Sigma Receptor (σR) Ligands with Antiproliferative and Anticancer Activity

Balancing acts: The dual faces of fentanyl in medicine and public health

Fentanyl is a potent synthetic opioid widely used in medicine for its effective analgesic properties, particularly in surgical procedures and in the treatment of severe, chronic pain. In recent decades, however, there has been a worrying increase in the illicit use of fentanyl, particularly in North America. This rise in illicit use is concerning because fentanyl is associated with polydrug abuse, which adds layers of complexity and dangerous. This review provides a comprehensive examination of fentanyl, focusing on its synthesis and medical use. It also discusses the significance of the piperidine ring in medicinal chemistry as well as the critical role of fentanyl in pain management and anesthesia. Furthermore, it addresses the challenges associated with the abuse potential of fentanyl and the resulting public health concerns. The study aims to strike a balance between the clinical benefits and risks of fentanyl by advocating for innovative uses while addressing public health issues. It examines the chemistry, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of fentanyl and highlights the importance of personalized medicine in the administration of opioids. The review underscores the necessity of continuous research and adaptation in both clinical use and public health strategies.

What is the Reason That the Pharmacological Future of Chemotherapeutics in the Treatment of Lung Cancer Could Be Most Closely Related to Nanostructures? Platinum Drugs in Therapy of Non-Small and Small Cell Lung Cancer and Their Unexpected, Possible Interactions. The Review

Over the course of several decades, anticancer treatment with chemotherapy drugs for lung cancer has not changed significantly. Unfortunately, this treatment prolongs the patient's life only by a few months, causing many side effects in the human body. It has also been proven that drugs such as Cisplatin, Carboplatin, Oxaliplatin and others can react with other substances containing an aromatic ring in which the nitrogen atom has a free electron group in its structure. Thus, such structures may have a competitive effect on the nucleobases of DNA. Therefore, scientists are looking not only for new drugs, but also for new alternative ways of delivering the drug to the cancer site. Nanotechnology seems to be a great hope in this matter. Creating a new nanomedicine would reduce the dose of the drug to an absolute minimum, and thus limit the toxic effect of the drug; it would allow for the exclusion of interactions with competitive compounds with a structure similar to nucleobases; it would also permit using the so-called targeted treatment and bypassing healthy cells; it would allow for the introduction of other treatment options, such as radiotherapy directly to the cancer site; and it would provide diagnostic possibilities. This article is a review that aims to systematize the knowledge regarding the anticancer treatment of lung cancer, but not only. It shows the clear possibility of interactions of chemotherapeutics with compounds competitive to the nitrogenous bases of DNA. It also shows the possibilities of using nanostructures as potential Platinum drug carriers, and proves that nanomedicine can easily become a new medicinal product in personalized medicine.

3,3-Disubstituted 3,4-Dihydro-1,2,4-benzotriazines: Chemistry, Biological Activity, and Affinity to Sigma Receptors

By reducing the 2-nitrophenylhydrazone of cyclohexanone with sodium dithionite, an unexpected yellow compound was obtained instead of the corresponding colorless amino derivative. Many years later, the structure of this compound, namely, cyclohexane-3-spiro-3,4-dihydro-1,2,4-benzotriazine, was demonstrated. From that time, the reduction of 2-nitrophenylhydrazones of different kinds of ketones, followed by air oxidation of the initially formed amino compounds, has represented a general way to synthesize a variety of 3,3-disubstituted 3,4-dihydro-1,2,4-benzotriazines. Many derivatives have been obtained so far by a single research group, and most of them have demonstrated interesting pharmacological activities, mainly antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic effects and other activities with lower diffusion. Moreover, 3,3-disubstituted 3,4-dihydro-1,2,4-benzotriazines represent a novel class of ligands for sigma receptors, with nanomolar affinity to the σ1 subtype. This property might promote the development of agents for cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, and proliferative pathologies. The present commentary, by collecting compounds and biological results obtained so far, intends to celebrate the centennial of the discovery of the first member of this class of compounds and to promote further investigation in the field.

Sigma Receptors: Novel Regulators of Iron/Heme Homeostasis and Ferroptosis

Sigma receptors are non-opiate/non-phencyclidine receptors that bind progesterone and/or heme and also several unrelated xenobiotics/chemicals. They reside in the plasma membrane and in the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and nucleus. Until recently, the biology/pharmacology of these proteins focused primarily on their role in neuronal functions in the brain/retina. However, there have been recent developments in the field with the discovery of unexpected roles for these proteins in iron/heme homeostasis. Sigma receptor 1 (S1R) regulates the oxidative stress-related transcription factor NRF2 and protects against ferroptosis, an iron-induced cell death process. Sigma receptor 2 (S2R), which is structurally unrelated to S1R, complexes with progesterone receptor membrane components PGRMC1 and PGRMC2. S2R, PGRMC1, and PGRMC2, either independently or as protein-protein complexes, elicit a multitude of effects with a profound influence on iron/heme homeostasis. This includes the regulation of the secretion of the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin, the modulation of the activity of mitochondrial ferrochelatase, which catalyzes iron incorporation into protoporphyrin IX to form heme, chaperoning heme to specific hemoproteins thereby influencing their biological activity and stability, and protection against ferroptosis. Consequently, S1R, S2R, PGRMC1, and PGRMC2 potentiate disease progression in hemochromatosis and cancer. These new discoveries usher this intriguing group of non-traditional progesterone receptors into an unchartered territory in biology and medicine.

Chemically programmable bacterial probes for the recognition of cell surface proteins

Common methods to label cell surface proteins (CSPs) involve the use of fluorescently modified antibodies (Abs) or small-molecule-based ligands. However, optimizing the labeling efficiency of such systems, for example, by modifying them with additional fluorophores or recognition elements, is challenging. Herein we show that effective labeling of CSPs overexpressed in cancer cells and tissues can be obtained with fluorescent probes based on chemically modified bacteria. The bacterial probes (B-probes) are generated by non-covalently linking a bacterial membrane protein to DNA duplexes appended with fluorophores and small-molecule binders of CSPs overexpressed in cancer cells. We show that B-probes are exceptionally simple to prepare and modify because they are generated from self-assembled and easily synthesized components, such as self-replicating bacterial scaffolds and DNA constructs that can be readily appended, at well-defined positions, with various types of dyes and CSP binders. This structural programmability enabled us to create B-probes that can label different types of cancer cells with distinct colors, as well as generate very bright B-probes in which the multiple dyes are spatially separated along the DNA scaffold to avoid self-quenching. This enhancement in the emission signal enabled us to label the cancer cells with greater sensitivity and follow the internalization of the B-probes into these cells. The potential to apply the design principles underlying B-probes in therapy or inhibitor screening is also discussed here.

Functionalized liposomes for targeted breast cancer drug delivery

Despite the exceptional progress in breast cancer pathogenesis, prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment strategies, it remains a prominent cause of female mortality worldwide. Additionally, although chemotherapies are effective, they are associated with critical limitations, most notably their lack of specificity resulting in systemic toxicity and the eventual development of multi-drug resistance (MDR) cancer cells. Liposomes have proven to be an invaluable drug delivery system but of the multitudes of liposomal systems developed every year only a few have been approved for clinical use, none of which employ active targeting. In this review, we summarize the most recent strategies in development for actively targeted liposomal drug delivery systems for surface, transmembrane and internal cell receptors, enzymes, direct cell targeting and dual-targeting of breast cancer and breast cancer-associated cells, e.g., cancer stem cells, cells associated with the tumor microenvironment, etc.

Targeting Sigma Receptors for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The sigma-1 receptor is a 223 amino acid-long protein with a recently identified structure. The sigma-2 receptor is a genetically unrelated protein with a similarly shaped binding pocket and acts to influence cellular activities similar to the sigma-1 receptor. Both proteins are highly expressed in neuronal tissues. As such, they have become targets for treating neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Huntington's disease (HD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Rett syndrome (RS), developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEE), and motor neuron disease/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (MND/ALS). In recent years, there have been many pre-clinical and clinical studies of sigma receptor (1 and 2) ligands for treating neurological disease. Drugs such as blarcamesine, dextromethorphan and pridopidine, which have sigma-1 receptor activity as part of their pharmacological profile, are effective in treating multiple aspects of several neurological diseases. Furthermore, several sigma-2 receptor ligands are under investigation, including CT1812, rivastigmine and SAS0132. This review aims to provide a current and up-to-date analysis of the current clinical and pre-clinical data of drugs with sigma receptor activities for treating neurological disease.

Design and Synthesis of Orally Active Quinolyl Pyrazinamides as Sigma 2 Receptor Ligands for the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer

Sigma 2 receptor (σ2R) is overexpressed in select cancers and is regarded as a biomarker for tumor proliferation. σ2R ligands are emerging as promising theranostics for cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Herein, we describe the design and synthesis of a series of novel quinolyl pyrazinamides as selective and potent σ2R ligands that show sub-micromolar potency in pancreatic cancer cell lines. Compounds 14 (JR1-157) and 17 (JR2-298) bind σ2R with K_i of 47 and 10 nM, respectively. Importantly, compound 14 has an oral bioavailability of 60% and shows significant in vivo efficacy without obvious toxicity in a syngeneic model of pancreatic cancer. The cytotoxicity of the quinolyl pyrazinamides significantly enhanced in the presence of copper and diminished in the presence of the copper-chelator tetrathiomolybdate. In conclusion, compound 14 is water-soluble, metabolically stable, orally active, and increases the expression of the autophagy marker LC3B and warrants further development for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Advances in Lung Cancer Treatment Using Nanomedicines

Carcinoma of the lungs is among the most menacing forms of malignancy and has a poor prognosis, with a low overall survival rate due to delayed detection and ineffectiveness of conventional therapy. Therefore, drug delivery strategies that may overcome undesired damage to healthy cells, boost therapeutic efficacy, and act as imaging tools are currently gaining much attention. Advances in material science have resulted in unique nanoscale-based theranostic agents, which provide renewed hope for patients suffering from lung cancer. Nanotechnology has vastly modified and upgraded the existing techniques, focusing primarily on increasing bioavailability and stability of anti-cancer drugs. Nanocarrier-based imaging systems as theranostic tools in the treatment of lung carcinoma have proven to possess considerable benefits, such as early detection and targeted therapeutic delivery for effectively treating lung cancer. Several variants of nano-drug delivery agents have been successfully studied for therapeutic applications, such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, hydrogels, and micelles. In this Review, we present a comprehensive outline on the various types of overexpressed receptors in lung cancer, as well as the various targeting approaches of nanoparticles.

Novel Sigma-2 receptor ligand A011 overcomes MDR in adriamycin-resistant human breast cancer cells by modulating ABCB1 and ABCG2 transporter function

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is thought to be one of the main reasons for the failure of chemotherapy in cancers. ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (ABCB1) or P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and ATP-binding cassette subfamily G member 2 (ABCG2) play indispensable roles in cancer cell MDR. Sigma-2 (σ2) receptor is considered to be a cancer biomarker and a potential therapeutic target due to its high expression in various proliferative tumors. Recently, σ2 receptor ligands have been shown to have promising cytotoxic effects against cancer cells and to modulate the activity of P-glycoprotein (ABCB1) in vitro experiments, but their specific effects and mechanisms remain to be elucidated. We found that A011, a σ2 receptor ligand with the structure of 6,7-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline, showed promising cytotoxicity against breast cancer MCF-7 and adriamycin-resistant MCF-7 (MCF-7/ADR), induced apoptosis, and reversed adriamycin (ADR) and paclitaxel resistance in MCF-7/ADR cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that A011 increased the accumulation of rhodamine 123 and mitoxantrone in MCF-7/ADR cells. A011 significantly decreased the ATPase activity of the ABCB1 and down-regulated ABCG2 protein expression. In addition, A011, administered alone or in combination with ADR, significantly inhibited tumor growth in the MCF-7/ADR tumor-bearing nude mouse model. A011 may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of tumor resistance.

Development of tumor-targeting aza-vesamicol derivatives with high affinity for sigma receptors for cancer theranostics

As sigma receptors are highly expressed on various cancer cells, radiolabeled sigma receptor ligands have been developed as imaging and therapeutic probes for cancer. Previously, we synthesized and evaluated a radioiodinated vesamicol derivative, 2-(4-[¹²⁵I](4-iodophenyl)piperidine)cyclohexanol ((+)-[¹²⁵I]pIV), and a radioiodinated aza-vesamicol derivative, trans-2-(4-(3-[¹²⁵I](4-iodophenyl)propyl)piperazin-1-yl)cyclohexan-1-ol ([¹²⁵I]2), as sigma-1 receptor-targeting probes. In order to obtain sigma receptor-targeting probes with superior biodistribution characteristics, we firstly synthesized twelve bromine-containing aza-vesamicol derivatives and evaluated their affinity for sigma receptors. One such derivative exhibited high selectivity for the sigma-1 receptor and another exhibited high affinity for both the sigma-1 and sigma-2 receptors. Thus, their halogen-substituted iodine- and radioiodine-containing compounds were prepared. The ¹²⁵I-labeled compounds exhibited high uptake in tumor and lower uptake in non-target tissues than the two previously developed and evaluated ¹²⁵I-labeled sigma receptor-targeting probes, [¹²⁵I]pIV and [¹²⁵I]2. Therefore, these novel radioiodine-labeled compounds should be promising as sigma receptor-targeting probes.

A011, a novel small-molecule ligand of σ2 receptor, potently suppresses breast cancer progression via endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy

Breast cancer has surpassed lung cancer to become the most commonly diagnosed cancer in women worldwide. Sigma-2 (σ₂) receptor is considered to be a potential therapeutic target for breast cancer because of its high expression in breast cancer cells and low expression in normal breast cells. Many σ₂ ligands have been reported to have excellent anticancer activity, but their mechanism of action has not been fully elucidated. We discovered that A011 had high affinity and selectivity for σ₂ receptor, reduced proliferation in five cancer cell lines, and significantly inhibited the monoclonal formation ability of MCF-7 cells. Furthermore, A011 rapidly increased the levels of intracellular Ca²⁺ and reactive oxygen species and induced autophagy. Molecular pharmacology studies revealed that A011 induced endoplasmic reticulum stress, activated the PERK-eIF2α-CHOP pathway and inhibited the activation of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway, leading to cell apoptosis. In an in vivo tumor model, A011 showed obvious anti-tumor activity and no significant toxicity. More importantly, our study demonstrated for the first time that endoplasmic reticulum stress is the main mechanism of anti-cancer effects for σ₂ ligands, at least for A011. A011 may potentially be useful as a therapeutic agent for treating breast cancer.

Application of Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Lung Cancer With Emphasis on Receptors

Lung cancer is one of the malignant tumors that has seen the most rapid growth in terms of morbidity and mortality in recent years, posing the biggest threat to people’s health and lives. In recent years, the nano-drug loading system has made significant progress in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of lung cancer. Nanomaterials are used to specifically target tumor tissue to minimize therapeutic adverse effects and increase bioavailability. It is achieved primarily through two mechanisms: passive targeting, which entails the use of enhanced penetration and retention (EPR) effect, and active targeting, which entails the loading recognition ligands for tumor marker molecules onto nanomaterials. However, it has been demonstrated that the EPR effect is effective in rodents but not in humans. Taking this into consideration, researchers paid significant attention to the active targeting nano-drug loading system. Additionally, it has been demonstrated to have a higher affinity and specificity for tumor cells. In this review, it describes the development of research into active targeted nano-drug delivery systems for lung cancer treatment from the receptors’ or targets’ perspective. We anticipate that this study will help biomedical researchers use nanoparticles (NPs) to treat lung cancer by providing more and novel drug delivery strategies or solid ligands.

Biophysical Evaluation and In Vitro Controlled Release of Two Isomeric Adamantane Phenylalkylamines with Antiproliferative/Anticancer and Analgesic Activity

The aqueous dissolution profile of the isomeric synthetic adamantane phenylalkylamine hydrochlorides I and II was probed. These adducts have shown significant antiproliferative/anticancer activity associated with an analgesic profile against neuropathic pain. They are both devoid of toxic effects and show appreciable enzymatic human plasma stability. The structures of these two compounds have been elucidated using 2D NMR experiments, which were used to study their predominant conformations. Compound II’s scaffold appeared more flexible, as shown by the NOE spatial interactions between the alkyl bridge chain, the aromatic rings, and the adamantane nucleus. Conversely, compound I appeared very rigid, as it did not share significant NOEs between the aforementioned structural segments. MD simulations confirmed the NOE results. The aqueous dissolution profile of both molecules fits well with their minimum energy conformers’ features, which stem from the NOE data; this was nicely demonstrated, especially in the case of compound II.

The Sigma-2 Receptor/TMEM97 Agonist PB28 Suppresses Cell Proliferation and Invasion by Regulating the PI3K-AKT-mTOR Signalling Pathway in Renal Cancer

Sigma‐2 receptor/TMEM97 is overexpressed in many tumours, and sigma‐2 receptor ligands are under investigation for cancer therapy. We intended to evaluate the effect of PB28 on renal cancer in proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro and in vivo. Invasive renal cancer cell lines treated with PB28 (or sigma‐2 receptor antagonist 1) were subjected to cell proliferation, migration and invasion assays. The therapeutic effect of PB28 was performed on nude mice. Western blot for proteins in the PI3K‐AKT‐mTOR signalling pathway was conducted. A CCK‐8 assay was used to examine the effect of the combination of PB28 and cisplatin on renal cancer cells. Significant inhibitory effects were observed on proliferation, migration and invasion of 786‐O and ACHN cells after culturing with PB28. But, the outcomes of sigma‐2 receptor antagonist 1 presented the opposite tendency. PB28 significantly inhibited the proliferative and invasive ability of OS‐RC‐2 cells in vivo. Treatment resulted in decreased phosphorylation of constituents of the PI3K‐AKT‐mTOR pathway. The combination of PB28 and cisplatin showed enhanced efficacy in the inhibition of renal cancer cell proliferation. Taken together, PB28 inhibited the tumorigenic behaviours of renal cancer cells by regulating the PI3K‐AKT‐mTOR signalling pathway and was expected to be a sensitizer of cisplatin.

Antimicrobial Properties of Antidepressants and Antipsychotics-Possibilities and Implications

The spreading of antibiotic resistance is responsible annually for over 700,000 deaths worldwide, and the prevision is that this number will increase exponentially. The identification of new antimicrobial treatments is a challenge that requires scientists all over the world to collaborate. Developing new drugs is an extremely long and costly process, but it could be paralleled by drug repositioning. The latter aims at identifying new clinical targets of an “old” drug that has already been tested, approved, and even marketed. This approach is very intriguing as it could reduce costs and speed up approval timelines, since data from preclinical studies and on pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity are already available. Antidepressants and antipsychotics have been described to inhibit planktonic and sessile growth of different yeasts and bacteria. The main findings in the field are discussed in this critical review, along with the description of the possible microbial targets of these molecules. Considering their antimicrobial activity, the manuscript highlights important implications that the administration of antidepressants and antipsychotics may have on the gut microbiome.

Advances in Intracellular Calcium Signaling Reveal Untapped Targets for Cancer Therapy

Intracellular Ca2+ distribution is a tightly regulated process. Numerous Ca2+ chelating, storage, and transport mechanisms are required to maintain normal cellular physiology. Ca2+-binding proteins, mainly calmodulin and calbindins, sequester free intracellular Ca2+ ions and apportion or transport them to signaling hubs needing the cations. Ca2+ channels, ATP-driven pumps, and exchangers assist the binding proteins in transferring the ions to and from appropriate cellular compartments. Some, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and lysosomes, act as Ca2+ repositories. Cellular Ca2+ homeostasis is inefficient without the active contribution of these organelles. Moreover, certain key cellular processes also rely on inter-organellar Ca2+ signaling. This review attempts to encapsulate the structure, function, and regulation of major intracellular Ca2+ buffers, sensors, channels, and signaling molecules before highlighting how cancer cells manipulate them to survive and thrive. The spotlight is then shifted to the slow pace of translating such research findings into anticancer therapeutics. We use the PubMed database to highlight current clinical studies that target intracellular Ca2+ signaling. Drug repurposing and improving the delivery of small molecule therapeutics are further discussed as promising strategies for speeding therapeutic development in this area.

Novel High Affinity Sigma-1 Receptor Ligands from Minimal Ensemble Docking-Based Virtual Screening

Sigma-1 receptor (S1R) is an intracellular, multi-functional, ligand operated protein that also acts as a chaperone. It is considered as a pluripotent drug target in several pathologies. The publication of agonist and antagonist bound receptor structures has paved the way for receptor-based in silico drug design. However, recent studies on this subject payed no attention to the structural differences of agonist and antagonist binding. In this work, we have developed a new ensemble docking-based virtual screening protocol utilizing both agonist and antagonist bound S1R structures. This protocol was used to screen our in-house compound library. The S1R binding affinities of the 40 highest ranked compounds were measured in competitive radioligand binding assays and the sigma-2 receptor (S2R) affinities of the best S1R binders were also determined. This way three novel high affinity S1R ligands were identified and one of them exhibited a notable S1R/S2R selectivity.

Recent Advances in the Development of Sigma Receptor Ligands as Cytotoxic Agents: A Medicinal Chemistry Perspective

Since their discovery as distinct receptor proteins, the specific physiopathological role of sigma receptors (σRs) has been deeply investigated. It has been reported that these proteins, classified into two subtypes indicated as σ₁ and σ₂, might play a pivotal role in cancer growth, cell proliferation, and tumor aggressiveness. As a result, the development of selective σR ligands with potential antitumor properties attracted significant attention as an emerging theme in cancer research. This perspective deals with the recent advances of σR ligands as novel cytotoxic agents, covering articles published between 2010 and 2020. An up-to-date description of the medicinal chemistry of selective σ₁R and σ₂R ligands with antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities has been provided, including major pharmacophore models and comprehensive structure–activity relationships for each main class of σR ligands.

Sigma ligands as potent inhibitors of Aβ and AβOs in neurons and promising therapeutic agents of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease and characterized by dementia, memory decline, loss of learning and cognitive disorder. The main pathological features of AD are the deposition of amyloid plaques and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain. The current anti-AD drugs have shown unsatisfactory therapeutic results. Due to the complications and unclear pathogenesis, AD is still irreversible and incurable. Among several hypotheses proposed by the academic community, the amyloid cascade is widely recognized by scholars and supported by a large amount of evidences. However, controversy over pathogenic factors has also been ongoing. Increasing evidence has shown that amyloid-β (Aβ) and especially amyloid-β oligomers (AβOs) are highly neurotoxic and pathogenic agents that damage neurons, mediate various receptors in the downstream pathways, and ultimately lead to learning and cognitive dysfunction. However, efforts in developing inhibitors of Aβ or amyloid-β precursor protein (APP) have all failed to yield good clinical results. More recently, it has been demonstrated that sigma receptors, including sigma-1 and sigma-2 subtypes, may play critical roles in the regulation of binding and metabolism of AβOs in neuron cells and the pathophysiology of AD. Thus, sigma receptor ligands are being recognized as promising therapeutic agents for treating or ameliorating AD. This article will review the pathophysiology of AD and highlight the sigma ligands that display the capability of preventing or even reversing Aβ- and AβOs-induced neurotoxicity and blocking the signal transduction caused by AβOs.

Study of the Relationship between Sigma Receptor Expression Levels and Some Common Sigma Ligand Activity in Cancer Using Human Cancer Cell Lines of the NCI-60 Cell Line Panel

Sigma (σ) receptors have attracted great interest since they are implicated in various cellular functions and biological processes and diseases, including various types of cancer. The receptor family consists of two subtypes: sigma-1 (σ1) and sigma-2 (σ2). Both σ receptor subtypes have been proposed as therapeutic targets for various types of cancers, and many studies have provided evidence that their selective ligands (agonists and antagonists) exhibit antiproliferative and cytotoxic activity. Still, the precise mechanism of action of both σ receptors and their ligands remains unclear and needs to be elucidated. In this study, we aimed to simultaneously determine the expression levels of both σ receptor subtypes in several human cancer cell lines. Additionally, we investigated the in vitro antiproliferative activity of some widely used σ1 and σ2 ligands against those cell lines to study the relationship between σ receptor expression levels and σ ligand activity. Finally, we ran the NCI60 COMPARE algorithm to further elucidate the cytotoxic mechanism of action of the selected σ ligands studied herein.

Pan-Sigma Receptor Modulator RC-106 Induces Terminal Unfolded Protein Response In In Vitro Pancreatic Cancer Model

Pancreatic cancer (PC) remains one of the most lethal cancers worldwide. Sigma receptors (SRs) have been proposed as cancer therapeutic targets. Their main localization suggests they play a potential role in ER stress and in the triggering of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Here, we investigated the mechanisms of action of RC-106, a novel pan-SR modulator, to characterize therapeutically exploitable role of SRs in tumors. Two PC cell lines were used in all the experiments. Terminal UPR activation was evaluated by quantifying BiP, ATF4 and CHOP by Real-Time qRT-PCR, Western Blot, immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. Cell death was studied by flow cytometry. Post-transcriptional gene silencing was performed to study the interactions between SRs and UPR key proteins. RC-106 activated ER stress sensors in a dose- and time-dependent manner. It also induced ROS production accordingly with ATF4 upregulation at the same time reducing cell viability of both cell lines tested. Moreover, RC-106 exerted its effect through the induction of the terminal UPR, as shown by the activation of some of the main transducers of this pathway. Post-transcriptional silencing studies confirmed the connection between SRs and these key proteins. Overall, our data highlighted a key role of SRs in the activation of the terminal UPR pathway, thus indicating pan-SR ligands as candidates for targeting the UPR in pancreatic cancer.

Exploring 1-adamantanamine as an alternative amine moiety for metabolically labile azepane ring in newly synthesized benzo[d]thiazol-2(3H)one σ receptor ligands

In this work we report the structure-activity relationships, binding properties, and metabolic stability studies of a series of benzo[d]thiazol-2(3H)one as sigma receptors (σRs) ligands. Specifically, to improve the metabolic stability of the cyclic amine fragment of our lead compound (SN56), the metabolically unstable azepane ring was replaced with a 1-adatamantamine moiety. Within the synthesized analogs, compound 12 had low nanomolar affinity for the σ₁R (K _i = 7.2 nM) and moderate preference (61-fold) over the σ₂R. In vitro metabolic stability studies showed a slight improvement of the metabolic stability for 7-12, even though an extensive metabolism in rat liver microsomes is being observed. Furthermore, metabolic soft spot identification of 12 suggested that the N-methyl group of the adamantyl moiety is a major site of metabolism.

Potential Drugs Targeting Early Innate Immune Evasion of SARS-Coronavirus 2 via 2'-O-Methylation of Viral RNA

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) causing the COVID-19 respiratory disease pandemic utilizes unique 2'-O-methyltransferase (2'-O-MTase) capping machinery to camouflage its RNA from innate immune recognition. The nsp16 catalytic subunit of the 2'-O-MTase is unusual in its requirement for a stimulatory subunit (nsp10) to catalyze the ribose 2'-O-methylation of the viral RNA cap. Here we provide a computational basis for drug repositioning or de novo drug development based on three differential traits of the intermolecular interactions of the SARS-CoV-2-specific nsp16/nsp10 heterodimer, namely: (1) the S-adenosyl-l-methionine-binding pocket of nsp16, (2) the unique "activating surface" between nsp16 and nsp10, and (3) the RNA-binding groove of nsp16. We employed ≈9000 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved investigational and experimental drugs from the DrugBank repository for docking virtual screening. After molecular dynamics calculations of the stability of the binding modes of high-scoring nsp16/nsp10-drug complexes, we considered their pharmacological overlapping with functional modules of the virus-host interactome that is relevant to the viral lifecycle, and to the clinical features of COVID-19. Some of the predicted drugs (e.g., tegobuvir, sonidegib, siramesine, antrafenine, bemcentinib, itacitinib, or phthalocyanine) might be suitable for repurposing to pharmacologically reactivate innate immune restriction and antagonism of SARS-CoV-2 RNAs lacking 2'-O-methylation.

Sigma-1 receptor antagonists: promising players in fighting neuropathic pain

Sigma-1 receptors (S1Rs) are strongly correlated to neuropathic pain (NP), since their inactivation may decrease allodynia or dysesthesia, promoting analgesic effects. In the recent patent landscape, S1R antagonists endowed with nanomolar S1Rs affinity emerged as potent antinociceptive agents. So far, three patented compounds have been proposed for counteracting NP. Particularly PV-752 and AV1066, disclosed by the University of Pavia (Italy) and Anavex, respectively, showed good analgesic activity in preclinical studies. Moreover, E-52862 developed by Esteve (Spain) has been proved to be effective, both in preclinical and Phase II clinical trials, against several symptoms of NP. These patents ascertain S1R antagonists as potential drugs, alone or in combination with other analgesic drugs, for managing NP in humans.

The Molecular Function of σ Receptors: Past, Present, and Future

The σ1 and σ2 receptors are enigmatic proteins that have attracted attention for decades due to the chemical diversity and therapeutic potential of their ligands. However, despite ongoing clinical trials with σ receptor ligands for multiple conditions, relatively little is known regarding the molecular function of these receptors. In this review, we revisit past research on σ receptors and discuss the interpretation of these data in light of recent developments. We provide a synthesis of emerging structural and genetic data on the σ1 receptor and discuss the recent cloning of the σ2 receptor. Finally, we discuss the major questions that remain in the study of σ receptors.

New analogs of SYA013 as sigma-2 ligands with anticancer activity

Our previous study has revealed 4-(4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,4-diazepan-1-yl)-1-(4-fluorophenyl)butan-1-one·2HCl (SYA013) 1 as a sigma ligand with moderate selectivity for the sigma-2 receptor. Given the overexpression of sigma receptors in solid tumors and reports of sigma ligands with anticancer activities, we selected 1 for evaluation in several solid tumor cell lines. In addition, we have synthesized new analogs of 1 and now report that several of them bind preferentially at the sigma-2 receptor and have shown inhibition of several cancer cell lines including MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-486, A549, PC-3, MIA PaCa-2 and Panc-1 cells. In particular, compounds 1 and 12 have demonstrated sub-micromolar activity against the Panc-1 cell line. It has also been observed that several of these compounds demonstrate selective toxicity toward cancer cells, when compared to normal cells.

Sigma-2 receptor/TMEM97 agonist PB221 as an alternative drug for brain tumor

Background

There are limited effective drugs that can reach the brain to target brain tumors, in particular glioblastoma, which is one of the most difficult cancers to be cured from. Because the overexpression of the sigma-2 receptor is frequently reported in glioma clinical samples and associated with poor prognosis and malignancy, we herein studied the anti-tumor effect of the sigma-2 receptor agonist PB221 (4-cyclohexyl-1-[3-(5-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalen-1-yl)propyl]piperidine) on an anaplastic astrocytoma tumor model based on previous encouraging results in pancreatic cancer and neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells.

Methods

The expression of the sigma-2 receptor, transmembrane protein 97 (TMEM97), in ALTS1C1 and UN-KC6141 cell lines was measured by RT-PCR and quantitative RT-PCR. The binding of sigma-2 receptor fluorescent ligands PB385 (6-[5-[3-(4-cyclohexylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-5-yloxy]-N-(7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)hexanamine) and NO1 (2-{6-[2-(3-(6,7-dimethoxy-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-2(1H)-yl)propyl)-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one-5-yloxy]hexyl}-5-(dimethylamino)isoindoline-1,3-dione) was examined by flow cytometry and the fluorescent plate reader. The antitumor activity of PB221 was initially examined in the murine brain tumor cell line ALTS1C1 and then in the murine pancreatic cell line UN-KC6141. The potential therapeutic efficacy of PB221 for murine brain tumors was examined by in vitro migration and invasion assays and in vivo ectopic and orthotopic ALTS1C1 tumor models.

Results: The IC₅₀ of PB221 for ALTS1C1 and UN-KC6141 cell lines was 10.61 ± 0.96 and 13.13 ± 1.15 μM, respectively. A low dose of PB221 (1 μM) significantly repressed the migration and invasion of ALTS1C1 cells, and a high dose of PB221 (20 μM) resulted in the apoptotic cell death of ALTS1C1 cells. These effects were reduced by the lipid antioxidant α-tocopherol, but not by the hydrophilic N-acetylcysteine, suggesting mitochondrial oxidative stress is involved. The in vivo study revealed that PB221 effectively retarded tumor growth to 36% of the control tumor volume in the ectopic intramuscular tumor model and increased the overall survival time by 20% (from 26 to 31 days) in the orthotopic intracerebral tumor model.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that the sigma-2 receptor agonist PB221 has the potential to be an alternative chemotherapeutic drug for brain tumors with comparable side effects as the current standard-of-care drug, temozolomide.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12885-019-5700-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Syntheses and evaluation of a homologous series of aza-vesamicol as improved radioiodine-labeled probes for sigma-1 receptor imaging

Sigma-1 receptor imaging probes for determining the expression levels are desirable for diagnoses of various diseases and companion diagnoses of therapeutic agents targeting the sigma-1 receptor. In this study, we aimed to develop probes with higher affinity for the sigma-1 receptor. For this purpose, we synthesized and evaluated compounds, namely, vesamicol derivatives, in which alkyl chains of varying chain length were introduced between a piperazine ring and a benzene ring. The binding affinity of the vesamicol derivatives for the sigma-1 receptor tended to increase depending on the length of the alkyl chain between the benzene ring and the piperazine ring. The sigma-1 receptor of 2-(4-(3-phenylpropyl)piperazin-1-yl)cyclohexan-1-ol (5) (Ki = 5.8 nM) exhibited the highest binding affinity; therefore, we introduced radioiodine into the benzene ring in 5. The radioiodine labeled probe [125I]2-(4-(3-(4-iodophenyl)propyl)piperazin-1-yl)cyclohexan-1-ol ([125I]10) showed high accumulation in the sigma-1 receptor expressing DU-145 cells both in vitro and in vivo. Co-injection of [125I]10 with an excess level of a sigma receptor ligand, haloperidol, resulted in a significant decrease in the tumor accumulation in vitro and in vivo, indicating sigma receptor-mediated tumor uptake. These results provide useful information for developing sigma-1 receptor imaging probes.

Benzimidazolone-based selective σ2 receptor ligands: Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation

Sigma receptors (σRs) are considered to be a significant and valid target for developing new medications to address several diseases. Their potential involvement in numerous central nervous system disorders, neuropathic pain, addiction, and cancer has been extensively reported. In particular, the σ2R has been identified as potential target for the development of pharmaceutical agents intended to treat the negative effects associated with drugs of abuse. As a continuation of our previous efforts to develop new selective σ2R ligands, a series of benzimidazolone derivatives were designed, synthesized, and characterized. The newly synthesized ligands were evaluated through in vitro radioligand binding assays to determine their affinity and selectivity towards both σ1 and σ2 receptors. Several derivatives displayed high affinity for the σ2R (Ki = 0.66-68.5 nM) and varied from preferring to selective, compared to σ1R (σ1/σ2 = 5.8-1139). Among them, compound 1-{4-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)piperazin-1-yl]butyl}-3-propyl-1,3-dihydrobenzimidazol-2-one dihydrochloride (14) displayed the ability to produce a dose-dependent reduction in the convulsive effects of cocaine in a rodent model after injecting 10 mg/kg (i.p.). These preliminary results support the use of selective σ2R ligands in the development of useful pharmacological tools or potential pharmacotherapies for cocaine toxicity.

Sigma Receptors as Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress "Gatekeepers" and their Modulators as Emerging New Weapons in the Fight Against Cancer

Despite the interest aroused by sigma receptors (SRs) in the area of oncology, their role in tumor biology remains enigmatic. The predominant subcellular localization and main site of activity of SRs are the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Current literature data, including recent findings on the sigma 2 receptor subtype (S2R) identity, suggest that SRs may play a role as ER stress gatekeepers. Although SR endogenous ligands are still unknown, a wide series of structurally unrelated compounds able to bind SRs have been identified. Currently, the identification of novel antiproliferative molecules acting via SR interaction is a challenging task for both academia and industry, as shown by the fact that novel anticancer drugs targeting SRs are in the preclinical-stage pipeline of pharmaceutical companies (i.e., Anavex Corp. and Accuronix). So far, no clinically available anticancer drugs targeting SRs are still available. The present review focuses literature advancements and provides a state-of-the-art overview of SRs, with emphasis on their involvement in cancer biology and on the role of SR modulators as anticancer agents. Findings from preclinical studies on novel anticancer drugs targeting SRs are presented in brief.

Insights in Organometallic Synthesis of Various Adamantane Derivatives with Sigma Receptor-Binding Affinity and Antiproliferative/Anticancer Activity

Organometallic reactions, such as those involving Grignard and organocadmium reagents, are very useful but require prudent laboratory skills. In many papers related to the medicinal chemistry of adamantane derivatives with sigma receptor (σR)-binding affinity and antiproliferative/anticancer activity, organometallics play a crucial role in the synthetic pathways. In this work, the experimental procedures utilizing Grignard and organocadmium reagents are presented in detail, because these techniques are not analyzed and are important in the rational drug design.