseases. In this study, using bioinformatic analysis, we identified ferroptosis genes associated with Crohn's disease (CD) and performed biological function analysis, identified potential drug targets, and provided new directions for the future treatment of CD.

Methods

Differential expression analysis was performed using the GSE186582 dataset from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Ferroptosis-associated genes were downloaded from the FerrDB database, and overlapping genes associated with CD and ferroptosis were extracted. Then, we performed functional enrichment analysis, constructed a protein-protein interaction network (PPI), identified the correlation between hub genes and immune infiltration, performed external validation using a second and third dataset (GSE102133, GSE95095), and identified potential therapeutic agents. Finally, we validated the protein expression levels of the identified hub genes by immunohistochemical staining in the colon tissues from CD and healthy participants.

Results

A total of 28 ferroptosis-associated genes associated with CD were identified in our analysis, which included 22 up-regulated and 6 down-regulated genes. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis showed that these genes are essential for the apical plasma membrane and amide transport, and Metascape analysis showed that these genes mainly act on IL-4 and IL-13 signaling pathways. Five hub genes, PTGS2, IL6, IL1B, NOS2, and IDO1, were identified by a protein interaction network, and external validation of these hub genes showed statistically significant differences in expression between the CD patients and normal participants (p < 0.05), and all AUC values were greater than 0.8. Further, we predicted the top 10 drugs used to treat CD. Immune infiltration results suggest that Hub gene is related to T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and other immune cells. Finally, the results of immunohistochemical experiments showed that the protein expression of the hub gene was higher in CD colon tissue than in normal subjects (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Bioinformatics analysis showed that ferroptosis is closely related to the development of CD, and the prediction of potential drugs provides new targets for the treatment of CD. Moreover, five hub genes identified are potentially new and effective markers for the diagnosis of CD.

No NETs no TIME: Crosstalk between neutrophil extracellular traps and the tumor immune microenvironment

The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) controls tumorigenesis. Neutrophils are important components of TIME and control tumor progression and therapy resistance. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) ejected by activated neutrophils are net-like structures composed of decondensed extracellular chromatin filaments decorated with a plethora of granules as well as cytoplasmic proteins. Many of these harbour post translational modifications. Cancer cells reportedly trigger NET formation, and conversely, NETs alter the TIME and promote tumor cell proliferation and migration. The specific interactions between NETs and TIME and the respective effects on tumor progression are still elusive. In certain tumors, a CD4+ T helper (Th) 2 cell-associated TIME induces NETs and exerts immunosuppressive functions via programmed death 1 (PD-1)/PD-L1, both associated with poorer prognosis. In other cases, NETs induce the proliferation of Th1 cells, associated with an improved prognosis in cancer. In addition, NETs can drive macrophage polarization and often rely on macrophages to promote cancer cell invasion and metastasis. In turn, macrophages can swiftly clear NETs in an immunologically silent manner. The aim of this review is to summarize the knowledge about the mutual interaction between NETs and TIME and its impact on tumor growth and therapy.

Sex bias in lymphocytes: Implications for autoimmune diseases

Autoimmune diseases are characterized by a significant sex dimorphism, with women showing increased susceptibility to disease. This is, at least in part, due to sex-dependent differences in the immune system that are influenced by the complex interplay between sex hormones and sex chromosomes, with contribution from sociological factors, diet and gut microbiota. Sex differences are evident in the number and function of lymphocyte populations. Women mount a stronger pro-inflammatory response than males, with increased lymphocyte proliferation, activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production, whereas men display expanded regulatory cell subsets. Ageing alters the immune landscape of men and women in differing ways, resulting in changes in autoimmune disease susceptibility. Here we review the current literature on sex differences in lymphocyte function, the factors that influence this, and the implications for autoimmune disease. We propose that improved understanding of sex bias in lymphocyte function can provide sex-specific tailoring of treatment strategies for better management of autoimmune diseases.

The Future of Targeted Treatment of Primary Sjögren's Syndrome: A Focus on Extra-Glandular Pathology

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a chronic, systemic autoimmune disease defined by exocrine gland hypofunction resulting in dry eyes and dry mouth. Despite increasing interest in biological therapies for pSS, achieving FDA-approval has been challenging due to numerous complications in the trials. The current literature lacks insight into a molecular-target-based approach to the development of biological therapies. This review focuses on novel research in newly defined drug targets and the latest clinical trials for pSS treatment. A literature search was conducted on ClinicalTrials.gov using the search term "Primary Sjögren's syndrome". Articles published in English between 2000 and 2021 were included. Our findings revealed potential targets for pSS treatment in clinical trials and the most recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of pSS. A prominent gap in current trials is in overlooking the treatment of extraglandular symptoms such as fatigue, depression, and anxiety, which are present in most patients with pSS. Based on dryness and these symptom-directed therapies, emerging biological agents targeting inflammatory cytokines, signal pathways, and immune reaction have been studied and their efficacy and safety have been proven. Novel therapies may complement existing non-pharmacological methods of alleviating symptoms of pSS. Better grading systems that add extraglandular symptoms to gauge disease activity and severity should be created. The future of pSS therapies may lie in gene, stem-cell, and tissue-engineering therapies.

Features of Peripheral Blood Th-Cell Subset Composition and Serum Cytokine Level in Patients with Activity-Driven Ankylosing Spondylitis

Th cells may exhibit pathological activity depending on the regulatory and functional signals sensed under a wide range of immunopathological conditions, including ankylosing spondylitis (AS). The relationship between Th cells and cytokines is important for diagnoses and for determining treatment. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between Th-cell subset composition and serum cytokine profile for patients with activity-driven AS. In our study, patients were divided into two groups according to disease activity: low-activity AS (ASDAS-CRP < 2.1) and high-activity AS (ASDAS-CRP > 2.1). The peripheral blood Th cell subset composition was studied by flow cytometry. Using multiplex analysis, serum cytokine levels were quantified and investigated. It was found that only patients with high-activity AS had reduced central memory (CM) Th1 cells (p = 0.035) but elevated numbers of CM (p = 0.014) and effector memory (EM) Th2 cells (p < 0.001). However, no activity-driven change in the Th17 cell subset composition was observed in AS patients. Moreover, low-AS activity patients had increased numbers of Tfh17 EM cells (p < 0.001), whereas high-AS activity was associated with elevated Tfh2 EM level (p = 0.031). The serum cytokine profiles in AS patients demonstrated that cues stimulating cellular immunity were increased, but patients with high-AS activity reveled increased IL-5 level (p = 0.017). Analyzing the data obtained from AS patients allowed us to conclude that Th cell subset differentiation was mainly affected during the CM stage and characterized the IL-23/IL-17 regulatory axis, whereas increased humoral immunity was observed in the high-AS activity group.

Therapeutic roles of plants for 15 hypothesised causal bases of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is progressive and ultimately fatal, with current drugs failing to reverse and cure it. This study aimed to find plant species which may provide therapeutic bioactivities targeted to causal agents proposed to be driving AD. A novel toolkit methodology was employed, whereby clinical symptoms were translated into categories recognized in ethnomedicine. These categories were applied to find plant species with therapeutic effects, mined from ethnomedical surveys. Survey locations were mapped to assess how this data is at risk. Bioactivities were found of therapeutic relevance to 15 hypothesised causal bases for AD. 107 species with an ethnological report of memory improvement demonstrated therapeutic activity for all these 15 causal bases. The majority of the surveys were found to reside within biodiversity hotspots (centres of high biodiversity under threat), with loss of traditional knowledge the most common threat. Our findings suggest that the documented plants provide a large resource of AD therapeutic potential. In demonstrating bioactivities targeted to these causal bases, such plants may have the capacity to reduce or reverse AD, with promise as drug leads to target multiple AD hallmarks. However, there is a need to preserve ethnomedical knowledge, and the habitats on which this knowledge depends.

Migration and homeostasis of regulatory T cells in rheumatoid arthritis

Regulatory T (T_reg) cells are garnering increased attention in research related to autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). They play an essential role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis by restricting effector T cell activity. Reduced functions and frequencies of T_reg cells contribute to the pathogenesis of RA, a common autoimmune disease which leads to systemic inflammation and erosive joint destruction. T_reg cells from patients with RA are characterized by impaired functions and by an altered phenotype. They show increased plasticity towards Th17 cells and a reduced suppressive capacity. Besides the suppressive function of T_reg cells, their effectiveness is determined by their ability to migrate into inflamed tissues. In the past years, new mechanisms involved in T_reg cell migration have been identified. One example of such a mechanism is the phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP). Efficient migration of T_reg cells requires the presence of VASP. IL-6, a cytokine which is abundantly present in the peripheral blood and in the synovial tissue of RA patients, induces posttranslational modifications of VASP. Recently, it has been shown in mice with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) that this IL-6 mediated posttranslational modification leads to reduced T_reg cell trafficking. Another protein which facilitates T_reg cell migration is G-protein-signaling modulator 2 (GPSM2). It modulates G-protein coupled receptor functioning, thereby altering the cellular activity initiated by cell surface receptors in response to extracellular signals. The almost complete lack of GPSM2 in T_reg cells from RA patients contributes to their reduced ability to migrate towards inflammatory sites. In this review article, we highlight the newly identified mechanisms of T_reg cell migration and review the current knowledge about impaired T_reg cell homeostasis in RA.

Upregulated Expression of IL2RB Causes Disorder of Immune Microenvironment in Patients with Kawasaki Disease

Aims. The clinical diagnosis of Kawasaki disease (KD) is not easy because of many atypical manifestations. This study is aimed at finding potential diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets for KD and analysing their correlation with immune cell infiltrations. Methods. First, we downloaded the KD dataset from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and used R software to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and perform functional correlation analysis. Then, CIBERSORT algorithm was used to evaluate immune cell infiltrations in samples. Coexpression analysis between DEGs and infiltrating immune cells was performed to screen the main infiltrating immune cells. Subsequently, the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) logistic regression analysis was used to screen the core genes related to KD. Finally, correlation analysis between the core genes and the main infiltrating immune cells was performed. Results. 327 DEGs were screened out in this study. Among them, 72 shared genes were the category of genes most likely to be disease-causing for they did not change before and after treatment. After analysis, it was found that expression level of IL2RB in KD tissues was significantly upregulated, the number of resting CD4+ memory T cells was decreased, and the decrease was significantly negatively correlated with the upregulated expression of IL2RB. Therefore, it was speculated that the upregulated expression of IL2RB disrupted Th1/Th2 cell differentiation balance, which led to a decrease of resting CD4+ memory T cells and finally caused disorder of immune microenvironment in patients with KD. Conclusions. Upregulated expression of IL2RB leads to disorder of immune microenvironment in patients with KD and eventually causes the occurrence and development of KD. Therefore, IL2RB may serve as a diagnostic marker and potential therapeutic target for KD.

Dynamic Immune Function Changes Before and After the First Radioactive Iodine Therapy After Total Resection of Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma

The effects of total thyroidectomy or radioactive iodine therapy on immune activation and suppression of the tumor microenvironment remain unknown. We aimed to investigate the effects of these treatments on the immune function in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC). Our cohort included 45 patients with DTC treated with total thyroidectomy and radioactive iodine therapy (RAIT). Immune function tests were performed by flow cytometry at 0, 30, and 90 days post-RAIT. Both the percentage and absolute number of circulating regulatory T cells were significantly lower in the postoperative DTC compared to the healthy controls. Notably, the absolute number of multiple lymphocyte subgroups significantly decreased at 30 days post-RAIT compared to those pre-RAIT. The absolute counts of these lymphocytes were recovered at 90 days post-RAIT, but not at pre-RAIT levels. Additionally, the Th17 cell percentage before RAIT was positively correlated with thyroglobulin (Tg) levels after RAIT. The tumor burden might contribute to increased levels of circulating Tregs. In conclusion, RAIT caused transient radiation damage in patients with DTC and the percentage of Th17 cells before RAIT could be a significant predictor of poor prognosis in patients with DTC.

The ubiquitin ligase Cul5 regulates CD4+ T cell fate choice and allergic inflammation

Antigen encounter directs CD4⁺ T cells to differentiate into T helper or regulatory cells. This process focuses the immune response on the invading pathogen and limits tissue damage. Mechanisms that govern T helper cell versus T regulatory cell fate remain poorly understood. Here, we show that the E3 ubiquitin ligase Cul5 determines fate selection in CD4⁺ T cells by regulating IL-4 receptor signaling. Mice lacking Cul5 in T cells develop Th2 and Th9 inflammation and show pathophysiological features of atopic asthma. Following T cell activation, Cul5 forms a complex with CIS and pJak1. Cul5 deletion reduces ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of pJak1, leading to an increase in pJak1 and pSTAT6 levels and reducing the threshold of IL-4 receptor signaling. As a consequence, Cul5 deficient CD4⁺ T cells deviate from Treg to Th9 differentiation in low IL-4 conditions. These data support the notion that Cul5 promotes a tolerogenic T cell fate choice and reduces susceptibility to allergic asthma.

Cytokine signaling influences the differentiation of CD4⁺ T cells into varying functional subsets. Here the authors show that an E3 ubiquitin ligase Cul5 alters T_H2 and T_H9 development and absence of Cul5 in T cells results in higher levels of allergy-associated IL-4 and IL-9 secreting T cells.

Preterm Birth in Women With HIV: The Role of the Placenta

Maternal HIV infection is associated with an increased risk of preterm birth (PTB). However, the mechanisms underlying this increased risk in women with HIV remain poorly understood. In this regard, it is well-established that labor is an inflammatory process and premature activation of the pro-inflammatory signals (associated with labor) can result in preterm labor which can subsequently lead to PTB. HIV infection is known to cause severe immune dysregulation within its host characterized by altered immune profiles, chronic inflammation and eventually, the progressive failure of the immune system. The human placenta comprises different immune cell subsets, some of which play an important role during pregnancy including participating in the inflammatory processes that accompany labor. It is therefore plausible that HIV/antiretroviral therapy (ART)-associated immune dysregulation within the placental microenvironment may underlie the increased risk of PTB reported in women with HIV. Here, we review evidence from studies that point toward the placental origin of spontaneous PTB and discuss possible ways maternal HIV infection and/or ART could increase this risk. We focus on key cellular players in the maternal decidua including natural killer cells, CD4+ T cells including CD4+ regulatory T cells, CD8+ T cells as well as macrophages.

Checkpoint Inhibitors and Induction of Celiac Disease-like Condition

Immune checkpoint inhibitors herald a new era in oncological therapy-resistant cancer, thus bringing hope for better outcomes and quality of life for patients. However, as with other medications, they are not without serious side effects over time. Despite this, their advantages outweigh their disadvantages. Understanding the adverse effects will help therapists locate, apprehend, treat, and perhaps diminish them. The major ones are termed immune-related adverse events (irAEs), representing their auto-immunogenic capacity. This narrative review concentrates on the immune checkpoint inhibitors induced celiac disease (CD), highlighting the importance of the costimulatory inhibitors in CD evolvement and suggesting several mechanisms for CD induction. Unraveling those cross-talks and pathways might reveal some new therapeutic strategies.

Toll-like receptor 4-mediated necroptosis in the development of necrotizing enterocolitis

BACKGROUND

Dramatic intestinal epithelial cell death leading to barrier dysfunction is one of the mechanism of neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), in which Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays a pivotal role. This study explored the role of necroptosis, a drastic way of cell death in NEC.

METHODS

The expression of necroptotic proteins was tested in NEC intestinal tissue and compared with controls. NEC was induced in neonatal wild-type mice and a necroptosis inhibitor was given to investigate whether NEC could be relieved. The general condition, macroscopic scoring, and histological evaluations were performed. The expression of tight junction proteins, inflammatory cytokines, and necroptosis-related proteins was measured, and barrier function was examined. Then, NEC was induced in TLR4-knockout pups to confirm the role of TLR4 in necroptosis.

RESULTS

Necroptotic proteins were significantly upregulated in both NEC patient and animal models, together with the expression of TLR4. NEC could be relieved and inflammatory infiltration was decreased by necrostatin-1s. TLR4-knockout mice showed milder tissue degradation and less necroptosis after NEC induction.

CONCLUSIONS

Necroptosis is an essential pathological process of NEC. TLR4 may be one stimulator of necroptosis in NEC. Inhibiting the intestinal cell necroptosis might be a useful strategy in the treatment of NEC.

IMPACT

Necroptosis is a key pathological process in NEC, which appears to involve TLR4. Anti-necroptosis treatment is a promising strategy that could significantly relieve the symptoms of NEC.

Identification of heterogeneous subsets of aortic interleukin-17A-expressing CD4+ T cells in atherosclerotic mice

Objectives: T helper 17 (Th17) cells are involved in the inflammatory response of atherosclerosis. However, their heterogeneity in the atherosclerotic aorta remains elusive. This study was designed to identify aortic Th17 subsets. Methods: The surface markers and transcription factors of aortic interleukin-17A (IL-17A)-expressing T cells were determined by flow cytometry in an ApoE-deficient mouse atherosclerotic model. Viable aortic IL-17A-expressing T cell subsets were isolated by flow cytometry on the basis of surface markers, followed by characterizing their transcription factors by either flow cytometry or real-time RT-PCR. The effect of aortic IL-17A-expressing T cell subsets on aortic endothelial cells was determined in vitro. Results: C-X-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 3 (CXCR3), interleukin-17 receptor E (IL-17RE), CD200, and C-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 4 (CCR4) marked three subsets of aortic IL-17A-expressing T cells: CXCR3⁺IL-17RE^lowCD200⁺CCR4^- T cells expressing T-box protein expressed in T cells (T-bet) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), CXCR3⁺IL-17RE^lowCD200⁺CCR4⁺ T cells expressing T-bet but fewer IFN-γ, and CXCR3⁻IL-17RE^highCD200⁺CCR4⁺ T cells expressing very low T-bet and no IFN-γ. Based on these markers, viable aortic Th17 cells, Th17.1 cells, and transitional Th17.1 cells were identified. Both Th17.1 cells and transitional Th17.1 cells were more proliferative than Th17 cells. Compared with Th17 cells, Th17.1 cells plus transitional Th17.1 cells induced higher expression of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1), C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), C-X-C motif chemokine 5 (CXCL5), and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in aortic endothelial cells. Conclusion: IL-17A-expressing CD4⁺ T cells were heterogeneous in atherosclerotic aortas.

Multifaceted Roles of Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors in Tumor Immunity

Simple Summary

Various immune cells are involved in host immune responses to cancer. T-helper (Th) 1 cells, cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells, and natural killer cells are the major effector cells in anti-tumor immunity, whereas cells such as regulatory T cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells are negatively involved in anti-tumor immunity. Th2 cells and Th17 cells have been shown to have both pro-tumor and anti-tumor activities. The migratory properties of various immune cells are essential for their function and critically regulated by the chemokine superfamily. In this review, we summarize the roles of various immune cells in tumor immunity and their migratory regulation by the chemokine superfamily. We also assess the therapeutic possibilities of targeting chemokines and chemokine receptors in cancer immunotherapy.

Abstract

Various immune cells are involved in host tumor immune responses. In particular, there are many T cell subsets with different roles in tumor immunity. T-helper (Th) 1 cells are involved in cellular immunity and thus play the major role in host anti-tumor immunity by inducing and activating cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). On the other hand, Th2 cells are involved in humoral immunity and suppressive to Th1 responses. Regulatory T (Treg) cells negatively regulate immune responses and contribute to immune evasion of tumor cells. Th17 cells are involved in inflammatory responses and may play a role in tumor progression. However, recent studies have also shown that Th17 cells are capable of directly inducting CTLs and thus may promote anti-tumor immunity. Besides these T cell subsets, there are many other innate immune cells such as dendritic cells (DCs), natural killer (NK) cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) that are involved in host immune responses to cancer. The migratory properties of various immune cells are critical for their functions and largely regulated by the chemokine superfamily. Thus, chemokines and chemokine receptors play vital roles in the orchestration of host immune responses to cancer. In this review, we overview the various immune cells involved in host responses to cancer and their migratory properties regulated by the chemokine superfamily. Understanding the roles of chemokines and chemokine receptors in host immune responses to cancer may provide new therapeutic opportunities for cancer immunotherapy.

Follicular Helper CD4+ T Cells, Follicular Regulatory CD4+ T Cells, and Inducible Costimulator and Their Roles in Multiple Sclerosis and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Follicular helper CD4+ T (TFH) cells are a specialized subset of effector T cells that play a central role in orchestrating adaptive immunity. TFH cells mainly promote germinal center (GC) formation, provide help to B cells for immunoglobulin affinity maturation and class-switch recombination of B cells, and facilitate production of long-lived plasma cells and memory B cells. TFH cells express the nuclear transcriptional repressor B cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl-6), the chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 5 (CXCR5), the CD28 family members programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) and inducible costimulator (ICOS) and are also responsible for the secretion of interleukin-21 (IL-21) and IL-4. Follicular regulatory CD4+ T (TFR) cells, as a regulatory counterpart of TFH cells, participate in the regulation of GC reactions. TFR cells not only express markers of TFH cells but also express markers of regulatory T (Treg) cells containing FOXP3, glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR), cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), and IL-10, hence owing to the dual characteristic of TFH cells and Treg cells. ICOS, expressed on activated CD4+ effector T cells, participates in T cell activation, differentiation, and effector process. The expression of ICOS is highest on TFH and TFR cells, indicating it as a key regulator of humoral immunity. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a severe autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system and results in disability, mediated by autoreactive T cells with evolving evidence of a remarkable contribution from humoral responses. This review summarizes recent advances regarding TFH cells, TFR cells, and ICOS, as well as their functional characteristics in relation to MS.