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Penagos-Tabares F, Mahmood M, Sulyok M, Rafique K, Khan MR, Zebeli Q, Krska R, Metzler-Zebeli B. Outbreak of aflatoxicosis in a dairy herd induced depletion in milk yield and high abortion rate in Pakistan. Toxicon 2024; 246:107799. [PMID: 38866254 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
This case report investigated the outbreak of aflatoxicosis in a dairy herd in Pakistan, which resulted in 30 abortions of 40 confirmed (75%) pregnant cows in a period of 35 days and in 18.8% depression of farm average milk production for the entire herd. The analysis of the concentrate feed of the total mixed ration (TMR), using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedures from two different local laboratories, indicated concentrations of 60 μg/kg dry matter (DM) of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and 100 μg/kg DM of total aflatoxins (AFs: sum of B1, B2, G1 and G2). Subsequently, a confirmatory analysis with a more sensitive and validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method was performed. This analysis detected a concentration of total AFs in the TMR of 166 μg/kg DM ± 3.5 (AFB1:134, AFB2:17.4 and AFM1:14.9 μg/kg DM). The concentrate feed (55% of the TMR DM) was confirmed as a source of contamination, presenting a concentration >29 times higher than the EU-maximum limit value (5.68 μg/kg DM). Additionally, the multi-mycotoxin analysis evidenced the co-occurrence of 81 other toxic and potentially toxic fungal metabolites in the fed TMR. After replacing the contaminated concentrate feed with feedstuffs of the same formulation but from a new charge of ingredients, the abortion episodes ceased, and milk production increased significantly. In conclusion, the data of this case report suggest that AFs may be associated with pregnancy losses in dairy cattle and milk production depression. From the public health perspective, the data also indicate the need for a more careful examination of dairy animal feed in Pakistan. Since the high concentration of AFB1 detected in feed and considering the literature-reported transfer rates (1-6%) of this toxin to AFM1 (carcinogen for humans) in milk, the milk produced during the outbreak period is expected to be contaminated with AFM1, which raises public health concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Penagos-Tabares
- Unit Nutritional Physiology, Centre for Veterinary Systems Transformation and Sustainability, Clinical Department of Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria; CIBAV Research Group, Veterinary Medicine School, Faculty of Agrarian Sciences, Universidad de Antioquia, UdeA, Medellín, 050034, Colombia.
| | - Mubarik Mahmood
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Subcampus Jhang, 12 km Chiniot Road, 35200, Jhang, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Michael Sulyok
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430, Tulln an der Donau, Austria
| | - Kanwal Rafique
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Subcampus Jhang, 12 km Chiniot Road, 35200, Jhang, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Rizwan Khan
- Punjab Wildlife and Parks Department, Safari Zoo, Safari Road, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Qendrim Zebeli
- Center for Animal Nutrition and Welfare, Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430, Tulln an der Donau, Austria; Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Barbara Metzler-Zebeli
- Unit Nutritional Physiology, Centre for Veterinary Systems Transformation and Sustainability, Clinical Department of Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
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Vieira DJC, Fonseca LM, Poletti G, Martins NP, Grigoletto NTS, Chesini RG, Tonin FG, Cortinhas CS, Acedo TS, Artavia I, Faas J, Takiya CS, Corassin CH, Rennó FP. Anti-mycotoxin feed additives: effects on metabolism, mycotoxin excretion, performance, and total tract digestibility of dairy cows fed artificially multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets. J Dairy Sci 2024:S0022-0302(24)00892-0. [PMID: 38851567 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-24539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different anti-mycotoxin feed additives on the concentration of mycotoxins in milk, urine, and blood plasma of dairy cows fed artificially multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets. Secondarily, performance, total-tract apparent digestibility of nutrients, and blood parameters were evaluated. Twelve multiparous cows (165 ± 45 d in milk, 557 ± 49 kg body weight, and 32.1 ± 4.57 kg/d milk yield at the start of the experiment) were blocked according to parity, milk yield, and days in milk and used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design experiment with 21-d periods, where the last 7 d were used for sampling and data analysis. Treatments were: 1) Mycotoxin group (MTX), basal diet (BD) without anti-mycotoxin feed additives; 2) Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCA), HSCA added to the BD at 25g/cow/d; 3) Mycotoxin deactivator 15 (MD15), MD (Mycofix® Plus, dsm-firmenich) added to the BD at 15 g/cow/d; and 4) Mycotoxin deactivator 30 (MD30), MD added to the BD at 30 g/cow/d. Cows from all treatments were challenged with a blend of mycotoxins containing 404 μg aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), 5,025 μg deoxynivalenol (DON), 8,046 μg fumonisins (FUM), 195 μg T2 toxin (T2), and 2,034 μg of zearalenone (ZEN) added daily to the BD during the last 7 d of each period. Neither performance (milk yield and composition) nor nutrient digestibility was affected by treatments. All additives reduced aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) concentration in milk, whereas MD15 and MD30 group had lower excretion of AFM1 in milk than HSCA. DON, FUM, T2, or ZEN were not detected in milk of MD15 and MD30. Concentrations in milk of DON, FUM, T2, and ZEN were similar between MTX and HSCA. Except for AFM1, none of the analyzed mycotoxins were detected in urine of MD30 group. Comparing HSCA to MD treatments, the concentration of AFM1 was greater for HSCA, whereas MD30 was more efficient at reducing AFM1 in urine than MD15. AFM1, DON, FUM, and ZEN were not detected in the plasma of cows fed MD30, and DON was also not detected in MD15 group. Plasma concentration of FUM was lower for MD15, similar plasma FUM concentration was reported for HSCA and MTX. Plasma concentration of ZEN was lower for MD15 than MTX and HSCA. Serum concentrations of haptoglobin and hepatic enzymes were not affected by treatments. Blood concentration of sodium was lower in HSCA compared with MD15 and MD30 groups. In conclusion, the mycotoxin deactivator proved to be effective in reducing the secretion of mycotoxins in milk, urine, and blood plasma, regardless of the dosage. This reduction was achieved without adverse effects on milk production or total-tract digestibility in cows fed multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets over a short-term period. Greater reductions in mycotoxin secretion were observed with full dose of MD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J C Vieira
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900
| | - Luzianna M Fonseca
- Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil. 13418-900
| | - Guilherme Poletti
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900
| | - Natalia P Martins
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900
| | - Nathália T S Grigoletto
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900
| | - Rodrigo G Chesini
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900
| | - Fernando G Tonin
- Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900
| | | | - Tiago S Acedo
- dsm-firmenich, Nutritional Products, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Caio S Takiya
- Federal University of Technology - Paraná (UTFPR), Pato Branco, Brazil. 85503-390
| | - Carlos H Corassin
- Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900.
| | - Francisco P Rennó
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil. 13635-900.
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Martins D, Lemos A, Silva J, Rodrigues M, Simões J. Mycotoxins evaluation of total mixed ration (TMR) in bovine dairy farms: An update. Heliyon 2024; 10:e25693. [PMID: 38370215 PMCID: PMC10867658 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The total mixed ration (TMR) is currently a widespread method to feed dairy cows. It is a mixture of raw fodder and concentrate feed that can be contaminated by several mycotoxins. The main aim of this paper was to provide a critical review on TMR mycotoxin occurrence and its usefulness to monitor and control them on-farm. Aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin and fumonisins (regulated mycotoxins) are the most prevalent mycotoxins evaluated in TMR. Nonetheless, several emerging mycotoxins represent a health risk at the animal level regarding their prevalence and level in TMR. Even when measured at low levels, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins is frequent and synergistic effects on animal health are still underevaluated. Similar to the animal feed industry, on-farm plans monitoring mycotoxin feed contamination can be developed as a herd health management program. The estimated daily intake of mycotoxins should be implemented, but thresholds for each mycotoxin are not currently defined in dairy farms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Martins
- Department of Veterinary Science, Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Ana Lemos
- Animal Nutrition, DSM-Firmenich, the Netherlands
| | - João Silva
- CapêloVet, Lda, 4755-252, Barcelos, Portugal
| | | | - João Simões
- Department of Veterinary Science, Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801, Vila Real, Portugal
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Cai P, Liu S, Tu Y, Shan T. Toxicity, biodegradation, and nutritional intervention mechanism of zearalenone. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 911:168648. [PMID: 37992844 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA), a global mycotoxin commonly found in a variety of grain products and animal feed, causes damage to the gastrointestinal tract, immune organs, liver and reproductive system. Many treatments, including physical, chemical and biological methods, have been reported for the degradation of ZEA. Each degradation method has different degradation efficacies and distinct mechanisms. In this article, the global pollution status, hazard and toxicity of ZEA are summarized. We also review the biological detoxification methods and nutritional regulation strategies for alleviating the toxicity of ZEA. Moreover, we discuss the molecular detoxification mechanism of ZEA to help explore more efficient detoxification methods to better reduce the global pollution and hazard of ZEA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiran Cai
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Animal Nutrition (Zhejiang University), Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Feed and Nutrition of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shiqi Liu
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Animal Nutrition (Zhejiang University), Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Feed and Nutrition of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuang Tu
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Animal Nutrition (Zhejiang University), Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Feed and Nutrition of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Tizhong Shan
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Animal Nutrition (Zhejiang University), Ministry of Education, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Feed and Nutrition of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China.
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Gómez-Verduzco G, Arce-Menocal J, López-Coello C, Avila-González E, Márquez-Mota CC, Polo J, Rangel L. Feeding spray-dried plasma to broilers early in life improved their intestinal development, immunity and performance irrespective of mycotoxins in feed. Front Vet Sci 2024; 10:1321351. [PMID: 38283370 PMCID: PMC10812105 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1321351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Fungi that produce mycotoxins can grow on certain food products, such as grains and feed, and can cause a variety of health issues if consumed by animals, including chickens. The use of spray-dried plasma (SDP) is one strategy for combating the health problems caused by mycotoxins. Materials and methods In the present study, Ross 308 chickens (n = 960) were divided into four treatment groups. T1 group was given a control diet (corn-soybean meal), T2 group was given a control diet +2% SDP, T3 group was given a control diet +2% SDP + mixture mycotoxins and T4 group was givena control diet + mycotoxin mixture. Results The presence of SDP resulted in weight gain and decreased feed efficiency, whereas mycotoxins resulted in weight loss and increased feed efficiency. SDP increased the thymus' relative weight. The presence of mycotoxins increased the heterophile/lymphocyte ratio. The presence of mycotoxins reduced the production of IL-2 and macrophage inflammatory protein-3 Alpha (MIP-3a), whereas the presence of SDP increased the production of macrophage colony-stimulating Factor (M-CSF). SDP resulted in higher IgA concentrations in the intestinal and tracheal washes than mycotoxin. Finally, adding SDP to broiler diets boosts weight gain, feed efficiency, and immune system development. Discussion Our results provide information supporting that SDP is a promising tool for improving poultry immunity and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Gómez-Verduzco
- Departamento de Medicina y Zootecnia de Aves, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - José Arce-Menocal
- Departamento de Producción avícola, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Mexico
| | - Carlos López-Coello
- Departamento de Medicina y Zootecnia de Aves, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Ernesto Avila-González
- Centro de Enseñanza, Investigación y Extensión en Producción Avícola CEIEPAv, Tláhuac, Mexico
| | - Claudia C. Márquez-Mota
- Departamento de Nutrición Animal y Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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Wei H, Mao J, Sun D, Zhang Q, Cheng L, Yang X, Li P. Strategies to control mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination by nano-semiconductor in food and agro-food: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023; 63:12488-12512. [PMID: 35880423 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2102579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites generated from toxigenic fungi in the contaminated food and agro-food, which have been regarded as a serious threat to the food safety and human health. Therefore, the control of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination is of great significance and has attracted the increasing attention of researchers. As we know, nano-semiconductors have many unique properties such as large surface area, structural stability, good biocompatibility, excellent photoelectrical properties, and low cost, which have been developed and applied in many research fields. Recently, nano-semiconductors have also been promisingly applied in mitigating or controlling mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contaminations in food and agro-food. In this review, the type, occurrence, and toxicity of main mycotoxins in food and agro-food were introduced. Then, a variety of strategies to mitigate the mycotoxin contamination based on nano-semiconductors involving mycotoxins detection, inhibition of toxigenic fungi, and mycotoxins degradation were summarized. Finally, the outlook, opportunities, and challenges have prospected in the future for the mitigation of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi based on nano-semiconductors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailian Wei
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Jin Mao
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory for Agricultural Testing P.R. China, Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Oilseed Products (Wuhan), Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Di Sun
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory for Agricultural Testing P.R. China, Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Oilseed Products (Wuhan), Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Ling Cheng
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory for Agricultural Testing P.R. China, Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Oilseed Products (Wuhan), Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Xianglong Yang
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory for Agricultural Testing P.R. China, Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Oilseed Products (Wuhan), Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Peiwu Li
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory for Agricultural Testing P.R. China, Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Oilseed Products (Wuhan), Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
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Kalo D, Mendelson P, Komsky-Elbaz A, Voet H, Roth Z. The Effect of Mycotoxins and Their Mixtures on Bovine Spermatozoa Characteristics. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:556. [PMID: 37755982 PMCID: PMC10534433 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing concern about the effects of mycotoxins on mammalian reproduction. Although the effects of single mycotoxins have been well documented, the impact of their mixtures on spermatozoon quality is less known. Here, frozen-thawed semen (n = 6 bulls) was in-vitro-cultured (2 h) without (control) or with (i) a single mycotoxin [zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), toxin 2 (T2), and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS)] in a dose-response manner; (ii) binary mixtures (OTA + T2, OTA + ZEN, OTA + DAS, ZEN + T2, DAS + T2 and ZEN + DAS); or (iii) ternary mixtures (OTA + DAS + T2, OTA + ZEN + T2, and ZEN + DAS + T2). Then, the spermatozoa quality was characterized according to its plasma- and acrosome-membrane integrity, mitochondrial membrane potential, and oxidation status by a flow cytometer. Exposure to single mycotoxins or binary mixtures did not affect the spermatozoa characteristics. However, exposure to the ternary mixtures, OTA + DAS + T2 and OTA + ZEN + T2, reduced (p < 0.05) the mitochondrial membrane potential relative to the control. In addition, OTA + ZEN + T2 increased (p < 0.05) the proportion of spermatozoa with reactive oxygen species relative to the control. The most suggested interaction effect between the mycotoxins was found to be an additive one. A synergistic interaction, mainly regarding the oxidation status of the spermatozoa, was also found between the mycotoxins. The current study sheds light on the potential risk of exposing spermatozoa to a mycotoxin mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorit Kalo
- Department of Animal Sciences, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Paz Mendelson
- Department of Animal Sciences, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Alisa Komsky-Elbaz
- Department of Animal Sciences, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Hillary Voet
- Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Zvi Roth
- Department of Animal Sciences, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
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Hassouna KB, Salah-Abbès JB, Chaieb K, Abbès S, Ferrer E, Martí-Quijal FJ, Pallarés N, Berrada H. The Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Cow Milk Collected from Tunisia during a Hot Lactating Season. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:518. [PMID: 37755944 PMCID: PMC10537819 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Milk is a staple food that is essential for human nutrition because of its high nutrient content and health benefits. However, it is susceptible to being contaminated by Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), which is a toxic metabolite of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) presented in cow feeds. This research investigated AFM1 in Tunisian raw cow milk samples. A total of 122 samples were collected at random from two different regions in 2022 (Beja and Mahdia). AFM1 was extracted from milk using the QuEChERS method, and contamination amounts were determined using liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with fluorescence detection (FD). Good recoveries were shown with intra-day and inter-day precisions of 97 and 103%, respectively, and detection and quantification levels of 0.003 and 0.01 µg/L, respectively. AFM1 was found in 97.54% of the samples, with amounts varying from values below the LOQ to 197.37 µg/L. Lower AFM1 was observed in Mahdia (mean: 39.37 µg/L), respectively. In positive samples, all AFM1 concentrations exceeded the EU maximum permitted level (0.050 µg/L) for AFM1 in milk. In Tunisia, a maximum permitted level for AFM1 in milk and milk products has not been established. The risk assessment of AFM1 was also determined. Briefly, the estimated intake amount of AFM1 by Tunisian adults through raw cow milk consumption was 0.032 µg/kg body weight/day. The Margin of Exposure (MOE) values obtained were lower than 10,000. According to the findings, controls as well as the establishment of regulations for AFM1 in milk are required in Tunisia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khouloud Ben Hassouna
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-Resources Valorisation, University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia; (K.B.H.); (J.B.S.-A.); (S.A.)
- Laboratory of Analysis, Treatment and Valorization of Environmental Pollutants and Products, Faculty of Pharmacy, Monastir University, Monastir 5000, Tunisia
| | - Jalila Ben Salah-Abbès
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-Resources Valorisation, University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia; (K.B.H.); (J.B.S.-A.); (S.A.)
| | - Kamel Chaieb
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Samir Abbès
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-Resources Valorisation, University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia; (K.B.H.); (J.B.S.-A.); (S.A.)
- High Institute of Biotechnology of Béja, University of Jendouba, Jendouba 8189, Tunisia
| | - Emilia Ferrer
- Nutrition and Food Science Area, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, 46100 València, Spain; (E.F.); (F.J.M.-Q.); (H.B.)
| | - Francisco J. Martí-Quijal
- Nutrition and Food Science Area, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, 46100 València, Spain; (E.F.); (F.J.M.-Q.); (H.B.)
| | - Noelia Pallarés
- Nutrition and Food Science Area, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, 46100 València, Spain; (E.F.); (F.J.M.-Q.); (H.B.)
| | - Houda Berrada
- Nutrition and Food Science Area, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, 46100 València, Spain; (E.F.); (F.J.M.-Q.); (H.B.)
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9
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Tokamani M, Figgou E, Papamichail L, Sakka E, Toros A, Bouchorikou A, Giannakakis A, Matthaiou EI, Sandaltzopoulos R. A Multiplex PCR Melting-Curve-Analysis-Based Detection Method for the Discrimination of Five Aspergillus Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:842. [PMID: 37623613 PMCID: PMC10455196 DOI: 10.3390/jof9080842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus mold is a ubiquitously found, airborne pathogen that can cause a variety of diseases from mild to life-threatening in severity. Limitations in diagnostic methods combined with anti-fungal resistance render Aspergillus a global emerging pathogen. In industry, Aspergilli produce toxins, such as aflatoxins, which can cause food spoilage and pose public health risk issues. Here, we report a multiplex qPCR method for the detection and identification of the five most common pathogenic Aspergillus species, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, and Aspergillus nidulans. Our approach exploits species-specific nucleotide polymorphisms within their ITS genomic regions. This novel assay combines multiplex single-color real time qPCR and melting curve analysis and provides a straight-forward, rapid, and cost-effective detection method that can identify five Aspergillus species simultaneously in a single reaction using only six unlabeled primers. Due to their unique fragment lengths, the resulting amplicons are directly linked to certain Aspergillus species like fingerprints, following either electrophoresis or melting curve analysis. Our method is characterized by high analytical sensitivity and specificity, so it may serve as a useful and inexpensive tool for Aspergillus diagnostic applications both in health care and the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Tokamani
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
| | - Eleftheria Figgou
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
| | - Lito Papamichail
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
| | - Eleni Sakka
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
| | - Athanasios Toros
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
| | - Anastasia Bouchorikou
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
| | - Antonis Giannakakis
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
| | - Efthymia Iliana Matthaiou
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA;
| | - Raphael Sandaltzopoulos
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece; (M.T.); (E.F.); (L.P.); (E.S.); (A.T.); (A.B.); (A.G.)
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10
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Meneely J, Greer B, Kolawole O, Elliott C. T-2 and HT-2 Toxins: Toxicity, Occurrence and Analysis: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:481. [PMID: 37624238 PMCID: PMC10467144 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15080481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the major classes of mycotoxins posing serious hazards to humans and animals and potentially causing severe economic impact to the cereal industry are the trichothecenes, produced by many fungal genera. As such, indicative limits for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 were introduced in the European Union in 2013 and discussions are ongoing as to the establishment of maximum levels. This review provides a concise assessment of the existing understanding concerning the toxicological effects of T-2 and HT-2 in humans and animals, their biosynthetic pathways, occurrence, impact of climate change on their production and an evaluation of the analytical methods applied to their detection. This study highlights that the ecology of F. sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae as well as the influence of interacting environmental factors on their growth and activation of biosynthetic genes are still not fully understood. Predictive models of Fusarium growth and subsequent mycotoxin production would be beneficial in predicting the risk of contamination and thus aid early mitigation. With the likelihood of regulatory maximum limits being introduced, increased surveillance using rapid, on-site tests in addition to confirmatory methods will be required. allowing the industry to be proactive rather than reactive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Meneely
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (O.K.); (C.E.)
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
| | - Brett Greer
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (O.K.); (C.E.)
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
| | - Oluwatobi Kolawole
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (O.K.); (C.E.)
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
| | - Christopher Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (O.K.); (C.E.)
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
- School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, 99 Mhu 18, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
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11
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Hartinger T, Kröger I, Neubauer V, Faas J, Doupovec B, Schatzmayr D, Zebeli Q. Zearalenone and Its Emerging Metabolites Promptly Affect the Rumen Microbiota in Holstein Cows Fed a Forage-Rich Diet. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:185. [PMID: 36977076 PMCID: PMC10053043 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The study investigated the short-term effects of a single oral bolus of zearalenone (ZEN) on the rumen microbiota and fermentation patterns in four rumen-cannulated Holstein cows fed a forage diet with daily 2 kg/cow concentrate. During the baseline day, cows received uncontaminated concentrate, followed by ZEN-contaminated concentrate on the second day, and again the uncontaminated concentrate on day three. Free rumen liquid (FRL) and particle-associated rumen liquid (PARL) were collected at different hours post-feeding on all days to analyze the prokaryotic community composition, absolute abundances of bacteria, archaea, protozoa, and anaerobic fungi, as well as short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) profiles. The ZEN reduced the microbial diversity in FRL but not in the PARL fraction. The abundance of protozoa was higher after ZEN exposure in PARL, which may be related to their strong biodegradation capacity that, therefore, promoted protozoal growth. In contrast, α-zearalenol might compromise anaerobic fungi as indicated by reduced abundances in FRL and fairly negative correlations in both fractions. Total SCFA significantly increased in both fractions after ZEN exposure, while the SCFA profile only changed marginally. Concluding, a single ZEN challenge caused changes in the rumen ecosystem soon after intake, including ruminal eukaryotes, that should be the subject of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hartinger
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Iris Kröger
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Viktoria Neubauer
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Faas
- Biomin Research Center, Biomin Holding GmbH, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Barbara Doupovec
- Biomin Research Center, Biomin Holding GmbH, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Dian Schatzmayr
- Biomin Research Center, Biomin Holding GmbH, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Qendrim Zebeli
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
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12
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Leite M, Freitas A, Barbosa J, Ramos F. Mycotoxins in Raw Bovine Milk: UHPLC-QTrap-MS/MS Method as a Biosafety Control Tool. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030173. [PMID: 36977064 PMCID: PMC10054876 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are compounds produced by several fungi that contaminate agricultural fields and, either directly or by carry-over, final food products. Animal exposure to these compounds through contaminated feed can lead to their excretion into milk, posing threats to public health. Currently, aflatoxin M1 is the sole mycotoxin with a maximum level set in milk by the European Union, as well as the most studied. Nonetheless, animal feed is known to be contaminated by several groups of mycotoxins with relevance from the food safety point of view that can be carried over into milk. To evaluate the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in this highly consumed food product it is crucial to develop precise and robust analytical methodologies towards their determination. In this sense, an analytical method for the simultaneous identification of 23 regulated, non-regulated, and emerging mycotoxins in raw bovine milk using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was validated. A modified QuEChERS protocol for extraction purposes was used, and further validation was performed by assessing the selectivity and specificity, limits of detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ), linearity, repeatability, reproducibility, and recovery. The performance criteria were compliant with mycotoxin-specific and general European regulations for regulated, non-regulated, and emerging mycotoxins. The LOD and LOQ ranged between 0.001 and 9.88 ng mL−1 and 0.005 and 13.54 ng mL−1, respectively. Recovery values were between 67.5 and 119.8%. The repeatability and reproducibility parameters were below 15 and 25%, respectively. The validated methodology was successfully applied to determine regulated, non-regulated, and emerging mycotoxins in raw bulk milk from Portuguese dairy farms, proving the importance of widening the monitoring scope of mycotoxins in dairy products. Additionality, this method presents itself as a new strategic and integrated biosafety control tool for dairy farms for the analysis of these natural and relevant human risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Leite
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Health Science Campus, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lágidos, Lugar da Madalena, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV) of the Network of Chemistry and Technology (REQUIMTE), R. D. Manuel II, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Andreia Freitas
- National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lágidos, Lugar da Madalena, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV) of the Network of Chemistry and Technology (REQUIMTE), R. D. Manuel II, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge Barbosa
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV) of the Network of Chemistry and Technology (REQUIMTE), R. D. Manuel II, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernando Ramos
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Health Science Campus, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV) of the Network of Chemistry and Technology (REQUIMTE), R. D. Manuel II, 4051-401 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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Seasonal and Geographical Impact on the Mycotoxigenicity of Aspergillus and Fusarium Species Isolated from Smallholder Dairy Cattle Feeds and Feedstuffs in Free State and Limpopo Provinces of South Africa. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15020128. [PMID: 36828441 PMCID: PMC9965880 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the impact of seasonal and geographical variations on the toxigenicity of Aspergillus and Fusarium strains previously isolated from smallholder dairy cattle feeds and feedstuffs sampled during summer and winter in the Free State and Limpopo provinces of South Africa (SA). In total, 112 potential toxigenic fungal species were obtained and determined for their capability to produce mycotoxins on solid Czapek Yeast Extract Agar (CYA); followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. Our result revealed that 41.96% of the fungal species produced their respective mycotoxins, including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), and zearalenone (ZEN), with higher levels of AFB1 (0.22 to 1045.80 µg/kg) and AFB2 (0.11 to 3.44 µg/kg) produced by fungal species isolated from summer samples than those in winter [(0.69 to 14.44 µg/kg) and (0.21 to 2.26 µg/kg), respectively]. The same pattern was also observed for AFB1 and AFB2 in Limpopo (0.43 to 1045.80 µg/kg and 0.13 to 3.44 µg/kg) and Free State (0.22 to 576.14 µg/kg and 0.11 to 2.82 µg/kg), respectively. More so, ZEN concentrations in summer (7.75 to 97.18 µg/kg) were higher than in winter (5.20 to 15.90 µg/kg). A similar observation was also noted for ZEN in Limpopo (7.80 to 97.18 µg/kg) and Free State (5.20 to 15.90 µg/kg). These findings were confirmed via Welch and Brown-Forsythe tests with significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher mycotoxin levels produced by fungal strains obtained in samples during summer than those in winter. In contrast, the concentrations of mycotoxins produced by the fungal species from both provinces were not significantly (p > 0.05) different.
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14
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Kemboi D, Antonissen G, Ochieng P, Croubels S, De Baere S, Scippo ML, Okoth S, Kangethe E, Faas J, Doupovec B, Lindahl J, Gathumbi J. Efficacy of Bentonite and Fumonisin Esterase in Mitigating the Effects of Aflatoxins and Fumonisins in Two Kenyan Cattle Breeds. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:2143-2151. [PMID: 36649058 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c08217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The objective of the study was to investigate the efficacy of bentonite and fumonisin esterase, separately or combined, in mitigating the effects of aflatoxins (AF) and fumonisins (FUM) in Boran and Friesian-Boran crossbreed cattle. These effects were studied by measuring mycotoxins, their metabolites, and biomarkers that relate to animal health, productivity, and food safety. The study was divided into three experiments each lasting for 2 weeks. Cows in experiment 1 received in random order aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) [788 μg/cow/day (69.7 μg/kg dry matter intake (DMI)) for Borans and 2,310 μg/cow/day (154 μg/kg DMI) for crossbreeds], bentonite (60 g/cow/day), or both AFB1 and bentonite. Boran cows in experiment 2 received in random order FUM (12.4 mg/cow/day (1.1 mg/kg DMI)), fumonisin esterase (120 U/cow/day), or both FUM and fumonisin esterase. Boran cows in experiment 3 received in random order AFB1 (952 μg/cow/day (84.2 μg/kg DMI)) + FUM (30.4 mg/cow/day (2.7 mg/kg DMI)), bentonite (60 g/cow/day) + fumonisin esterase (120 U/cow/day), or both AFB1 + FUM and bentonite + fumonisin esterase. Feeding AFB1 and/or FUM contaminated feed with or without the addition of the detoxifiers for 14 days did not affect DMI, milk composition, hematology, and blood biochemical parameters. The addition of bentonite in a diet contaminated with AFB1 led to a decrease in milk aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) concentration of 30% and 43%, with the carry-over subsequently decreasing from 0.35% to 0.20% and 0.08% to 0.06% for crosses and Borans, respectively. No significant change was observed in the sphinganine/sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio following feeding with FUM alone or in combination with fumonisin esterase; however, the ability of fumonisin esterase to hydrolyze FUM into less toxic fully hydrolyzed FUM and partially hydrolyzed FUM was evident in the rumen fluid and feces. These results indicate bentonite was effective in decreasing AFM1 concentration in milk, and AFB1 and AFM1 in plasma, while fumonisin esterase can convert FUM into less toxic metabolites and can be a suitable addition to feed cocontaminated with AFB1 and FUM.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kemboi
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology, and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O Box 29053, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
- Department of Animal Science, Chuka University, P.O Box 109-00625, Chuka 00625, Kenya
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
- Chair Poultry Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
| | - Phillis Ochieng
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
| | - Marie-Louise Scippo
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Sheila Okoth
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Nairobi, P.O Box 30197 Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | | | - Johannes Faas
- DSM-BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | | | - Johanna Lindahl
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 05, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala SE-750 07, Sweden
| | - James Gathumbi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology, and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O Box 29053, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
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Xu R, Yiannikouris A, Shandilya UK, Karrow NA. Comparative Assessment of Different Yeast Cell Wall-Based Mycotoxin Adsorbents Using a Model- and Bioassay-Based In Vitro Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15020104. [PMID: 36728779 PMCID: PMC9959493 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Frequently reported occurrences of deoxynivalenol (DON), beauvericin (BEA), and, to a lesser extent, ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) in ruminant feed or feedstuff could represent a significant concern regarding feed safety, animal health, and productivity. Inclusion of yeast cell wall-based mycotoxin adsorbents in animal feeds has been a common strategy to mitigate adverse effects of mycotoxins. In the present study, an in vitro approach combining adsorption isotherm models and bioassays was designed to assess the efficacy of yeast cell wall (YCW), yeast cell wall extract (YCWE), and a postbiotic yeast cell wall-based blend (PYCW) products at the inclusion rate of 0.5% (w/v) (ratio of adsorbent mass to buffer solution volume). The Hill's adsorption isotherm model was found to best describe the adsorption processes of DON, BEA, and CIT. Calculated binding potential for YCW and YCWE using the Hill's model exhibited the same ranking for mycotoxin adsorption, indicating that BEA had the highest adsorption rate, followed by DON and CIT, which was the least adsorbed. PYCW had the highest binding potential for BEA compared with YCW and YCWE. In contrast, the Freundlich isotherm model presented a good fit for OTA adsorption by all adsorbents and CIT adsorption by PYCW. Results indicated that YCW was the most efficacious for sequestering OTA, whereas YCWE was the least efficacious. PYCW showed greater efficacy at adsorbing OTA than CIT. All adsorbents exhibited high adsorption efficacy for BEA, with an overall percentage average of bound mycotoxin exceeding 60%, whereas moderate efficacies for the other mycotoxins were observed (up to 37%). Differences in adsorbent efficacy of each adsorbent significantly varied according to experimental concentrations tested for each given mycotoxin (p < 0.05). The cell viability results from the bioassay using a bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T) indicated that all tested adsorbents could potentially mitigate mycotoxin-related damage to bovine mammary epithelium. Results from our studies suggested that all tested adsorbents had the capacity to adsorb selected mycotoxins in vitro, which could support their use to mitigate their effects in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Xu
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Alexandros Yiannikouris
- Alltech Inc., Center for Animal Nutrigenomics and Applied Animal Nutrition, 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA
| | - Umesh K. Shandilya
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Niel A. Karrow
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G2W1, Canada
- Correspondence:
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16
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Development of High-Throughput Sample Preparation Procedures for the Quantitative Determination of Aflatoxins in Biological Matrices of Chickens and Cattle Using UHPLC-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15010037. [PMID: 36668857 PMCID: PMC9866995 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) frequently contaminate food and animal feeds, especially in (sub) tropical countries. If animals consume contaminated feeds, AFs (mainly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2) and their major metabolites aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and M2 (AFM2)) can be transferred to edible tissues and products, such as eggs, liver and muscle tissue and milk, which ultimately can reach the human food chain. Currently, the European Union has established a maximum level for AFM1 in milk (0.05 µg kg-1). Dietary adsorbents, such as bentonite clay, have been used to reduce AFs exposure in animal husbandry and carry over to edible tissues and products. To investigate the efficacy of adding bentonite clay to animal diets in reducing the concentration of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, and the metabolites AFM1 and AFM2 in animal-derived foods (chicken muscle and liver, eggs, and cattle milk), chicken and cattle plasma and cattle ruminal fluid, a sensitive and selective ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method has been developed. High-throughput sample preparation procedures were optimized, allowing the analysis of 96 samples per analytical batch and consisted of a liquid extraction using 1% formic acid in acetonitrile, followed by a further clean-up using QuEChERS (muscle tissue), QuEChERS in combination with Oasis® Ostro (liver tissue), Oasis® Ostro (egg, plasma), and Oasis® PRiME HLB (milk, ruminal fluid). The different procedures were validated in accordance with European guidelines. As a proof-of-concept, the final methods were used to successfully determine AFs concentrations in chicken and cattle samples collected during feeding trials for efficacy and safety evaluation of mycotoxin detoxifiers to protect against AFs as well as their carry-over to animal products.
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Deep Genotypic Species Delimitation of Aspergillus Section Flavi Isolated from Brazilian Foodstuffs and the Description of Aspergillus annui sp. nov. and Aspergillus saccharicola sp. nov. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8121279. [PMID: 36547612 PMCID: PMC9781283 DOI: 10.3390/jof8121279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus section Flavi is a fungal group that is important in food because it contains spoilage and potentially aflatoxigenic species. Aflatoxins are metabolites that are harmful to human and animal health and have been recognized as the primary natural contaminant in food. Therefore, recognizing the biodiversity of this group in food is necessary to reduce risks to public health. Our study aimed to investigate the diversity of Aspergillus section Flavi isolated from Brazilian foodstuffs such as cassava, sugarcane, black pepper, paprika, Brazil nuts, yerba-mate, peanuts, rice, and corn. A polyphasic approach integrating phenotypic data and multilocus genotypic analyses (CaM, BenA, and RPB2) was performed for 396 strains. Two new species in the Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati section Flavi are proposed using maximum-likelihood analysis, Bayesian inference, and coalescence-based methods: Aspergillus saccharicola sp. nov. and Aspergillus annui sp. nov. A. saccharicola sp. nov. belongs to the series Flavi, is a potentially aflatoxigenic species (B1, B2, G1, and G2), closely related to Aspergillus arachidicola, and was found mostly in sugarcane. A. annui sp. nov. was isolated from samples of sweet paprika. To accommodate A. annui sp. nov., a new series Annuorum was proposed.
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Invited Review: Rise of craft breweries in the southeastern USA increases supplement availability for beef cattle. APPLIED ANIMAL SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.15232/aas.2022-02315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Yunus AW, Lindahl JF, Anwar Z, Ullah A, Ibrahim MNM. Farmer’s knowledge and suggested approaches for controlling aflatoxin contamination of raw milk in Pakistan. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:980105. [PMID: 36338062 PMCID: PMC9630330 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.980105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Monitoring of aflatoxin levels in milk is often complicated in developing countries due to the dominance of informal markets channeling milk in raw form. Farmer’s awareness and voluntary participation in aflatoxin mitigation can be critical in such scenarios. Therefore, the present study was conducted to understand the perceptions of dairy farmers about aflatoxins and link it with aflatoxin mitigation programs on milk in Pakistan. Information was collected from 450 peri-urban dairy farmers in seven cities using questionnaires. Majority (77.9%) of the farmers were aware of the negative impact of moldy feed on animal health. However, only 40.6% of the farmers were aware of the transferability of the toxins from moldy feed to milk. The farmers had almost no awareness of aflatoxins as 95% never heard of the term. After receiving an onsite briefing on effects of the toxin on animal and human health, and its transferability to milk, 98.3% farmers showed willingness to buy aflatoxin-safe feedstuffs, while 88.5% showed willingness to control aflatoxin in milk. Around half of the farmers considered aflatoxin control programs as affordable. On average, farmers agreed to pay 10.1% higher price for aflatoxin certified oilseed cakes. Availability of feedstuffs certified of low aflatoxin content was suggested by 22% of the participants as the critical step in reducing aflatoxins in milk. Other important suggestions included; subsidy on quality feeds (18%), raising awareness (18%), and legislation and monitoring (16%). The present results suggest that the current practice of milk monitoring in the country can yield desirable results only if it is coupled with feed certification programs ensuing availability of aflatoxin-safe feeds. Further, awareness can positively impact participation of producers in aflatoxin control programs. In this regard, awareness about effects of aflatoxins on animal health was found to be a more powerful trigger of voluntary control compared with the awareness of the toxin’s transferability to milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agha Waqar Yunus
- Animal Sciences Institute, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad, Pakistan
- Department of Animal Genomics and Biotechnology, PARC Institute of Advanced Studies in Agriculture, Islamabad, Pakistan
- *Correspondence: Agha Waqar Yunus,
| | - Johanna Frida Lindahl
- International Livestock Research Institute, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Zahid Anwar
- Department of Animal Genomics and Biotechnology, PARC Institute of Advanced Studies in Agriculture, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Aman Ullah
- Animal Sciences Institute, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad, Pakistan
- Department of Animal Genomics and Biotechnology, PARC Institute of Advanced Studies in Agriculture, Islamabad, Pakistan
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Yang D, Ye Y, Sun J, Wang JS, Huang C, Sun X. Occurrence, transformation, and toxicity of fumonisins and their covert products during food processing. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:3660-3673. [PMID: 36239314 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2134290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins comprise structurally related metabolites mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Contamination with fumonisins causes incalculable damage to the economy and poses a great risk to animal and human health. Fumonisins and their covert products are found in cereals and cereal products. Food processing significantly affects the degradation of toxins and the formation of covert toxins. However, studies on fumonisins and their covert mycotoxins remain inadequate. This review aims to summarize changes in fumonisins and the generation of covert fumonisins during processing. It also investigates the toxicity and determination methods of fumonisins and covert fumonisins, and elucidates the factors affecting fumonisins and their covert forms during processing. In addition to the metabolic production by plants and fungi, covert fumonisins are mainly produced by covalent or noncovalent binding, complexation, or physical entrapment of fumonisins with other substances. The toxicity of covert fumonisins is similar to that of free fumonisins and is a non-negligible hazard. Covert fumonisins are commonly found in food matrices, and methods to analyze them have yet to be improved. Food processing significantly affects the conversion of fumonisins to their covert toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diaodiao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jia-Sheng Wang
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Caihong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
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Yang Q, Dhanasekaran S, Ngea GLN, Tian S, Li B, Zhang H. Unveiling ochratoxin a controlling and biodetoxification molecular mechanisms: Opportunities to secure foodstuffs from OTA contamination. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 169:113437. [PMID: 36165818 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Anarchic growth of ochratoxin A (OTA) producing fungi during crop production, prolonged storage, and processing results in OTA contamination in foodstuffs. OTA in food exacerbates the risk of health and economic problems for consumers and farmers worldwide. Although the toxic effects of OTA on human health have not been well established, comprehensive preventive and remedial measures will be essential to eliminate OTA from foodstuffs. Strict regulations, controlling OTA at pre- or post-harvest stage, and decontamination of OTA have been adopted to prevent human and animal OTA exposure. Biological control of OTA and bio-decontamination are the most promising strategies due to their safety, specificity and nutritional value. This review addresses the current understanding of OTA biodegradation mechanisms and recent developments in OTA control and bio-decontamination strategies. Additionally, this review analyses the strength and weaknesses of different OTA control methods and the contemporary approaches to enhance the efficiency of biocontrol agents. Overall, this review will support the implementation of new strategies to effectively control OTA in food sectors. Further studies on efficacy-related issues, production issues and cost-effectiveness of OTA biocontrol are to be carried out to improve the knowledge, develop improved delivery technologies and safeguard the durability of OTA biocontrol approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiya Yang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | | | - Guillaume Legrand Ngolong Ngea
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China; Département de Transformation et Contrôle de qualité des Produits Halieutiques, Institut des Sciences Halieutiques, Université de Douala à Yabassi, PO. Box. 7236, Douala-Bassa, Cameroon
| | - Shiping Tian
- Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiangshan Nanxincun 20, Haidian District, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Boqiang Li
- Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiangshan Nanxincun 20, Haidian District, Beijing, 100093, China.
| | - Hongyin Zhang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.
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22
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Ochratoxin A and Citrinin Differentially Modulate Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cell Permeability and Innate Immune Function. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14090640. [PMID: 36136578 PMCID: PMC9502480 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14090640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Frequent detection of mycotoxins ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) in ruminant feed and feedstuff can be a potential threat to feed safety, animal performance and health. Ineffective biodegradation of these mycotoxins by rumen microflora following ingestion of contaminated feeds can lead to their circulatory transport to tissues such as mammary gland as the result of their biodistribution throughout the body. The bovine mammary epithelium plays a pivotal role in maintaining milk yield and composition and contributes to innate immune defense of the udder. The present study is the first to investigate individual effects of OTA and CIT on barrier and innate immune functions of the bovine mammary epithelium using a bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T). Results indicated that OTA and CIT exposure for 48 h significantly decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner (p < 0.05). A decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance and increase in paracellular flux of FITC-40 kDa dextran was significantly induced by OTA treatment (p < 0.05), but not by CIT after 48 h exposure. qPCR was performed for assessment of expression of tight-junction proteins, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and cytokines after 4, 24 and 48 h of exposure. Both OTA and CIT markedly downregulated expression of claudin 3 and occludin (p < 0.05), whereas CIT did not affect zonula occludens-1 expression. Expression of TLR4 was significantly upregulated by OTA (p < 0.001) but downregulated by CIT (p < 0.05) at 48 h. Expression of IL-6, TNF-a and TGF-β was significantly upregulated by OTA (p < 0.05), whereas IL-6 and TGF-β expression was downregulated by CIT (p < 0.01). These results suggest that OTA and CIT could potentially differentially modulate barrier and innate immune functions of mammary epithelium. The present study not only throws light on the individual toxicity of each mycotoxin on bovine mammary epithelium but also lays the foundation for future studies on the combined effects of the two mycotoxins.
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Ben Hassouna K, Ben Salah-Abbès J, Chaieb K, Abbès S. Mycotoxins occurrence in milk and cereals in North African countries - a review. Crit Rev Toxicol 2022; 52:619-635. [PMID: 36723615 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2022.2157703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
North African countries; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia suffer from mycotoxin contamination. Various studies have indicated the presence of mycotoxins in raw milk and cereals (i.e. wheat, barley, maize and cereal-based products). Aflatoxins (AFs), Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), Ochratoxin A (OTA), Fumonisin (FB1) and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin are the most detected due to climatic change in the region. In this review, we will present the kind of foods and feeds cereals and milk based products contaminated and the level of their contaminated mycotoxin. On the other hand, researchers try to find biologic methods to remove/mitigate mycotoxins in food and feed using bio-products. But the research works concerning legislations and mycotoxin risk assessment still rare. Therefore, it appears necessary to make review on the current status of mycotoxins in North African countries in order to explore data related to contamination of basic food in this region and to highlight the problem to the policy-makers to establish a serious legislation on this matter. On the other hand, to give more information to the worldwide readers about the impact of climate change on the food and feed pollution on mycotoxins in the Mediterranean Sea region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khouloud Ben Hassouna
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-resources Valorisation, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia.,Laboratory of Analysis, Treatment and Valorization of Environmental Pollutants and Products, Faculty of Pharmacy, Monastir University, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Jalila Ben Salah-Abbès
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-resources Valorisation, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Kamel Chaieb
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Samir Abbès
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-resources Valorisation, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia.,High Institute of Biotechnology of Béja, University of Jendouba, Jendouba, Tunisia
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Yi Y, Fan K, Shan Y, Fu Q, Zhou X, Zhang Y, Zhang H. Study on sampling scheme for detecting mycotoxin during wheat storage. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2022; 102:4752-4758. [PMID: 35218023 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.11840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycotoxin produced by mould is one of the most serious contamination sources in food security. Safe storage of grain has become more important to control food security. Currently, there is no officially approved or standardized sampling scheme for detecting mycotoxin in grain storage worldwide. RESULTS In this study, deoxynivalenol (DON) was taken as a typical mycotoxin in stored wheat to be detected. Population density of corn weevil could not significantly increase wheat moisture, but wheat moisture was highly significantly and positively correlated with DON content (P < 0.01). Corn weevil density significantly increased the DON content in wheat. DON contamination degree was mainly distributed in the region of 14-20 cm below the surface layer of wheat. In the process of ventilation and dehumidification during the storage period, moisture of wheat decreased slightly with the extension of ventilation, but the DON content in wheat increased significantly. Combined with the analysis of ventilation, DON content in the upper layer and H1 position, where the wind direction is not easy to reach, increased significantly. CONCLUSION Areas with high insect population density (14-20 cm below the surface layer of stored wheat) and low ventilation and high humidification (H1 position in the upper layer) should be taken as the key cutting sample areas for detecting mycotoxin during the period of grain storage. This study provides for the first time a scientific basis for the standardization of the wheat sampling scheme to monitor mycotoxin contamination during wheat storage. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanjie Yi
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Functional Molecules for Biomedical Research, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Kun Fan
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Functional Molecules for Biomedical Research, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Youtian Shan
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Functional Molecules for Biomedical Research, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Qianzhen Fu
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Functional Molecules for Biomedical Research, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xianqing Zhou
- College of Food Science and Technology, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yurong Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Huiru Zhang
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Functional Molecules for Biomedical Research, Zhengzhou, China
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25
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Aasa A, Fru F, Adelusi O, Oyeyinka S, Njobeh P. A review of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in feeds and food commodities in West Africa. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2022. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2021.2766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Fungal contamination is a threat to food safety in West Africa with implications for food and feed due to their climate, which is characterised by high temperatures and high relative humidity, which are environmental favourable for fast fungal growth and mycotoxin production. This report gives perspective on studies on toxigenic fungi (Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium) and their toxins, mainly aflatoxins, fumonisins and ochratoxins commonly found in some West African countries, including Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Only four of these countries have mycotoxins regulations in place for feeds and food products (Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Senegal). Food commodities that are widely consumed and were thoroughly investigated in this region include cereals, peanuts, cassava chips (flakes), cassava flour, chilies, peanuts, locust beans, melon, and yam products. In conclusion, authorities and scientists needed to consider research and approaches to monitor mycotoxins in foods and feeds produced and consumed in West Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.O. Aasa
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa
| | - F.F. Fru
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa
| | - O.A. Adelusi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa
| | - S.A. Oyeyinka
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa
| | - P.B. Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa
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26
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Adverse Effects of Fusarium Toxins in Ruminants: A Review of In Vivo and In Vitro Studies. DAIRY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/dairy3030035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
With an increased knowledge of the mechanism of action of Fusarium mycotoxins, the concept that these substances are deleterious only for monogastric species is obsolete. Indeed, most mycotoxins can be converted into less toxic compounds by the rumen microflora from healthy animals. However, mycotoxin absorption and its conversion to more toxic metabolites, as well as their impact on the immune response and subsequently animal welfare, reproductive function, and milk quality during chronic exposure should not be neglected. Among the Fusarium mycotoxins, the most studied are deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisins from the B class (FBs). It is remarkable that there is a paucity of in vivo research, with a low number of studies on nutrient digestibility and rumen function. Most of the in vitro studies are related to the reproductive function or are restricted to rumen incubation. When evaluating the production performance, milk yield is used as an evaluated parameter, but its quality for cheese production is often overlooked. In the present review, we summarize the most recent findings regarding the adverse effects of these mycotoxins with special attention to dairy cattle.
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Šimko P, Kolarič L. Decrease in Aflatoxin M1 Concentration in Milk during Cholesterol Removal by Application of β-Cyclodextrin. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14060379. [PMID: 35737040 PMCID: PMC9228745 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14060379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately one-third of humankind is chronically exposed to the carcinogenic aflatoxin M1 contained in milk. As β-cyclodextrin is frequently used in the food industry, its effect on aflatoxin M1 concentration was investigated during cholesterol removal from milk due to the similarity among the physicochemical properties of aflatoxin M1 and cholesterol. Moreover, the elimination of cholesterol using β-cyclodextrin has been successfully applied in many studies without any substantial effect on the quality of the treated milk. Therefore, milk samples were spiked with aflatoxin M1 within the range from 0.20 to 2.00 µg/kg, and cholesterol removal was carried out by 2.0% (w/w) β-cyclodextrin addition, as this concentration is enough for the sufficient removal of cholesterol. It was found that the mean cholesterol concentration decreased by 92.3%, while the aflatoxin M1 concentration decreased to 0.53 ± 0.04 µg/kg, i.e., by 39.1% after treatment (n = 2). This mitigation procedure itself is easy and inexpensive and thus is fully applicable with a high potential for complete decontamination of aflatoxin M1 milk. This method will therefore considerably improve the food safety issues associated with aflatoxin M1 presence in milk and dairy products.
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Aspergillus flavus and Total Aflatoxins Occurrence in Dairy Feed and Aflatoxin M1 in Bovine Milk in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050292. [PMID: 35622539 PMCID: PMC9143994 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Contamination of food chains by toxigenic fungi and aflatoxins is a global problem that causes damage to human health, as well as to crop and livestock production. The objective is to evaluate Aspergillus flavus and total aflatoxins (AFs) occurrence in totally mixed rations (TMRs) for dairy cows and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk for human consumption. Ninety-nine dairy production units located in Aguascalientes, Mexico, were randomly selected, and samples were collected from TMRs, raw milk, and milk marketed in the city in two consecutive agricultural cycles. AFs were quantified in TMRs and milk by indirect enzyme immunoassay and HPLC; aflatoxigenic and molecular (PCR) capacity of monosporic A. flavus isolates in the feed was characterized. All feed, raw, and pasteurized milk samples showed aflatoxin contamination (26.0 ± 0.4 µg/kg, 32.0 ± 1.0, and 31.3 ± 0.7 ng/L, respectively), and a significant proportion (90.4, 11.3, and 10.3%) exceeded the locally applied maximum permissible limits for feed and milk (20.0 µg/kg and 50 ng/L). Aflatoxin contamination in both TMRs and milk indicated a seasonal influence, with a higher concentration in the autumn–winter cycle when conditions of higher humidity prevail. The results obtained suggest the existence of contamination by aflatoxigenic A. flavus and aflatoxins in the diet formulated for feeding dairy cows and, consequently, in the dairy food chain of this region of the Mexican Highland Plateau.
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Liu WC, Pushparaj K, Meyyazhagan A, Arumugam VA, Pappusamy M, Bhotla HK, Baskaran R, Issara U, Balasubramanian B, Khaneghah AM. Ochratoxin A as alarming health in livestock and human: A review on molecular interactions, mechanism of toxicity, detection, detoxification, and dietary prophylaxis. Toxicon 2022; 213:59-75. [PMID: 35452686 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi commonly found in raw plant sources and other feeds. This review comprises an extensive evaluation of the origin and proprieties of OTA, toxicokinetics, biotransformation, and toxicodynamics of ochratoxins. In in vitro and in vivo studies, the compatibility of OTA with oxidative stress is observed through the production of free radicals, resulting in genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. The OTA leads to nephrotoxicity as the chief target organ is the kidney. Other OTA excretion and absorption rates are observed, and the routes of elimination include faeces, urine, and breast milk. The alternations in the Phe moiety of OTA are the precursor for the amino acid alternation, bringing about Phe-hydroxylase and Phe-tRNA synthase, resulting in the complete dysfunction of cellular metabolism. Biodetoxification using specific microorganisms decreased the DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, and cytotoxicity. This review addressed the ability of antioxidants and the dietary components as prophylactic measures to encounter toxicity and demonstrated their capability to counteract the chronic exposure through supplementation as feed additives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Chao Liu
- Department of Animal Science, College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524088, PR China
| | - Karthika Pushparaj
- Department of Zoology, School of Biosciences, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore, 641 043, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Arun Meyyazhagan
- Department of Life Science, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560076, India.
| | - Vijaya Anand Arumugam
- Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Manikantan Pappusamy
- Department of Life Science, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560076, India
| | - Haripriya Kuchi Bhotla
- Department of Animal Science, College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524088, PR China
| | - Rathinasamy Baskaran
- Department of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Utthapon Issara
- Division of Food Science and Technology Management, Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathum Thani, 12110, Thailand
| | | | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Hartinger T, Grabher L, Pacífico C, Angelmayr B, Faas J, Zebeli Q. Short-term exposure to the mycotoxins zearalenone or fumonisins affects rumen fermentation and microbiota, and health variables in cattle. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 162:112900. [PMID: 35247503 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.112900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) and fumonisins (FUM) jeopardize fertility and health in cattle; yet, their toxigenic effects on rumen health and microbiota, both being crucial for animal health, are not clarified. This study determined the effects of a short-term exposure to ZEN or FUM on the rumen ecosystem, and further evaluated acute implications on health parameters. Six cows were fed a basal diet with 40% grain (dry matter basis) and exposed to either 5 mg of ZEN or 20 mg of FUM daily for two consecutive days each, separated by a 7-days washout period. The exposure to ZEN or FUM led to a reduction of Lachnospiraceae and Prevotellaceae in the rumen. Similarly, ZEN lowered the ruminal pH and total short-chain fatty acid concentration, despite increased rumination activity of the cows. Fumonisins increased the number of observed features and significantly impacted β-diversity structure and metagenome predicted function. At the systemic level, FUM exposure suggested an immediate hepatotoxic effect, as evidenced by increased liver enzyme concentrations, which were accompanied by altered heart and respiratory rates. Similarly, ZEN increased the body temperature up to a mild fever. Concluding, short-term exposure to ZEN and FUM can harm the rumen ecosystem and acutely impair systemic health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hartinger
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Lena Grabher
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Cátia Pacífico
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Angelmayr
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Faas
- BIOMIN Research Center, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Technopark 1, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - Qendrim Zebeli
- Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
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Vaičiulienė G, Bakutis B, Jovaišienė J, Falkauskas R, Gerulis G, Kerzienė S, Baliukonienė V. Prevalence of Mycotoxins and Endotoxins in Total Mixed Rations and Different Types of Ensiled Forages for Dairy Cows in Lithuania. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120890. [PMID: 34941727 PMCID: PMC8707214 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, 119 samples of total mixed rations and different types of ensiled forage (maize and grass silage, and haylage) collected in 2019–2020 from dairy farms in Lithuania were analyzed to evaluate the quantitative occurrence of mycotoxins and endotoxins. Samples were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescent (FLD) and an ultraviolet detector (UV) of mycotoxins and a detection assay based on the ELISA technology for endotoxins. The study included toxins regulated within the European Union (aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2 toxin) and nonregulated toxins (endotoxins). Mycotoxin analysis showed that 49.58% of the samples out of 119 were positive for AFB1, 52.11% for ZEA and DON, 55.47% for T-2 toxin and 84.04% for endotoxins. In the contaminated samples, the highest mean values of AFB1 and T-2 toxin were determined in the grass silage samples, while ZEA and DON–were determined in the maize silage samples. Maize silage samples had the highest ZEA and DON concentrations, exceeding the EU maximum permissible concentration limits. In the haylage samples, AFB1 mycotoxin exceeded the maximum concentration limits. The highest mean value of endotoxins was determined in the total mixed rations samples. This is the first study to provide information about the concentrations of mycotoxins and endotoxins in total mixed rations and different types of ensiled forages for dairy cows in Lithuania.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gintarė Vaičiulienė
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Faculty of Veterinary, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania; (B.B.); (J.J.); (R.F.); (G.G.); (V.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +37064162418
| | - Bronius Bakutis
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Faculty of Veterinary, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania; (B.B.); (J.J.); (R.F.); (G.G.); (V.B.)
| | - Jurgita Jovaišienė
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Faculty of Veterinary, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania; (B.B.); (J.J.); (R.F.); (G.G.); (V.B.)
| | - Rimvydas Falkauskas
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Faculty of Veterinary, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania; (B.B.); (J.J.); (R.F.); (G.G.); (V.B.)
| | - Gediminas Gerulis
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Faculty of Veterinary, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania; (B.B.); (J.J.); (R.F.); (G.G.); (V.B.)
| | - Sigita Kerzienė
- Department of Animal Breeding, Faculty of Animal Science, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania;
| | - Violeta Baliukonienė
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Faculty of Veterinary, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania; (B.B.); (J.J.); (R.F.); (G.G.); (V.B.)
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Abstract
Mycotoxins are defined as secondary metabolites of some species of mold fungi. They are present in many foods consumed by animals. Moreover, they most often contaminate products of plant and animal origin. Fungi of genera Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillum are most often responsible for the production of mycotoxins. They release toxic compounds that, when properly accumulated, can affect many aspects of breeding, such as reproduction and immunity, as well as the overall liver detoxification performance of animals. Mycotoxins, which are chemical compounds, are extremely difficult to remove due to their natural resistance to mechanical, thermal, and chemical factors. Modern methods of analysis allow the detection of the presence of mycotoxins and determine the level of contamination with them, both in raw materials and in foods. Various food processes that can affect mycotoxins include cleaning, grinding, brewing, cooking, baking, frying, flaking, and extrusion. Most feeding processes have a variable effect on mycotoxins, with those that use high temperatures having the greatest influence. Unfortunately, all these processes significantly reduce mycotoxin amounts, but they do not completely eliminate them. This article presents the risks associated with the presence of mycotoxins in foods and the methods of their detection and prevention.
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Mamo FT, Abate BA, Zheng Y, Nie C, He M, Liu Y. Distribution of Aspergillus Fungi and Recent Aflatoxin Reports, Health Risks, and Advances in Developments of Biological Mitigation Strategies in China. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:678. [PMID: 34678973 PMCID: PMC8541519 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites that represent serious threats to human and animal health. They are mainly produced by strains of the saprophytic fungus Aspergillus flavus, which are abundantly distributed across agricultural commodities. AF contamination is receiving increasing attention by researchers, food producers, and policy makers in China, and several interesting review papers have been published, that mainly focused on occurrences of AFs in agricultural commodities in China. The goal of this review is to provide a wider scale and up-to-date overview of AF occurrences in different agricultural products and of the distribution of A. flavus across different food and feed categories and in Chinese traditional herbal medicines in China, for the period 2000-2020. We also highlight the health impacts of chronic dietary AF exposure, the recent advances in biological AF mitigation strategies in China, and recent Chinese AF standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firew Tafesse Mamo
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Food Safety Research Centre, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (C.N.); (M.H.)
- Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute, Addis Ababa 5954, Ethiopia;
| | | | - Yougquan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China;
| | - Chengrong Nie
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Food Safety Research Centre, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (C.N.); (M.H.)
| | - Mingjun He
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Food Safety Research Centre, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (C.N.); (M.H.)
| | - Yang Liu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Food Safety Research Centre, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China; (C.N.); (M.H.)
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Mycotoxins in Poultry Feed and Feed Ingredients from Sub-Saharan Africa and Their Impact on the Production of Broiler and Layer Chickens: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090633. [PMID: 34564637 PMCID: PMC8473361 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens’ health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.
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Rocchetti G, Ghilardelli F, Masoero F, Gallo A. Screening of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Bulk Milk Samples by High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Foods 2021; 10:foods10092025. [PMID: 34574135 PMCID: PMC8466985 DOI: 10.3390/foods10092025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In this work, a retrospective screening based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) based on Orbitrap-Q-Exactive Focus™ was used to check the occurrence of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in bulk milk samples. Milk samples were collected from dairy farms in which corn silage was the main ingredient of the feeding system. The 45 bulk milk samples were previously analyzed for a detailed untargeted metabolomic profiling and classified into five clusters according to the corn silage contamination profile, namely: (1) low levels of Aspergillus- and Penicillium-mycotoxins; (2) low levels of fumonisins and other Fusarium-mycotoxins; (3) high levels of Aspergillus-mycotoxins; (4) high levels of non-regulated Fusarium-mycotoxins; (5) high levels of fumonisins and their metabolites. Multivariate statistics based on both unsupervised and supervised analyses were used to evaluate the significant fold-change variations of the main groups of mycotoxins detected when comparing milk samples from clusters 3, 4, and 5 (high contamination levels of the corn silages) with cluster 1 and 2 (low contamination levels of the corn silages). Overall, 14 compounds showed a significant prediction ability, with antibiotic Y (VIP score = 2.579), bikaverin (VIP score = 1.975) and fumonisin B2 (VIP score = 1.846) being the best markers. The k-means clustering combined with supervised statistics showed two discriminant groups of milk samples, thus revealing a hierarchically higher impact of the whole feeding system (rather than the only corn silages) together with other factors of variability on the final mycotoxin contamination profile. Among the discriminant metabolites we found some Fusarium mycotoxins, together with the tetrapeptide tentoxin (an Alternaria toxin), the α-zearalenol (a catabolite of zearalenone), mycophenolic acid and apicidin. These preliminary findings provide new insights into the potential role of UHPLC-HRMS to evaluate the contamination profile and the safety of raw milk to produce hard cheese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Rocchetti
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
- Department for Sustainable Food Process, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Francesca Ghilardelli
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
| | - Francesco Masoero
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
| | - Antonio Gallo
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
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Karunarathna A, Tibpromma S, Jayawardena RS, Nanayakkara C, Asad S, Xu J, Hyde KD, Karunarathna SC, Stephenson SL, Lumyong S, Kumla J. Fungal Pathogens in Grasslands. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:695087. [PMID: 34434901 PMCID: PMC8381356 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.695087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Grasslands are major primary producers and function as major components of important watersheds. Although a concise definition of grasslands cannot be given using a physiognomic or structural approach, grasslands can be described as vegetation communities experiencing periodical droughts and with canopies dominated by grasses and grass-like plants. Grasslands have a cosmopolitan distribution except for the Antarctic region. Fungal interactions with grasses can be pathogenic or symbiotic. Herbivorous mammals, insects, other grassland animals, and fungal pathogens are known to play important roles in maintaining the biomass and biodiversity of grasslands. Although most pathogenicity studies on the members of Poaceae have been focused on economically important crops, the plant-fungal pathogenic interactions involved can extend to the full range of ecological circumstances that exist in nature. Hence, it is important to delineate the fungal pathogen communities and their interactions in man-made monoculture systems and highly diverse natural ecosystems. A better understanding of the key fungal players can be achieved by combining modern techniques such as next-generation sequencing (NGS) together with studies involving classic phytopathology, taxonomy, and phylogeny. It is of utmost importance to develop experimental designs that account for the ecological complexity of the relationships between grasses and fungi, both above and below ground. In grasslands, loss in species diversity increases interactions such as herbivory, mutualism, predation or infectious disease transmission. Host species density and the presence of heterospecific host species, also affect the disease dynamics in grasslands. Many studies have shown that lower species diversity increases the severity as well as the transmission rate of fungal diseases. Moreover, communities that were once highly diverse but have experienced decreased species richness and dominancy have also shown higher pathogenicity load due to the relaxed competition, although this effect is lower in natural communities. This review addresses the taxonomy, phylogeny, and ecology of grassland fungal pathogens and their interactions in grassland ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuruddha Karunarathna
- Centre for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Kunming, China.,Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
| | - Saowaluck Tibpromma
- Centre for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Kunming, China.,CIFOR-ICRAF China Program, World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Kunming, China
| | - Ruvishika S Jayawardena
- Center of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand.,School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
| | | | - Suhail Asad
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Jianchu Xu
- Centre for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Kunming, China.,CIFOR-ICRAF China Program, World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Kunming, China
| | - Kevin D Hyde
- Center of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
| | - Samantha C Karunarathna
- Centre for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Kunming, China.,CIFOR-ICRAF China Program, World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Kunming, China
| | - Steven L Stephenson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Saisamorn Lumyong
- Research Center of Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Academy of Science, The Royal Society of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jaturong Kumla
- Research Center of Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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McKenzie EC, Guerra JC, Middleton JR, Kim DY, Williams F, Garcia TM, Russell DS. Black oil sunflower seed ingestion associated with renal azotemia, gastroesophageal ulceration, and a high mortality rate in four alpacas and two llamas. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2021; 259:406-414. [PMID: 34337963 DOI: 10.2460/javma.259.4.406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
CASE DESCRIPTION 4 alpacas and 2 llamas (11 months to 11 years old) from 2 properties were examined for lethargy (6/6), salivation and regurgitation (4/6), and recumbency (3/6). Signs developed approximately 48 to 72 hours after accidental access to black oil sunflower seeds. CLINICAL FINDINGS 3 alpacas died suddenly prior to treatment and were necropsied. One llama survived, and 1 alpaca and 1 llama died after days of medical treatment. All 3 treated animals had systemic inflammatory signs including tachycardia, fever, and hematologic changes. Biochemical anomalies included azotemia, hyperglycemia, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, and hypoalbuminemia. Necropsy identified numerous sunflower seeds in the gastrointestinal tract of all 5 animals that died, with pulmonary congestion (5/5 animals), mild centrilobular vacuolar hepatic degeneration (4/5), and erosions of the esophagus (3/5) and first (3/5) and third (1/5) compartments of the forestomach. Renal tubular necrosis was found in the 2 animals that died on day 4 of treatment. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME One llama responded successfully to intensive medical management including supplemented IV fluid therapy, oral and partial parenteral nutrition, and administration of antimicrobials, furosemide, and insulin and was clinically normal with plasma biochemical analysis values within reference range 12 weeks later. Vitamin D, oxalates, heavy metals, and mycotoxins were excluded as the cause of clinical signs on the basis of screening of uneaten seeds and tissue samples and gastric content from the treated llama that died. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Inadvertent large volume black oil sunflower seed ingestion resulted in a high mortality rate in camelids. A specific toxic principle was not identified. Feeding this product to camelids is not recommended to avoid the risk of accidental overingestion and subsequent disease.
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Rocchetti G, Ghilardelli F, Bonini P, Lucini L, Masoero F, Gallo A. Changes of Milk Metabolomic Profiles Resulting from a Mycotoxins-Contaminated Corn Silage Intake by Dairy Cows. Metabolites 2021; 11:475. [PMID: 34436416 PMCID: PMC8400352 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11080475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, an untargeted metabolomics approach based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) was used for investigating changes in chemical profiles of cow milk considering diets based on mycotoxins-contaminated corn silages. For this purpose, 45 milk samples were classified into five clusters according to the corn silage contamination profile, namely (1) low levels of Aspergillus- and Penicillium-mycotoxins; (2) low levels of fumonisins and other Fusarium-mycotoxins; (3) high levels of Aspergillus-mycotoxins; (4) high levels of non-regulated Fusarium-mycotoxins; (5) high levels of fumonisins and their metabolites, and subsequently analyzed by UHPLC-HRMS followed by a multivariate statistical analysis (both unsupervised and supervised statistical approaches). Overall, the milk metabolomic profile highlighted potential correlations between the quality of contaminated corn silages (as part of the total mixed ration) and milk composition. Metabolomics allowed to identify 628 significant milk metabolites as affected by the five levels of corn silage contamination considered, with amino acids and peptides showing the highest metabolite set enrichment (134 compounds). Additionally, 78 metabolites were selected as the best discriminant of the prediction model built, possessing a variable importance in projection score >1.2. The average Log Fold-Change variations of the discriminant metabolites provided evidence that sphingolipids, together with purine and pyrimidine-derived metabolites were the most affected chemical classes. Also, metabolomics revealed a significant accumulation of oxidized glutathione in milk samples belonging to the silage cluster contaminated by emerging Aspergillus toxins, likely involved in the oxidative imbalance. These preliminary findings provide new insights into the potential role of milk metabolomics to provide chemical indicators of mycotoxins-contaminated corn silage feeding systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Rocchetti
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
- Department for Sustainable Food Process, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy;
| | - Francesca Ghilardelli
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
| | | | - Luigi Lucini
- Department for Sustainable Food Process, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy;
| | - Francesco Masoero
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
| | - Antonio Gallo
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy; (F.G.); (F.M.); (A.G.)
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Pack ED, Meyerhoff K, Schmale DG. Tracking Zearalenone and Type-B Trichothecene Mycotoxins in the Commercial Production of Beer and Brewers’ Spent Grains. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/03610470.2021.1938489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erica D. Pack
- School of Plant and Environmental Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, U.S.A
| | | | - David G. Schmale
- School of Plant and Environmental Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, U.S.A
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Neckermann K, Claus G, De Baere S, Antonissen G, Lebrun S, Gemmi C, Taminiau B, Douny C, Scippo ML, Schatzmayr D, Gathumbi J, Uhlig S, Croubels S, Delcenserie V. The efficacy and effect on gut microbiota of an aflatoxin binder and a fumonisin esterase using an in vitro simulator of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem (SHIME®). Food Res Int 2021; 145:110395. [PMID: 34112398 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxin intoxication is in general an acknowledged and tackled issue in animals. However, in several parts of the world, mycotoxicoses in humans still remain a relevant issue. The efficacy of two mycotoxin detoxifying animal feed additives, an aflatoxin bentonite clay binder and a fumonisin esterase, was investigated in a human child gut model, i.e. the in vitro Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME®). Additionally, the effect of the detoxifiers on gut microbiota was examined in the SHIME. After an initial two weeks of system stabilisation, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) were added to the SHIME diet during one week. Next, the two detoxifiers and mycotoxins were added to the system for an additional week. The AFB1, FB1, hydrolysed FB1 (HFB1), partially hydrolysed FB1a and FB1b concentrations were determined in SHIME samples using a validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. The short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentrations were determined by a validated gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. Colonic bacterial communities were analysed using metabarcoding, targeting the hypervariable V1-V3 regions of the 16S rRNA genes. The AFB1 and FB1 concentrations significantly decreased after the addition of the detoxifiers. Likewise, the concentration of HFB1 significantly increased. Concentrations of SCFAs remained generally stable throughout the experiment. No major changes in bacterial composition occurred during the experiment. The results demonstrate the promising effect of these detoxifiers in reducing AFB1 and FB1 concentrations in the human intestinal environment, without compromising the gastrointestinal microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaat Neckermann
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium; Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gregor Claus
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Sarah Lebrun
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Céline Gemmi
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Bernard Taminiau
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Caroline Douny
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, FARAH-Veterinary Public Health, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Marie-Louise Scippo
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, FARAH-Veterinary Public Health, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Dian Schatzmayr
- BIOMIN Holding GmbH, BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - James Gathumbi
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, 00625 Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Véronique Delcenserie
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
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Joutsjoki VV, Korhonen HJ. Management strategies for aflatoxin risk mitigation in maize, dairy feeds and milk value chains—case study Kenya. FOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/fqsafe/fyab005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Widespread aflatoxin contamination of a great number of food and feed crops has important implications on global trade and health. Frequent occurrence of aflatoxin in maize and milk poses serious health risks to consumers because these commodities are staple foods in many African countries. This situation calls for development and implementation of rigorous aflatoxin control measures that encompass all value chains, focusing on farms where food and feed-based commodities prone to aflatoxin contamination are cultivated. Good agricultural practices (GAP) have proven to be an effective technology in mitigation and management of the aflatoxin risk under farm conditions. The prevailing global climate change is shown to increase aflatoxin risk in tropical and subtropical regions. Thus, there is an urgent need to devise and apply novel methods to complement GAP and mitigate aflatoxin contamination in the feed, maize and milk value chains. Also, creation of awareness on aflatoxin management through training of farmers and other stakeholders and enforcement of regular surveillance of aflatoxin in food and feed chains are recommended strategies. This literature review addresses the current situation of aflatoxin occurrence in maize, dairy feeds and milk produced and traded in Kenya and current technologies applied to aflatoxin management at the farm level. Finally, a case study in Kenya on successful application of GAP for mitigation of aflatoxin risk at small-scale farms will be reviewed.
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Saha Turna N, Wu F. Aflatoxin M1 in milk: A global occurrence, intake, & exposure assessment. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Changwa R, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Njobeh PB. Feed-Based Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in Smallholder Dairy Farming Systems of South Africa: The Case of Limpopo and Free State. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020166. [PMID: 33671584 PMCID: PMC7927053 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of feed does not only cut across food and feed value chains but compromises animal productivity and health, affecting farmers, traders and consumers alike. To aid in the development of a sustainable strategy for mycotoxin control in animal-based food production systems, this study focused on smallholder farming systems where 77 dairy cattle feed samples were collected from 28 smallholder dairy establishments in the Limpopo and Free State provinces of South Africa between 2018 and 2019. Samples were analyzed using a confirmatory UHPLC–MS/MS (Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) method validated for simultaneous detection of 23 mycotoxins in feeds. Overall, mycotoxins assessed were detected across samples with 86% of samples containing at least one mycotoxin above respective decision limits; up to 66% of samples were found to be contaminated with at least three mycotoxins. Findings demonstrated that deoxynivalenol, sterigmatocystin, alternariol and enniatin B were the most common mycotoxins, while low to marginal detection rates were observed for all other mycotoxins with none of the samples containing fusarenon-X, HT-2-toxin and neosolaniol. Isolated cases of deoxynivalenol (maximum: 2385 µg/kg), aflatoxins (AFB1 (maximum: 30.2 µg/kg)/AFG1 (maximum: 23.1 µg/kg)), and zearalenone (maximum: 1793 µg/kg) in excess of local and European regulatory limits were found. Kruskal–Wallis testing for pairwise comparisons showed commercial feed had significantly higher contamination for deoxynivalenol and its acylated derivatives, ochratoxin A and fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), whereas forages had significantly higher alternariol; in addition to significantly higher fumonisin B1 contamination for Limpopo coupled with significantly higher enniatin B and sterigmatocystin for Free State. Statistically significant Spearman correlations (p < 0.01) were also apparent for ratios for deoxynivalenol/fumonisin B1 (rs = 0.587) and zearalenone/alternariol methylether (rs = 0.544).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rumbidzai Changwa
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa; (R.C.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Center of Excellence in Mycotoxicology & Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Correspondence: (M.D.B.); (P.B.N.)
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa; (R.C.); (S.D.S.)
- Center of Excellence in Mycotoxicology & Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Patrick Berka Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa; (R.C.); (S.D.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.D.B.); (P.B.N.)
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Abstract
Aflatoxins are endemic in Kenya. The 2004 outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in the country was one of the unprecedented epidemics of human aflatoxin poisoning recorded in mycotoxin history. In this study, an elaborate review was performed to synthesize Kenya’s major findings in relation to aflatoxins, their prevalence, detection, quantification, exposure assessment, prevention, and management in various matrices. Data retrieved indicate that the toxins are primarily biosynthesized by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, with the eastern part of the country reportedly more aflatoxin-prone. Aflatoxins have been reported in maize and maize products (Busaa, chan’gaa, githeri, irio, muthokoi, uji, and ugali), peanuts and its products, rice, cassava, sorghum, millet, yams, beers, dried fish, animal feeds, dairy and herbal products, and sometimes in tandem with other mycotoxins. The highest total aflatoxin concentration of 58,000 μg/kg has been reported in maize. At least 500 acute human illnesses and 200 deaths due to aflatoxins have been reported. The causes and prevalence of aflatoxins have been grossly ascribed to poor agronomic practices, low education levels, and inadequate statutory regulation and sensitization. Low diet diversity has aggravated exposure to aflatoxins in Kenya because maize as a dietetic staple is aflatoxin-prone. Detection and surveillance are only barely adequate, though some exposure assessments have been conducted. There is a need to widen diet diversity as a measure of reducing exposure due to consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods.
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Kemboi DC, Ochieng PE, Antonissen G, Croubels S, Scippo ML, Okoth S, Kangethe EK, Faas J, Doupovec B, Lindahl JF, Gathumbi JK. Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in Dairy Cattle and Poultry Feeds and Feed Ingredients from Machakos Town, Kenya. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120762. [PMID: 33287105 PMCID: PMC7761711 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are common in grains in sub-Saharan Africa and negatively impact human and animal health and production. This study assessed occurrences of mycotoxins, some plant, and bacterial metabolites in 16 dairy and 27 poultry feeds, and 24 feed ingredients from Machakos town, Kenya, in February and August 2019. We analyzed the samples using a validated multi-toxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. A total of 153 mycotoxins, plant, and bacterial toxins, were detected in the samples. All the samples were co-contaminated with 21 to 116 different mycotoxins and/or metabolites. The commonly occurring and EU regulated mycotoxins reported were; aflatoxins (AFs) (70%; range 0.2–318.5 μg/kg), deoxynivalenol (82%; range 22.2–1037 μg/kg), ergot alkaloids (70%; range 0.4–285.7 μg/kg), fumonisins (90%; range 32.4–14,346 μg/kg), HT-2 toxin (3%; range 11.9–13.8 μg/kg), ochratoxin A (24%; range 1.1–24.3 μg/kg), T-2 toxin (4%; range 2.7–5.2 μg/kg) and zearalenone (94%; range 0.3–910.4 μg/kg). Other unregulated emerging mycotoxins and metabolites including Alternaria toxins, Aspergillus toxins, bacterial metabolites, cytochalasins, depsipeptides, Fusarium metabolites, metabolites from other fungi, Penicillium toxins, phytoestrogens, plant metabolites, and unspecific metabolites were also detected at varying levels. Except for total AFs, where the average contamination level was above the EU regulatory limit, all the other mycotoxins detected had average contamination levels below the limits. Ninety-six percent of all the samples were contaminated with more than one of the EU regulated mycotoxins. These co-occurrences may cause synergistic and additive health effects thereby hindering the growth of the Kenyan livestock sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Chebutia Kemboi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi. P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi 00100, Kenya;
- Department of Animal Science, Chuka University, P.O. Box 109-00625, Chuka 00625, Kenya
| | - Phillis E. Ochieng
- Department of Pharmacology Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (G.A.); (P.E.O.); (S.C.)
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (G.A.); (P.E.O.); (S.C.)
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (G.A.); (P.E.O.); (S.C.)
| | - Marie-Louise Scippo
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Sheila Okoth
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi 00100, Kenya;
| | | | - Johannes Faas
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (J.F.); (B.D.)
| | - Barbara Doupovec
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (J.F.); (B.D.)
| | - Johanna F. Lindahl
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-751 05 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
- Correspondence: (J.F.L.); (J.K.G.)
| | - James K. Gathumbi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi. P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi 00100, Kenya;
- Correspondence: (J.F.L.); (J.K.G.)
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Gajęcki MT, Gajęcka M, Zielonka Ł. The Presence of Mycotoxins in Feed and Their Influence on Animal Health. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100663. [PMID: 33092069 PMCID: PMC7589354 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi [...].
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Antidotal Potency of the Novel, Structurally Different Adsorbents in Rats Acutely Intoxicated with the T-2 Toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100643. [PMID: 33028026 PMCID: PMC7600379 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, the potential antidote efficacy of commercially available formulations of various feed additives such as Minazel-Plus®, Mycosorb®, and Mycofix® was considered by recording their incidence on general health, body weight, and food and water intake, as well as through histopathology and semiquantitative analysis of gastric alterations in Wistar rats treated with the T-2 toxin in a single-dose regimen of 1.67 mg/kg p.o. (1 LD50) for 4 weeks. As an organic adsorbent, Mycosorb® successfully antagonized acute lethal incidence of the T-2 toxin (protective index (PI) = 2.25; p < 0.05 vs. T-2 toxin), and had adverse effects on body weight gain as well as food and water intake during the research (p < 0.001). However, the protective efficacy of the other two food additives was significantly lower (p < 0.05). Treatment with Mycosorb® significantly reduced the severity of gastric damage, which was not the case when the other two adsorbents were used. Our results suggest that Mycosorb® is a much better adsorbent for preventing the adverse impact of the T-2 toxin as well as its toxic metabolites compared with Minazel-plus® or Mycofix-plus®, and it almost completely suppresses its acute toxic effects and cytotoxic potential on the gastric epithelial, glandular, and vascular endothelial cells.
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Yang J, Wang T, Lin G, Li M, Zhu R, Yiannikouris A, Zhang Y, Mai K. The Assessment of Diet Contaminated with Aflatoxin B 1 in Juvenile Turbot ( Scophthalmus maximus) and the Evaluation of the Efficacy of Mitigation of a Yeast Cell Wall Extract. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12090597. [PMID: 32942659 PMCID: PMC7551837 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effects of dietary AFB1 on growth performance, health, intestinal microbiota communities and AFB1 tissue residues of turbot and evaluate the mitigation efficacy of yeast cell wall extract, Mycosorb® (YCWE) toward AFB1 contaminated dietary treatments. Nine experimental diets were formulated: Diet 1 (control): AFB1 free; Diets 2-5 or Diets 6-9: 20 μg AFB1/kg diet or 500 μg AFB1/kg diet + 0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, or 0.4% YCWE, respectively). The results showed that Diet 6 significantly decreased the concentrations of TP, GLB, C3, C4, T-CHO, TG but increased the activities of AST, ALT in serum, decreased the expressions of CAT, SOD, GPx, CYP1A but increased the expressions of CYP3A, GST-ζ1, p53 in liver. Diet 6 increased the AFB1 residues in serum and muscle, altered the intestinal microbiota composition, decreased the bacterial community diversity and the abundance of some potential probiotics. However, Diet 8 and Diet 9 restored the immune response, relieved adverse effects in liver, lowered the AFB1 residues in turbot tissues, promoted intestinal microbiota diversity and lowered the abundance of potentially pathogens. In conclusion, YCWE supplementation decreased the health effects of AFB1 on turbot, restoring biomarkers closer to the mycotoxin-free control diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhu Yang
- The Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Nutrition and Feed (Ministry of Agriculture), the Key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ministry of Education), Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; (J.Y.); (T.W.); (K.M.)
| | - Tiantian Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Nutrition and Feed (Ministry of Agriculture), the Key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ministry of Education), Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; (J.Y.); (T.W.); (K.M.)
| | - Gang Lin
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agricultural Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China;
| | - Mingzhu Li
- College of Agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai 264025, China;
| | - Ronghua Zhu
- Beijing Alltech Biological Products (China) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100600, China;
| | - Alexandros Yiannikouris
- Alltech Inc., Center for Animal Nutrigenomics and Applied Animal Nutrition, 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA;
| | - Yanjiao Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Nutrition and Feed (Ministry of Agriculture), the Key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ministry of Education), Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; (J.Y.); (T.W.); (K.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-532-8203-1627
| | - Kangsen Mai
- The Key Laboratory of Aquaculture Nutrition and Feed (Ministry of Agriculture), the Key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ministry of Education), Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; (J.Y.); (T.W.); (K.M.)
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