SIgA response and incidence of upper respiratory tract infections during intensified training in youth basketball players

Evaluation of salivary α-amylase and immunoglobulin A responses after endurance exercise in adolescent males and females with similar aerobic fitness

The objective of this study was to clarify whether there are sex-specific differences in salivary α-amylase and immunoglobulin A responses following acute endurance exercise in adolescent males and females with equivalent cardiorespiratory fitness levels. Twenty-six aerobically trained adolescent males and females with similar training status were enrolled in this study. Each individual executed a 1-h prolonged cycling exercise corresponding to a constant power output at 65% of peak oxygen uptake. Unstimulated whole salivary samples were taken with the passive drooling method at the 10-min period before and after exercise for the determination of salivary responses [α-amylase, immunoglobulin A, total protein and flow rate]. Salivary α-amylase activity, immunoglobulin A concentration and total protein concentration were significantly augmented immediately after acute endurance exercise. Regarding sex differences, only the salivary flow rate was significantly lower in females than in males. The findings of the present study imply that adolescent males and females appear to have similar salivary responses after acute endurance exercise, as represented by salivary α-amylase activity and immunoglobulin A concentration in connection with total protein concentration and salivary flow rate, when they are matched for peak oxygen uptake relative to fat-free body mass.

Recovery in elite youth basketball players: The responsiveness of the psychophysiological measurements and the role of testosterone concentration

This study investigated the recovery responses to the Total Quality Recovery (TQR), Well-Being questionnaire (WBQ), and Heart Rate (HR) responses to Submaximal Running Test (SRT), and the influence of salivary testosterone concentration (TEST) on these responses in 25 elite youth (U15) male basketball players. TQR, WBQ, and HR measurements were assessed after 48 hours of rest (T1), 24 hours after the 1st day of training (T2) and 24 hours after the 2nd day of training (T3). Salivary sampling was conducted at T1 and T3. A significant decrease was observed for TQR (F = 4.06; p = 0.01) and for WBQ (F = 5.37; p = 0.008) from T1 to T3. No difference among the three-time points was observed for HR and HR Recovery, and the TEST concentration did not influence the results. These results show that TQR and WBQ are sensitive to acute transient alterations in training loads (TL) and may be utilized to monitor recovery in elite youth basketball players. The HR related measurements presented limited responsiveness, and the TEST seems not to influence the recovery of these players who are competing at highest performance level.

Weekly Fluctuations in, and Associations Between, Salivary Hormone Responses, Load, and Well-Being During the Pre-season in Professional Male Basketball Players

ABSTRACT

Kamarauskas, P, Scanlan, A, Ferioli, D, and Conte, D. Weekly fluctuations in, and associations between, salivary hormone responses, load, and well-being during the pre-season in professional male basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): 128-135, 2024-This study aimed to (a) quantify weekly fluctuations in hormonal responses (testosterone [T], cortisol [C], and their ratio [T:C]), external (PlayerLoad [PL] and PL·minute-1) and internal (session rating of perceived exertion load [sRPE-load], summated heart rate zones [SHRZs], and percentage of maximal heart rate [%HRmax]) load measures, and well-being measured using a self-reported questionnaire and (b) determine the associations between weekly changes in hormonal responses and load measures with weekly changes in well-being during the pre-season phase in basketball players. Twenty-one professional male basketball players (age: 26.2 ± 4.9 years) were monitored during a 5-week pre-season phase. Linear mixed models were used to determine weekly differences in each variable and associations between weekly changes in hormonal and load variables with weekly changes in well-being. Findings revealed that T (p < 0.001) and T:C (p = 0.002) increased toward the end of the pre-season phase. Moreover, higher (p < 0.05) external (PL·minute-1) and internal (%HRmax) load intensities were evident during the first 3 weeks of the pre-season, with no significant fluctuations in other load variables. Weekly changes in PL and sRPE-load were negatively associated (p < 0.05) with weekly changes in well-being, albeit weak in magnitudes (R2 = 0.061-0.105). These results highlight that a periodized approach was undertaken across the pre-season predominantly predicated on altering weekly load intensities, which coincided with positive hormonal responses toward the end of the pre-season. In addition, weak relationships were evident between weekly changes in hormonal responses and load measures with well-being, emphasizing that a low commonality may be present between these constructs.

Exercise Immunology Applied to Pediatric Sport and the Importance of Monitoring Stages of Puberty and Biological Maturation

CONTEXT

Exercise immunology is aimed at understanding how exercise sessions can affect the immune system in athletic subjects of different age groups. The objective of the current study was to discuss in which stage of biological maturation (BM) young athletes may be more vulnerable in relation to the immune system, and whether there is a BM range in which it is safer to perform sports training with strenuous exercise loads.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Evidence from scientific research from several scientific disciplines (eg, immunology, sport immunology, pediatrics, sports medicine, human development) was gathered to holistically examine the main particularities of exercise immunology as applied to pediatric sport.

STUDY DESIGN

Narrative review.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 5.

RESULTS

In pediatric patients, lymphoid tissue expands during puberty and involutes after puberty until it returns to pre-expansion values. This suggests that there is a specific period in which the immune system may be stronger, which may provide opportunities for strenuous exercise in pediatric athletes. However, the chronological period when puberty occurs will be determined by BM, which is the rate at which the biological systems of the human body improves. This may affect the period of lymphoid tissue expansion and, consequently, the behavior of the immune system in pediatric subjects of the same age category.

CONCLUSION

During puberty, there is a significant increase in the proinflammatory profile; to compensate for this, there is an expansion of lymphoid tissue that may favor the efficiency of the immune system. The period in which puberty is reached may vary according to the stages of BM. Therefore, in exercise immunology applied to pediatric sports, in addition to external and internal training loads, it is necessary to consider BM and puberty, which have been shown to be safer biomarkers than chronological age for determining immune system behavior in pediatric athletes.

STRENGTH-OF-RECOMMENDATION TAXONOMY (SORT)

Evidence B level 3.

Maternal Immunization During the Second Trimester with BNT162b2 mRNA Vaccine Induces a Robust IgA Response in Human Milk: A Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

The human milk antibody response following maternal immunization with the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine is important for the protection of the infant during infancy. The vaccine-specific antibody response is still unclear at different stages of human milk production, as are the effects of maternal immunization timing on the robustness of the antibody response.

OBJECTIVES

The study aimed to assess the antibody response (IgG/IgA/IgM) during various lactation stages and identify the best vaccination timing during pregnancy.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study of 73 postpartum women who were administered the BNT162b2 COVID-19 mRNA vaccine during the second or third trimester of pregnancy were recruited. Statistical comparison was conducted using 16 human milk samples from a prepandemic control group.

RESULTS

Excluding 11 women, the study included 62 lactating women who were administered the mRNA vaccine during the second or third trimester of pregnancy. A total of 149 samples of human milk were collected at different lactation stages. Our findings reveal that colostrum exhibits significantly higher levels of IgG (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.3, 9.0; P = 0.023), IgA (95% CI: 55.98, 100.2; P = 0.0034), and IgM (95% CI: 0.03, 0.62; P < 0.0001) compared with mature milk IgG (95% CI: 0.25, 0.43), IgA (95% CI: 9.65, 13.74), IgM (95% CI: 0.03, 0.04). The timing of maternal immunization affected the antibody response. The level of IgA in mature milk was higher when immunization occurred in the second trimester (95% CI: 11.14, 19.66; P = 0.006) than in the third trimester (95% CI: 7.16, 11.49). Conversely, IgG levels in mature milk were higher when immunization occurred during the third trimester (95% CI: 0.36, 0.65; P < 0.0001) than in the second trimester (95% CI: 0.09, 0.38).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides evidence that administering the mRNA vaccine to pregnant women during the second trimester increases vaccine-specific IgA levels during lactation. Considering the significance of human milk IgA in mucosal tissues and its prevalence throughout lactation, it is reasonable to recommend maternal immunization with the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine during the second trimester. This trial was registered at the Helsinki Committee of the Tel Aviv Medical Center as clinical trial number 0172-TLV.

Beneficial Performance Effects of Training Load Intensification Can Be Abolished by Functional Overreaching: Lessons From a Water Polo Study in Female Athletes

ABSTRACT

Brisola, GMP, Dutra, YM, Murias, JM, and Zagatto, AM. Beneficial performance effects of training load intensification can be abolished by functional overreaching: Lessons from a water polo study in female athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-The purpose of this study was to compare the outcomes from 2 weeks of training load intensification strategy in female water polo players diagnosed with functional overreaching (F-OR) with no F-OR players (acute fatigue) on the performance outcomes and hormonal, immunological, and cardiac autonomic nervous system responses. Twenty-two female water polo players were allocated into control and intensification group during 7 weeks. The swimming performance, biochemical parameters, heart rate variability, profile of mood states, and upper respiratory tract infection symptoms were assessed twice before and twice after 2 weeks of intensification period. F-OR showed a worsening in total time of the repeated sprint ability (RSA) test compared with the control group and the acute fatigue group after intensification (p ≤ 0.035). Furthermore, after the tapering period, the F-OR group maintained worse total time of the RSA test than the acute fatigue group (p = 0.029). In addition, the acute fatigue group showed improvement in total time of the RSA test after intensification compared with the control group (p < 0.001). No significant interactions were found for the other parameters. Therefore, periods of intensification without the F-OR development can promote higher gains in the total time of the RSA test after intensification and tapering period.

Acute effects of concurrent muscle power and sport-specific endurance exercises on markers of immunological stress response and measures of muscular fitness in highly trained youth male athletes

PURPOSE

To examine the acute effects of concurrent muscle power and sport-specific endurance exercises order on immunological stress responses, muscular-fitness, and rating-of-perceived-exertion (RPE) in highly trained youth male judo athletes.

METHODS

Twenty male participants randomly performed two concurrent training (CT) sessions; power-endurance and endurance-power. Measures of immune response (e.g., white blood cells), muscular-fitness (i.e., counter-movement-jump [CMJ]), RPE, blood-lactate, and -glucose were taken at different time-point (i.e., pre, mid, post, and post6h).

RESULTS

There were significant time*order interactions for white blood cells, lymphocytes, granulocytes, granulocyte-lymphocyte-ratio, and systemic-inflammation-index. Power-endurance resulted in significantly larger pre-to-post increases in white blood cells and lymphocytes while endurance-power resulted in significantly larger pre-to-post increases in the granulocyte-lymphocyte-ratio and systemic-inflammation-index. Likewise, significantly larger pre-to-post6h white blood cells and granulocytes increases were observed following power-endurance compared to endurance-power. Moreover, there was a significant time*order interaction for blood-glucose and -lactate. Following endurance-power, blood-lactate and -glucose increased from pre-to-mid but not from pre-to-post. Meanwhile, in power-endurance blood-lactate and -glucose increased from pre-to-post but not from pre-to-mid. A significant time*order interaction was observed for CMJ-force with larger pre-to-post decreases in endurance-power compared to power-endurance. Further, CMJ-power showed larger pre-to-mid performance decreases following power-endurance, compared to endurance-power. Regarding RPE, significant time*order interactions were noted with larger pre-to-mid values following endurance-power and larger pre-to-post values following power-endurance.

CONCLUSION

CT induced acute and delayed order-dependent immune cell count alterations in highly trained youth male judo athletes. In general, power-endurance induced higher acute and delayed immunological stress responses compared to endurance-power. CMJ-force and RPE fluctuated during both CT sessions but went back to baseline 6 h post-exercise.

ANALYSIS OF CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF ANKLE INJURIES IN COLLEGE BASKETBALL

ABSTRACT Introduction: Basketball is a combative sport, very popular among college students. However, it requires many periods of running, interspersed with emergency breaks, tackling, and other actions prone to ankle injuries. Objective: Investigate the causes of ankle joint injuries in college basketball, raising countermeasures to prevent these sports injuries. Methods: 413 college students who regularly participate in basketball games at 10 colleges and universities were selected as research objects. The causes of ankle joint injuries in the process of this sport were investigated through questionnaires, and the main causes of injuries were analyzed using statistical methods. Results: The causes of ankle joint injuries in college basketball include subjective and objective factors. Subjective factors include inadequate psychological preparation, warm-up exercise, cushioning, and excessive exercise, among others listed; objective factors mainly contemplate local injury and accidental injury. Conclusion: The participation of college students in basketball is beneficial to improve their physical health, requiring effective measures to prevent possible ankle injuries, both related to subjective and objective aspects. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

Bacillus clausii UBBC-07 in the symptom management of upper respiratory tract infections in children: a double blind, placebo-controlled randomised study

In children, upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) are one of the most common causes of infections which often require outpatient consultations with the doctor. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of probiotic Bacillus clausii UBBC-07 on symptom management of URTIs in children. In this double blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study, 90 children (age 4-7 years) with URTIs were equally divided into two groups, the probiotic and placebo. The children were instructed to take B. clausii UBBC-07 spores (2×109 per 5 ml vial) or placebo suspension daily twice for three months. The total duration of the study was 6 months, 3 months treatment and 3 months follow-up period. The parameters assessed were the mean number of URTIs, duration and severity of URTIs, absenteeism from school/childcare and immunity parameters, such as immunoglobulin (Ig)M, IgG, IgE and salivary IgA levels. At the end of treatment, there was a significant decrease in the number, duration and severity of URTIs in the probiotic treated group as compared to the baseline and placebo. IgE levels were significantly decreased and salivary IgA levels were significantly increased in the probiotic treated group suggesting probiotic mediated Th1/Th2 immune homeostasis to alleviate URTIs in children. In conclusion, B. clausii UBBC-07 may help in the reduction of symptoms of URTIs. The trial was registered prospectively with the Clinical Trial Registry of India (CTRI Reg. No: CTRI/2018/08/015282).

Effects of Training Loads on Stress Tolerance and Mucosal Immunity in High-Intensity Functional Fitness Athletes

Purpose: This study aimed to analyze the effects of training load on stress tolerance (ST) and secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) in male and female high-intensity functional fitness (HIFF) athletes during two different 10 and consecutive weekly training volume loads [higher (week 1) and lower volume (week 2)]. Methods: 14 athletes [7 males: 29.3 (±5.8) years; 86.3 (±8.2) kg and 176.8 (±3.8) cm and 7 females: 32.7 (±4.4) years; 60.0 (±6.7) kg and 162.5 (±5.9) cm] participated. The ST, assessed by Daily Analysis of Life Demand in Athletes questionnaire (DALDA) and Saliva sampling were performed in four time-points (pre (T1) and post (T2) week 1; pre (T3) and post (T4) week 2). Results: Female athletes showed a decrease in ST (symptoms of stress) from 15 T1 to T3 [F_(3,36) = 7.184, p˂ 0.001, ηp² = 0.374], without difference in male athletes (p > .05). There is a significant difference of SIgA concentration [F_(3.36) = 3.551; p = .024; ηp² = 0.228], with a significant decrease in female athletes group in T2 compared to T1 (p = .013) and T4 (p = .023). In addition, the different training volume loads did not impact mucosal immunity in male athletes (p > .05). Conclusion: The current findings suggest that higher HIFF volume results in decreased ST and SIgA concentration in female 20 athletes and a subsequent decrease in training volume loads contributed to restoring these variables.

Saliva testing as noninvasive way for monitoring exercise-dependent response in teenage elite water polo players: A cohort study

Excessively increased training volume and/or intensity and competition can lead to development of overtraining syndrome, causing a performance decrement in athletes. Tracking individual response to exercise intensity is crucial for establishing recovery strategies.We assessed the exercise intensity-dependent variability of stress response biomarkers, namely cortisol (C), testosterone (T), s-IgA, and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), in saliva samples of teenage elite water polo players. Saliva was collected on a day of training match (T1) and a day of competitive match (T2), at morning, before and after match.Cortisol/proteins and testosterone/proteins concentrations decreased throughout day T1, whereas increased throughout day T2. The highest values were measured after match on day T2 (2.5 ± 0.5 vs 14.6 ± 6.3 ng/mg; 0.061 ± 0.024 vs 0.371 ± 0.15 ng/mg, respectively). sIgA/proteins and AOPP/proteins concentrations increased throughout both days, and were higher after T2 match than T1 one (respectively, 1073.0 ± 438.2 vs 71.0 ± 17.3 μg/mg; 78.05 ± 24.2 vs 15.98 ± 3.16 nmol/mg, P = .003). Significant differences between concentrations of different biomarkers recorded on T1 and T2 were found only for AOPP, suggesting an increased oxidative stress on day T2. Free testosterone/cortisol ratio on day T2 was lower than that at morning (0.053 ± 0.021 vs 0.107 ± 0.031), indicating an increased catabolic response after competitive match.A highly significant positive correlation was found between Cortisol/Proteins and Testosterone as well as s-IgA/Proteins on day T1, and between Cortisol/Proteins and AOPP on day T2.In conclusion, we found that different types of activities, such a training or competitive session can affect the hormonal response, immunity, and oxidative stress, thereby modulating athletic performance.Our findings also confirm the usefulness of saliva testing as noninvasive way for monitoring the individual response to changes in exercise intensity in teenage elite water polo players.

Overnight Immune Regulation and Subjective Measures of Sleep: A Three Night Observational Study in Adolescent Track and Field Athletes

To ensure health maintenance of young athletes, immunological stress due to physical exercise has to be balanced for performance development and health maintenance. Sleep is an important influencing factor for immune regulation because of its regenerating effect. In an attempt to assess overnight immune regulation, this observational study aimed to examine associations between changes in capillary immunological blood markers and measures of sleep in adolescent athletes. Over a period of three nights, 12 male (n = 6) and female (n = 6) adolescent track and field athletes aged 16.4 ± 1.1 years were monitored for their sleep behavior (e.g., sleep duration, sleep depth) and immune regulation by using subjective (e.g., sleep) and objective (capillary blood markers) measurement tools. Over the 4 day (three nights), athletes followed their daily routines (school, homework, free time activities, and training). Training was performed for different disciplines (sprint, hurdles, and long-jump) following their daily training routines. Training included dynamic core stability training, coordination training, speed training, resistance training, and endurance training. Capillary blood samples were taken 30-45 min after the last training session (10:00-12:00 a.m. or 5:00-6:00 p.m.) and every morning between 7:00 and 10:00 a.m. Changes in capillary blood markers from post-training to the next morning and morning-to-morning fluctuations in capillary blood markers were analyzed over a three-night period using a generalized estimating equations (GEE) statistical approach. Associations of overnight changes with measures of sleep were analyzed using GEE. We found significant decreases in white blood cell count (WBC), granulocytes (GRAN), granulocytes% (GRAN%), monocytes (MID), and granulocyte-lymphocyte-ratio. In contrast, lymphocytes% (LYM%) increased significantly and systemic inflammation index showed no difference from post-training to the next morning. Furthermore, there was a significant decrease in WBC and GRAN between morning 1 and morning 3. At morning 4, values returned to baseline (morning 1), irrespective if athletes performed a training session or rested on day 3. Furthermore, sleep duration was significantly and negatively associated with changes in WBC (βz = -0.491) and lymphocytes (βz = -0.451). Our results indicate that overnight sleep duration is an important parameter of immunological overnight regulation for adolescent athletes.

Safety and Impact on Training of the Influenza Vaccines in Elite Athletes Participating in the Rio 2016 Olympics

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to evaluate the safety and tolerance of influenza vaccines for the northern and southern hemispheres in Polish elite athletes participating in the Rio 2016 Olympics.

DESIGN

Prospective, observational, cohort study.

SETTING

Institutional level.

PARTICIPANTS

Ninety-seven athletes vaccinated only with the northern hemisphere vaccine; 98 athletes received the southern hemisphere vaccine alone, whereas 39 athletes were vaccinated with both vaccines.

INTERVENTIONS

The athletes were vaccinated with a trivalent, inactivated influenza vaccine recommended for the northern hemisphere 2015/2016 and then with the vaccine recommended for the southern hemisphere 2016. Athletes kept a diary of adverse events and effects (if any) on training for 6 days after vaccination.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The percentage of general and local adverse events, number of lost or modified training sessions.

RESULTS

Significantly more local adverse events (pain and redness) were found in the group immunized with the vaccine for the northern hemisphere. There were no differences in the frequency of general adverse events and influence on training between groups. Of total 273 athletes who had 1911 training days during 6 days after vaccination, 6 athletes (2.2%) lost 13 training days (0.7%) and 16 athletes (5.9%) had to modify 34 (1.7%) training days within first 2 days after vaccination.

CONCLUSIONS

Athletes tolerated influenza immunization well. If they are going to travel to the other hemisphere during the influenza season, the use of the second influenza vaccine should be advised. Athletes should anticipate modification of trainings for 2 days after vaccination.

Part I: Relationship among Training Load Management, Salivary Immunoglobulin A, and Upper Respiratory Tract Infection in Team Sport: A Systematic Review

Immunoglobulin A (IgA), which is the first line of defense against upper respiratory tract viruses, has been related with training load management. This article aimed to systematically identify and summarize (1) the studies that have found a relationship between training load and salivary IgA in team sports, and (2) the studies that have highlighted a relationship between IgA and upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) in team sports. A systematic review of relevant articles was carried out using two electronic databases (PubMed and WoK) until 3 October 2020. From a total of 174 studies initially found, 24 were included in the qualitative synthesis. This systematic review confirmed that lower values of IgA occurred after greater training load (intensity/volume) and congested periods. In this scenario, a low level of IgA was correlated with higher URTI, which makes training load management mandatory to healthcare avoiding immunosuppression. Therefore, physical fitness and conditioning coaches should carefully manage training load progression, avoiding high-intensity sessions in two consecutive days. In addition, they should not program high-intensity training sessions during at least the two days following competition.

Relationships Between Different Internal and External Training Load Variables and Elite International Women's Basketball Performance

PURPOSE

To investigate the relationships between internal and external training load (TL) metrics with elite international women's basketball performance.

METHODS

Sessional ratings of perceived exertion, PlayerLoad™/minute, and training duration were collected from 13 elite international-level female basketball athletes (age 29.0 [3.7] y, stature 186.0 [9.8] cm, body mass 77.9 [11.6] kg) during the 18 weeks prior to the International Basketball Federation Olympic qualifying event for the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. Training stress balance, differential load, and the training efficiency index were calculated with 3 different smoothing methods. These TL metrics and their change in the last 21 days prior to competition were examined for their relationship to competition performance as coach ratings of performance.

RESULTS

For a number of TL variables, there were consistent significant small to moderate correlations with performance and significant small to large differences between successful and unsuccessful performances. However, these differences were only evident for external TL when using exponentially weighted moving averages to calculate TL. The variable that seemed most sensitive to performance was the change in training efficiency index in the last 21 days prior to competition (performance r = .47-.56, P < .001 and difference between successful and unsuccessful performance P < .001, f2 = 0.305-0.431).

CONCLUSIONS

Internal and external TL variables were correlated with performance and distinguished between successful and unsuccessful performances among the same players during international women's basketball games. Manipulating TL in the last 3 weeks prior to competition may be worthwhile for basketball players' performance, especially in internal TL.

Salivary IgA as a Potential Biomarker in the Evaluation of Respiratory Tract Infection Risk in Athletes

In recent years, there has been attention focused on the value of salivary IgA (sIgA) as a potential biomarker for the identification of athletes who may be at increased risk of developing respiratory tract infection (RTI). The utility of sIgA, in this context, is based on biological plausibility and several observational studies revealing an apparent association between sIgA and RTI susceptibility. The overall published evidence evaluating the value of sIgA in this context is however conflicting, and there is currently a lack of clear guidance as to whether this marker has a place in the health surveillance and care of athletes. In this review, we critically appraise the literature assessing the potential for sIgA to be used in this context, evaluating it against 4 key biomarker characteristics, including its (1) practicality, (2) reproducibility, (3) specificity/sensitivity, and (4) potential clinical impact and relevance. This process reveals that although there is an apparent association between respiratory illness and sIgA in many studies, with some promising results, overall there remains a paucity of evidence supporting its overall value in this context. Key deficiencies in the metrics employed to endorse a valid biomarker are apparent, including a lack of reproducibility and low specificity and sensitivity in the detection of RTI susceptibility. The review outlines these issues and makes future recommendations.

Measuring Physical Demands in Basketball: An Explorative Systematic Review of Practices

BACKGROUND

Measuring the physical work and resultant acute psychobiological responses of basketball can help to better understand and inform physical preparation models and improve overall athlete health and performance. Recent advancements in training load monitoring solutions have coincided with increases in the literature describing the physical demands of basketball, but there are currently no reviews that summarize all the available basketball research. Additionally, a thorough appraisal of the load monitoring methodologies and measures used in basketball is lacking in the current literature. This type of critical analysis would allow for consistent comparison between studies to better understand physical demands across the sport.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this systematic review was to assess and critically evaluate the methods and technologies used for monitoring physical demands in competitive basketball athletes. We used the term 'training load' to encompass the physical demands of both training and game activities, with the latter assumed to provide a training stimulus as well. This review aimed to critique methodological inconsistencies, establish operational definitions specific to the sport, and make recommendations for basketball training load monitoring practice and reporting within the literature.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed using EBSCO, PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science to identify studies through March 2020. Electronic databases were searched using terms related to basketball and training load. Records were included if they used a competitive basketball population and incorporated a measure of training load. This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO Registration # CRD42019123603), and approved under the National Basketball Association (NBA) Health Related Research Policy.

RESULTS

Electronic and manual searches identified 122 papers that met the inclusion criteria. These studies reported the physical demands of basketball during training (n = 56), competition (n = 36), and both training and competition (n = 30). Physical demands were quantified with a measure of internal training load (n = 52), external training load (n = 29), or both internal and external measures (n = 41). These studies examined males (n = 76), females (n = 34), both male and female (n = 9), and a combination of youth (i.e. under 18 years, n = 37), adults (i.e. 18 years or older, n = 77), and both adults and youth (n = 4). Inconsistencies related to the reporting of competition level, methodology for recording duration, participant inclusion criteria, and validity of measurement systems were identified as key factors relating to the reporting of physical demands in basketball and summarized for each study.

CONCLUSIONS

This review comprehensively evaluated the current body of literature related to training load monitoring in basketball. Within this literature, there is a clear lack of alignment in applied practices and methodological framework, and with only small data sets and short study periods available at this time, it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions about the true physical demands of basketball. A detailed understanding of modern technologies in basketball is also lacking, and we provide specific guidelines for defining and applying duration measurement methodologies, vetting the validity and reliability of measurement tools, and classifying competition level in basketball to address some of the identified knowledge gaps. Creating alignment in best-practice basketball research methodology, terminology and reporting may lead to a more robust understanding of the physical demands associated with the sport, thereby allowing for exploration of other research areas (e.g. injury, performance), and improved understanding and decision making in applying these methods directly with basketball athletes.

Upper respiratory tract symptoms and salivary immunoglobulin A of elite female gymnasts: a full year longitudinal field study

The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of upper respiratory tract symptoms (URS) in elite female gymnasts during a training season. In addition, we aimed to observe the extent to which salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA) is associated with URS in these athletes, including potential effects of the season and timing of sample collection. Over one year, 18 elite female gymnasts completed URS and fatigue questionnaires weekly and provided 1 mL of saliva after a minimum 36 h of rest (morning or afternoon) to measure relative sIgA concentration (= mean absolute sIgA value of the week divided by the mean absolute sIgA value of the weeks without URS). Mean weekly URS and mean relative sIgA values per gymnast correlated negatively (r = -0.606, P = 0.022). Most URS were noted in the most fatigued gymnasts (7.4 ± 10.1 vs. 2.5 ± 5.6 (P < 0.001) for ‘normal’ and 2.1 ± 3.7 (P = 0.001) for ‘better than normal’ rested). In spring, relative sIgA was higher compared to autumn (112 ± 55 vs. 89 ± 41%, P < 0.001) and winter (92 ± 35%, P = 0.001), while during summer, relative sIgA appeared higher compared to autumn (110 ± 55 vs. 89 ± 41%, P = 0.016). The interaction effect with timing of sample collection showed higher relative sIgA values in morning samples in spring and summer compared to afternoon samples, with the inverse observed in autumn and winter (F = 3.565, P = 0.014). During a gymnastics season, lower relative sIgA values were linked to higher susceptibility to URS in elite gymnasts. However, relative sIgA values were influenced by season and timing of sample collection and thus should be considered when interpreting sIgA data.

Medical recommendations for home-confined footballers' training during the COVID-19 pandemic: from evidence to practical application

In early 2020, the world is facing a global emergency called COVID-19. Many professional footballers around the world are home confined. The maintenance of physical capacity is a fundamental requirement for the athlete, so the training sessions must be adapted to this unique situation. Specific recommendations must be followed concerning the type of training, its intensity, the precautions that have to be followed to avoid the possibility of contagion, and the restrictions in accordance with the presence of any symptoms.

This article analyses the available scientific evidence in order to recommend a practical approach.

Effects of tapering on neuromuscular and metabolic fitness in team sports: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose: To assess the effects of a taper strategy on neuromuscular and metabolic fitness in team sport athletes, through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Method: To be included in this meta-analysis, studies had to involve competitive team sport athletes and a tapering intervention providing details about the procedures used to decrease the training load, as well as competition or field-based criterion performance and all necessary data to calculate effect sizes. Four databases were searched according to these criteria, which led to the identification of 895 potential studies and the subsequent inclusion of 14 articles. Independent variables were training intensity, volume and frequency, as well as the pattern of taper and its duration. The dependent variable was performance obtained in various neuromuscular and metabolic tests. Results: There was limited evidence of a moderate taper-induced improvement in repeated sprint ability (Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) (95%IC;I²) = 0.41 (0.26-0.55;0%)) and moderate evidence of a moderate increase in maximal power (SMD (95%IC;I²) = 0.44 (0.32-0.56;15%)), change of direction speed (SMD (95%IC;I²) = 0.38 (0.15-0.60;28%)) and maximal oxygen uptake (SMD (95%IC;I²) = 0.76 (0.43-1.09;37%)). Conclusion: Tapering is an effective training strategy to improve maximal power, maximal oxygen uptake, repeated sprint ability and change of direction speed in team sports. However, the literature lacks studies using various tapering strategies to compare their effectiveness and make evidence-based recommendations. Future original studies should focus on this major issue.

Physical fitness in basketball players: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Physical fitness is a performance factor that is characterized by its ability to be assessed using closed tests. Among the existing tests today, there are no data on which are the most optimal ones for the sport for which they are applied. Tests of a generic nature are widely used regardless of the sample of players or the sport to which is being referred as they allow to compare the performance among athletes. In spite of this, it is necessary to identify and develop specific tests of physical fitness for each sport. Thus, the main purpose of this review on physical fitness in basketball players was to identify and group the different tests described in the literature up until November 2018.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A literature search was conducted in the different data base to systematically ascertain the most commonly used tests for assessing physical fitness in basketball players. A total of 40 articles were selected, after passing the selection and exclusion criteria.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Finally, they were classified according to the tests assessed in each document. The capacities more frequently studied in literature are jump (N.=21) aerobic capacity (N.=17) and anaerobic capacity (N.=16). On the contrary, the least common evaluated capacities are speed and agility (N.=14).

CONCLUSIONS

The results and discussion showed that few specific tests are used to assess this quality in athletes. The analyzed bibliography reveals the lack of design and use of specific tests to highlight the qualities involved in the targeted sport.

Effect of a Euglena gracilis Fermentate on Immune Function in Healthy, Active Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Euglena gracilis produce high amounts of algal β-1,3-glucan, which evoke an immune response when consumed. This study investigated the effect of supplementation with a proprietary Euglena gracilis fermentate (BG), containing greater than 50% β-1,3-glucan, on immune function as measured by self-reported changes in upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) symptoms. Thirty-four healthy, endurance-trained participants were randomized and received either 367 mg of BG or placebo (PLA) for 90 days. Symptoms were assessed by the 24-item Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey and safety via clinical chemistry, hematology, vitals, and adverse event reporting. Participants supplemented with BG over 90 days reported fewer sick days (BG: 1.46 ± 1.01; PLA: 4.79 ± 1.47 days; p = 0.041), fewer URTI symptoms (BG: 12.62 ± 5.92; PLA: 42.29 ± 13.17; p = 0.029), fewer symptom days (BG: 5.46 ± 1.89; PLA: 15.43 ± 4.59 days; p = 0.019), fewer episodes (BG: 2.62 ± 0.67; PLA: 4.79 ± 0.67; p = 0.032), and lower global severity measured as area under curve for URTI symptoms (BG: 17.50 ± 8.41; PLA: 89.79 ± 38.92; p = 0.0499) per person compared to placebo. Sick days, symptoms, and global severity were significantly (p < 0.05) fewer over 30 days in the BG group compared to PLA. All safety outcomes were within clinically normal ranges. The study provides evidence that supplementation with a proprietary Euglena gracilis fermentate containing greater than 50% β-1,3-glucan may reduce and prevent URTI symptoms, providing immune support and protecting overall health.

Upper Respiratory Tract Infection and Mucosal Immunity in Young Ice Hockey Players During the Pretournament Training Period

Orysiak, J, Witek, K, Malczewska-Lenczowska, J, Zembron-Lacny, A, Pokrywka, A, and Sitkowski, D. Upper respiratory tract infection and mucosal immunity in young ice hockey players during the pretournament training period. J Strength Cond Res 33(11): 3129-3135, 2019-The aim of this study was to determine the effects of 17 days of training during preparation for the Ice Hockey Under 18 World Championship of the Polish ice hockey national team on the mucosal immune function and monitor upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) incidence before, during, and after the competition. Twelve male ice hockey players (age, 17.7 ± 0.5 years) were recruited for this study. The first saliva and blood collection took place at the beginning of the training camp (without training at the training camp), the second one was collected on the 9th day of the training camp immediately after the intensification of training, and the third collection was performed on the 13th day of training (4 days before leaving for the World Championship) in the tapering phase. To assess the mucosal immune function, concentrations of secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), sIgA1, and sIgA2 were analyzed in saliva. Cortisol concentration and creatine kinase activity were determined in blood, as indicators of stress and muscle damage, respectively. The Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey-21 questionnaire was used to assess URTI symptoms. A significant increase in the sIgA1 and sIgA2 concentrations was observed in the third collection compared with the second time point (114.45 ± 33.00 vs. 77.49 ± 27.29 and 88.97 ± 25.33 vs. 71.65 ± 32.44 U, respectively). There were no statistically significant correlations between the URTI incidence and saliva variables. In conclusion, the tapering period positively affects the mucosal immune function, especially sIgA1 and sIgA2 concentrations, with no significant change in the frequency of URTI in young ice hockey players.

The Association of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors with Upper Respiratory Tract Infections and Sleep Duration in Preschool Children-Study Protocol

Currently, there is no consensus regarding the benefits of physical activity in terms of upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) among different age groups of children. The number of school students avoiding physical education is on the rise. Children of all ages spend more time on sedentary behavior, eat less nutritious food and spend less time sleeping. All of these concomitant aspects adversely affect the immune system. A coexisting problem of a growing society is a large number of URTIs which is the main reason for general practitioner intervention. The aim of this study is to determine whether there is a correlation between the frequency of respiratory tract infections and the level of physical exercise in a cohort of pre-school children. This will be a cross-sectional, short-term study conducted on a single study population. We aim to recruit four-, to seven-year-old children who will be receiving activity monitoring devices for 24 h a day for 40 days. Daily step count, mean intensity of physical exercise and sleep duration will be measured. Simultaneously, their parents will receive a series of 60 questionnaires, one questionnaire per day, for the daily assessment of upper respiratory infection (URI) symptoms. Our study conducted on a cohort of healthy pre-school children using uniform tools, aims to scientifically establish and quantify the relationship between physical activity and health outcomes over a specified period of time.

Respiratory Infections

Respiratory infections are the most frequent cause of athletes’ visits in medical practices. Simultaneously, contradictory beliefs are generally held regarding influence of repeated exercise on immunity reflected in susceptibility to infections. Many tend to claim that exercise weakens the immunity and renders regular exercisers more prone to develop airway infections. On the other hand, voices are heard in favor of the possible beneficial influence of regular exercise on immune system efficiency. This chapter focuses on the associations of various kinds of exercise with respiratory infection susceptibility. Influence of exercise, in particular associated with competitive performance, on selected innate and acquired immune response mechanisms is also addressed.

Standardized Assessment of Resistance Training-Induced Subjective Symptoms and Objective Signs of Immunological Stress Responses in Young Athletes

From a health and performance-related perspective, it is crucial to evaluate subjective symptoms and objective signs of acute training-induced immunological responses in young athletes. The limited number of available studies focused on immunological adaptations following aerobic training. Hardly any studies have been conducted on resistance-training induced stress responses. Therefore, the aim of this observational study was to investigate subjective symptoms and objective signs of immunological stress responses following resistance training in young athletes. Fourteen (7 females and 7 males) track and field athletes with a mean age of 16.4 years and without any symptoms of upper or lower respiratory tract infections participated in this study. Over a period of 7 days, subjective symptoms using the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS) and objective signs of immunological responses using capillary blood markers were taken each morning and after the last training session. Differences between morning and evening sessions and associations between subjective and objective parameters were analyzed using generalized estimating equations (GEE). In post hoc analyses, daily change-scores of the ARSS dimensions were compared between participants and revealed specific changes in objective capillary blood samples. In the GEE models, recovery (ARSS) was characterized by a significant decrease while stress (ARSS) showed a significant increase between morning and evening-training sessions. A concomitant increase in white blood cell count (WBC), granulocytes (GRAN) and percentage shares of granulocytes (GRAN_%) was found between morning and evening sessions. Of note, percentage shares of lymphocytes (LYM_%) showed a significant decrease. Furthermore, using multivariate regression analyses, we identified that recovery was significantly associated with LYM_%, while stress was significantly associated with WBC and GRAN_%. Post hoc analyses revealed significantly larger increases in participants’ stress dimensions who showed increases in GRAN_%. For recovery, significantly larger decreases were found in participants with decreases in LYM_% during recovery. More specifically, daily change-scores of the recovery and stress dimensions of the ARSS were associated with specific changes in objective immunological markers (GRAN_%, LYM_%) between morning and evening-training sessions. Our results indicate that changes of subjective symptoms of recovery and stress dimensions using the ARSS were associated with specific changes in objectively measured immunological markers.

Intensified Training Period Increases Salivary IgA Responses But Does Not Affect the Severity of Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms in Prepuberal Rhythmic Gymnasts

This study examined the effect of a 4-week intensified training (IT) period, followed by a 2-week tapering period (TP), on salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA), salivary cortisol, and the severity of upper respiratory tract infection symptoms in 23 rhythmic gymnasts [12.1 (2.6) y; 143.9 (13.7) cm; 37.2 (9.4) kg]. Saliva sampling was conducted at pre- and post-IT, and post-TP (analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). The Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS-21) questionnaire was completed daily to analyze the severity of upper respiratory tract infection symptoms. The session rating of the perceived exertion was used to determine the internal training load and the acute:chronic workload ratio. A higher SIgA concentration [SIgA_abs (μg/mL); F = 7.6; P = .001] for post-IT [234 (104)] versus pre-IT [173 (91)], and post-TP [182 (70)], and a higher SIgA secretion rate [SIgA_rate (μg/min); F = 3.4; P = .04] for post-IT [69 (28)] versus pre-IT [55 (27)], and post-TP [58 (22)] were observed. No significant change was observed for cortisol (F = 0.81; P = .45) or for the severity of upper respiratory tract infection symptoms (χ² = 2.81; P = .24). Internal training load was higher during IT (vs TP; effect size = 2.37). The acute:chronic workload for the IT weeks varied from 1.2 (0.3) to 1.4 (0.3). These results suggest that a 4-week IT may temporarily augment the oral mucosal immunity, and an acute:chronic workload of 1.2-1.4 seems to be a safe approach to periodized training loads in youth rhythmic gymnasts.

Salivary steroids hormones, well-being, and physical performance during an intensification training period followed by a tapering period in youth rhythmic gymnasts

This study examined the effect of an intensification period (IT; 4weeks; after a habitual training period; HT) followed by a tapering period (TP; 2weeks) on salivary hormones (testosterone - T and cortisol - C), well-being (WB), and physical performance in 23 rhythmic gymnasts (RG; Under-11 group [G1], Under-13 group [G2], and >13 group [G3]). The session-rating of perceived exertion was used to quantify the daily internal training load (ITL). The WB questionnaire was completed daily. Physical performance tests and saliva sampling were carried out at the beginning of the IT (T1), after IT (T2), and after TP (T3). A higher ITL was observed for IT compared to HT (2310±327 vs 2940±334, 2449±237 vs 3902±273, 2278±436 vs 3954±866 arbitrary units [UA], for G1, G2, and G3, respectively) and TP (vs 1781±260, 2305±298, 2415±522AU). No significant change was detected for T concentration (206±39, 221±35, 216±51 ρmol/L, for T1, T2, and T3, respectively [whole group]; p=0.16), C concentration (5.7±1.0, 5.8±0.8, 5.0±0.7nmol/L; p=0.07), and WB (19±3, 19±2, 19±2; p=0.44). A significant lower WB score was observed for the G3. Physical performance increased for sit-ups from T2 to T3 (ES=0.80), and T1 to T3 (ES=0.78) and for push-ups (T2-T3; ES=0.61; T1-T3; ES=0.55). In summary, a period of IT followed by TP, seems to be a useful approach to improve physical performance of youth RG, while maintaining the perception of WB and the hormonal milieu.