Chemical fingerprinting of naphthenic acids and oil sands process waters-A review of analytical methods for environmental samples

This article provides a review of the routine methods currently utilized for total naphthenic acid analyses. There is a growing need to develop chemical methods that can selectively distinguish compounds found within industrially derived oil sands process affected waters (OSPW) from those derived from the natural weathering of oil sands deposits. Attention is thus given to the characterization of other OSPW components such as oil sands polar organic compounds, PAHs, and heavy metals along with characterization of chemical additives such as polyacrylamide polymers and trace levels of boron species. Environmental samples discussed cover the following matrices: OSPW containments, on-lease interceptor well systems, on- and off-lease groundwater, and river and lake surface waters. There are diverse ranges of methods available for analyses of total naphthenic acids. However, there is a need for inter-laboratory studies to compare their accuracy and precision for routine analyses. Recent advances in high- and medium-resolution mass spectrometry, concomitant with comprehensive mass spectrometry techniques following multi-dimensional chromatography or ion-mobility separations, have allowed for the speciation of monocarboxylic naphthenic acids along with a wide range of other species including humics. The distributions of oil sands polar organic compounds, particularly the sulphur containing species (i.e., OxS and OxS2) may allow for distinguishing sources of OSPW. The ratios of oxygen- (i.e., Ox) and nitrogen-containing species (i.e., NOx, and N2Ox) are useful for differentiating organic components derived from OSPW from natural components found within receiving waters. Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy also provides a powerful screening technique capable of quickly detecting the presence of aromatic organic acids contained within oil sands naphthenic acid mixtures. Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy provides diagnostic profiles for OSPW and potentially impacted groundwater that can be compared against reference groundwater and surface water samples. Novel applications of X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) are emerging for speciation of sulphur-containing species (both organic and inorganic components) as well as industrially derived boron-containing species. There is strong potential for an environmental forensics application of XANES for chemical fingerprinting of weathered sulphur-containing species and industrial additives in OSPW.

Bacterial transformations of naphthothiophenes

Naphthothiophenes are minor components of fossil fuels, and they can enter the environment from oil spills. Naphtho[2,1-b]thiophene, naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene, and 1-methylnaphtho[2,1-b]thiophene were synthesized and used in biodegradation studies with 1-methylnaphthalene (1-MN)-degrading Pseudomonas strains W1, F, and BT1. Cultures were incubated with one of the naphthothiophenes with or without 1-MN, acidified, and extracted with CH(inf2)Cl(inf2). The extracts were analyzed by gas chromatography with flame photometric and mass detectors to characterize sulfur-containing metabolites and with an atomic emission detector for quantification. Only strain W1 was able to grow on naphtho[2,1-b]thiophene, but strains F and BT1 cometabolized this compound if 1-MN was present. 1-MN was required by all three strains to metabolize naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene, which was more resistant to biodegradation than the [2,1-b] isomer. Two metabolites of naphtho [2,1-b]thiophene were purified, analyzed by (sup1)H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and found to be 4-hydroxybenzothiophene-5-carboxylic acid (metabolite I) and 5-hydroxybenzothiophene-4-carboxylic acid (metabolite II). In cultures of strain W1 grown for 7 days on 52 (mu)mol of naphtho[2,1-b]thiophene, >84% of the substrate was degraded and metabolites I and II accounted for 19 and 9%, respectively, of the original amount of naphtho[2,1-b]thiophene. When 1-MN was present, strain W1 degraded >97% of the naphtho[2,1-b]thiophene and similar amounts of metabolite II were produced, but metabolite I did not accumulate. 1-MN was shown to promote the further degradation of metabolite I, but not of metabolite II, by strain W1. Thus, 1-MN enhanced the biodegradation of naphtho[2,1-b]thiophene. Approximately 70% of the 1-methylnaphtho [2,1-b]thiophene added to cultures of strain W1 with 1-MN was recovered as 4-hydroxy-3-methylbenzothiophene-5-carboxylic acid, the 3-methyl analog of metabolite I. The methyl substitution hindered further metabolism of 3-methyl-metabolite I even in the presence of 1-MN. Cometabolism of naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene yielded two products that were tentatively identified as 5-hydroxybenzothiophene-6-carboxylic and 6-hydroxybenzothiophene-5-carboxylic acids.

Identification of distinct communities of sulfate-reducing bacteria in oil fields by reverse sample genome probing

Thirty-five different standards of sulfate-reducing bacteria, identified by reverse sample genome probing and defined as bacteria with genomes showing little or no cross-hybridization, were in part characterized by Southern blotting, using 16S rRNA and hydrogenase gene probes. Samples from 56 sites in seven different western Canadian oil field locations were collected and enriched for sulfate-reducing bacteria by using different liquid media containing one of the following carbon sources: lactate, ethanol, benzoate, decanoate, propionate, or acetate. DNA was isolated from the enrichments and probed by reverse sample genome probing using master filters containing denatured chromosomal DNAs from the 35 sulfate-reducing bacterial standards. Statistical analysis of the microbial compositions at 44 of the 56 sites indicated the presence of two distinct communities of sulfate-reducing bacteria. The discriminating factor between the two communities was the salt concentration of the production waters, which were either fresh water or saline. Of 34 standards detected, 10 were unique to the fresh water and 18 were unique to the saline oil field environment, while only 6 organisms were cultured from both communities.

Reverse sample genome probing, a new technique for identification of bacteria in environmental samples by DNA hybridization, and its application to the identification of sulfate-reducing bacteria in oil field samples

A novel method for the identification of bacteria in environmental samples by DNA hybridization is presented. It is based on the fact that, even within a genus, the genomes of different bacteria may have little overall sequence homology. This allows the use of the labeled genomic DNA of a given bacterium (referred to as a "standard") to probe for its presence and that of bacteria with highly homologous genomes in total DNA obtained from an environmental sample. Alternatively, total DNA extracted from the sample can be labeled and used to probe filters on which denatured chromosomal DNA from relevant bacterial standards has been spotted. The latter technique is referred to as reverse sample genome probing, since it is the reverse of the usual practice of deriving probes from reference bacteria for analyzing a DNA sample. Reverse sample genome probing allows identification of bacteria in a sample in a single step once a master filter with suitable standards has been developed. Application of reverse sample genome probing to the identification of sulfate-reducing bacteria in 31 samples obtained primarily from oil fields in the province of Alberta has indicated that there are at least 20 genotypically different sulfate-reducing bacteria in these samples.

Distribution of Hydrogenase Genes in Desulfovibrio spp. and Their Use in Identification of Species from the Oil Field Environment

The distribution of genes for [Fe], [NiFe], and [NiFeSe] hydrogenases was determined for 22 Desulfovibrio species. The genes for [NiFe] hydrogenase were present in all species, whereas those for the [Fe] and [NiFeSe] hydrogenases had a more limited distribution. Sulfate-reducing bacteria from 16S rRNA groups other than the genus Desulfovibrio (R. Devereux, M. Delaney, F. Widdel, and D. A. Stahl, J. Bacteriol. 171:6689-6695, 1989) did not react with the [NiFe] hydrogenase gene probe, which could be used to identify different Desulfovibrio species in oil field samples following growth on lactate-sulfate medium.

Aerobic microbial cometabolism of benzothiophene and 3-methylbenzothiophene

A culture enriched by growth on 1-methylnaphthalene was used to study the aerobic biotransformations of benzothiophene and 3-methylbenzothiophene. Neither of the sulfur heterocyclic compounds would support growth, but they were transformed by the culture growing on 1-methylnaphthalene or glucose or peptone. Cometabolism of benzothiophene yielded benzothiophene-2,3-dione, whereas that of 3-methylbenzothiophene yielded 3-methylbenzothiophene sulfoxide and the corresponding sulfone. The identities of the dione and sulfone were verified by comparison with authentic standards. The identity of the sulfoxide was surmised from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography- Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results. Oxidation preferentially occurred at carbons 2 and 3 in benzothiophene, but when carbon 3 was substituted with a methyl group, as in 3-methylbenzothiophene, the sulfur atom was oxygenated. The predominant microorganism in the enrichment culture was a Pseudomonas strain, designated BT1, which mineralized aromatic but not aliphatic hydrocarbons. This isolate cometabolized benzothiophene and 3-methylbenzothiophene. There was no evidence that it could metabolize 3-methylbenzothiophene sulfone. When 3-methylbenzothiophene was added to Prudhoe Bay crude oil, the sulfur heterocycle was oxidized to its sulfoxide and sulfone by strain BT1 as it grew on the aromatic hydrocarbons in the crude oil. Benzothiophene-2,3-dione was found to be chemically unstable when incubated with Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Thus its formation from benzothiophene in the presence of crude oil could not be determined.

Detection of naphthenic acids in fish exposed to commercial naphthenic acids and oil sands process-affected water

Naphthenic acids are a complex mixture of carboxylic acids that occur naturally in petroleum. During the extraction of bitumen from the oil sands in northeastern Alberta, Canada, naphthenic acids are released into the aqueous phase and these acids become the most toxic components in the process-affected water. Although previous studies have exposed fish to naphthenic acids or oil sands process-affected waters, there has been no analytical method to specifically detect naphthenic acids in fish. Here, we describe a qualitative method to specifically detect these acids. In 96-h static renewal tests, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fingerlings were exposed to three different treatments: (1) fed pellets that contained commercial naphthenic acids (1.5mg g(-1) of food), (2) kept in tap water that contained commercial naphthenic acids (3mg l(-1)) and (3) kept in an oil sands process-affected water that contained 15mg naphthenic acids l(-1). Five-gram samples of fish were homogenized and extracted, then the mixture of free fatty acids and naphthenic acids was isolated from the extract using strong anion exchange chromatography. The mixture was derivatized and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Reconstructed ion chromatograms (m/z=267) selectively detected naphthenic acids. These acids were present in each fish that was exposed to naphthenic acids, but absent in fish that were not exposed to naphthenic acids. The minimum detectable concentration was about 1microg naphthenic acids g(-1) of fish.

Capillary HPLC/QTOF-MS for Characterizing Complex Naphthenic Acid Mixtures and Their Microbial Transformation

A rapidly expanding oil sands industry in Canada produces and indefinitely stores large volumes of toxic aqueous tailings containing high concentrations of naphthenic acids (NAs), a complex mixture of naturally occurring aliphatic or alicyclic carboxylic acids. Although there is an acknowledged need to reduce the environmental risks posed by NAs, little is understood about their environmental fate due to a lack of appropriate analytical methods. A dilute-and-shoot reversed-phase capillary HPLC/QTOF-MS method was developed that combines high specificity and sensitivity, quantitative capabilities, the ability to detect novel transformation products, and new structural information within each NA isomer class. HPLC separated NAs, based on carbon number, degree of cyclization, and the extent of alkyl branching, and in so doing increased analytical sensitivity up to 350-fold while providing additional specificity compared to infusion techniques. For tailings water, an interlaboratory study revealed many differences in isomer class profiles compared to an established GC/MS method, much of which was attributed to the misclassification of oxidized NAs (i.e., NA + O) by low-resolution GC/MS. HPLC/QTOF-MS enabled the detection of oxidized products in the same chromatographic run, and Van Krevelen diagrams were adapted to visualize the complex data. A marked decrease of retention times was evident in Syncrude tailings water compared to a commercial mixture, suggesting that tailings water is dominated by highly persistent alkyl-substituted isomers. A biodegradation study revealed that tailings water microorganisms preferentially deplete the least alkyl-substituted fraction and may be responsible for the NA profile in aged tailings water.

Bacterial biodegradation of aliphatic sulfides under aerobic carbon- or sulfur-limited growth conditions

AIMS

To isolate bacteria capable of cleaving aliphatic carbon-sulfur bonds as potential biological upgrading catalysts for the reduction of molecular weight and viscosity in heavy crude oil.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Thirty-one bacterial strains isolated from enrichment cultures were able to biotransform model compounds representing the aliphatic sulfide bridges found in asphaltenes. Using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, three types of attack were identified: alkyl chain degradation, allowing use as a carbon source; nonspecific sulfur oxidation; and sulfur-specific oxidation and carbon-sulfur bond cleavage, allowing use as a sulfur source. Di-n-octyl sulfide degradation produced octylthio- and octylsulfonyl-alkanoic acids, consistent with terminal oxidation followed by beta-oxidation reactions. Utilization of dibenzyl sulfide or 1,4-dithiane as a sulfur source was regulated by sulfate, indicating a sulfur-specific activity rather than nonspecific oxidation. Finally, several isolates were also able to use dibenzothiophene as a sulfur source, and this was the preferred organic sulfur substrate for one isolate.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of commercially available alkyl sulfides in enrichment cultures gave isolates that followed a range of metabolic pathways, not just sulfur-specific attack.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

These results give new insight into biodegradation of organosulfur compounds from petroleum and for biotreatment of such compounds in chemical munitions.

Ring cleavage of sulfur heterocycles: how does it happen?

Sulfur heterocycles are common constituents of petroleum and liquids derived from coal, and they are found in some secondary metabolites of microorganisms and plants. They exist primarily as saturated rings and thiophenes. There are two major objectives driving investigations of the microbial metabolism of organosulfur compounds. One is the quest to develop a process for biodesulfurization of fossil fuels, and the other is to understand the fates of organosulfur compounds in petroleum- or creosote-contaminated environments which is important in assessing bioremediation processes. For these processes to be successful, cleavage of different types of sulfur heterocyclic rings is paramount. This paper reviews the evidence for microbial ring cleavage of a variety of organosulfur compounds and discusses the few well-studied cases which have shown that the C-S bond is most susceptible to breakage leading to disruption of the ring. In most cases, the introduction of one or more oxygen atom(s) onto the adjacent C atom and/or onto the S atom weakens the C-S bond, facilitating its cleavage. Although much is known about the thiophene ring cleavage in dibenzothiophene, there is still a great deal to be learned about the cleavage of other sulfur heterocycles.

Chemical and microbiological changes in laboratory incubations of nitrate amendment "sour" produced waters from three western Canadian oil fields

Nitrate addition to oil field waters stops the biogenic formation of sulfide because the activities of nitrate-reducing bacteria (NRB) suppress the activities of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). In general, there are two types of NRB - the heterotrophic NRB and the chemolithotrophic NRB. Within the latter group are the nitrate-reducing, sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (NR-SOB). To date, no study has specifically addressed the roles of these different NRB in controlling sulfide concentrations in oil field produced waters. This study used different culture media to selectively enumerate heterotrophic NRB and NR-SOB by most probable number (MPN) methods. Produced waters from three sulfide-containing western Canadian oil fields were amended with nitrate as an electron acceptor, but no exogenous electron donor was added to the serum bottle microcosms. Changes in the chemical and microbiological characteristics of the produced waters were monitored during incubation at 21 degrees C. In less than 4 days, the sulfide was removed from the waters from two of the oil fields (designated P and C), whereas nearly 27 days were required for sulfide removal from the water from the third oil field (designated N). Nitrate addition stimulated large increases in the number of the heterotrophic NRB and NR-SOB in the waters from oil fields P and C, but only the NR-SOB were stimulated in the water from oil field N. These data suggest that stimulation of the heterotrophic NRB is required for rapid removal of sulfide from oil field-produced waters.

Planktonic nitrate-reducing bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria in some western Canadian oil field waters

Oil fields that use water flooding to enhance oil recovery may become sour because of the production of H(2)S from the reduction of sulfate by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). The addition of nitrate to produced waters can stimulate the activities of nitrate-reducing bacteria (NRB) and control sulfide production. Many previous studies have focused on chemolithotrophic bacteria that can use thiosulfate or sulfide as energy sources while reducing nitrate. Little attention has been given to heterotrophic NRB in oil field waters. Three different media were used in this study to enumerate various types of planktonic NRB present in waters from five oil fields in western Canada. The numbers of planktonic SRB and bacteria capable of growth under aerobic conditions were also determined. In general, microbial numbers in the produced waters were very low (<10 ml x (-1)) in samples taken near or at wellheads. However, the numbers increased in the aboveground facilities. No thiosulfate-oxidizing NRB were detected in the oil field waters, but other types of NRB were detected in 16 of 18 produced water samples. The numbers of heterotrophic NRB were equal to or greater than the number of sulfide-oxidizing, chemolithotrophic NRB in 12 of 15 samples. These results showed that each of the oil fields contained NRB, which might be stimulated by nitrate amendment to control H(2)S production by SRB.

Identification of disulfides from the biodegradation of dibenzothiophene

Several investigations have identified benzothiophene-2,3-dione in the organic solvent extracts of acidified cultures degrading dibenzothiophene via the Kodama pathway. In solution at neutral pH, the 2,3-dione exists as 2-mercaptophenylglyoxylate, which cyclizes upon acidification and is extracted as the 2,3-dione. The fate of these compounds in microbial cultures has never been determined. This study investigated the abiotic reactions of 2-mercaptophenylglyoxylate incubated aerobically in mineral salts medium at neutral pH. Oxidation led to the formation of 2-oxo-2-(2-thiophenyl)ethanoic acid disulfide, formed from two molecules of 2-mercaptophenylglyoxylate. Two sequential abiotic, net losses of both a carbon and an oxygen atom produced two additional disulfides, 2-oxo-2-(2-thiophenyl)ethanoic acid 2-benzoic acid disulfide and 2,2'-dithiosalicylic acid. The methods developed to extract and detect these three disulfides were then used for the analysis of a culture of Pseudomonas sp. strain BT1d grown on dibenzothiophene as its sole carbon and energy source. All three of the disulfides were detected, indicating that 2-mercaptophenylglyoxylate is an important, short-lived intermediate in the breakdown of dibenzothiophene via the Kodama pathway. The disulfides eluded previous investigations because of (i) their high polarity, being dicarboxylic acids; (ii) the need to lower the pH of the aqueous medium to <1 to extract them into an organic solvent such as dichloromethane; (iii) their poor solubility in organic solvents, (iv) their removal from organic extracts of cultures during filtration through the commonly used drying agent anhydrous sodium sulfate; and (v) their high molecular masses (362, 334, and 306 Da) compared to that of dibenzothiophene (184 Da).

The influence of nitrate on microbial processes in oil industry production waters

Sulfide accumulation due to bacterial sulfate reduction is responsible for a number of serious problems in the oil industry. Among the strategies to control the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) is the use of nitrate, which can exhibit a variety of effects. We investigated the relevance of this approach to souring oil fields in Oklahoma and Alberta in which water flooding is used to enhance oil recovery. SRB and nitrate-reducing bacteria (NRB) were enumerated in produced waters from both oil fields. In the Oklahoma field, the rates of sulfate reduction ranged from 0.05 to 0.16 microM S day(-1) at the wellheads, and an order of magnitude higher at the oil-water separator. Sulfide production was greatest in the water storage tanks in the Alberta field. Microbial counts alone did not accurately reflect the potential for microbial activities. The majority of the sulfide production appeared to occur after the oil was pumped aboveground, rather than in the reservoir. Laboratory experiments showed that adding 5 and 10 mM nitrate to produced waters from the Oklahoma and Alberta oil fields, respectively, decreased the sulfide content to negligible levels and increased the numbers of NRB. This work suggests that sulfate reduction control measures can be concentrated on aboveground facilities, which will decrease the amount of sulfide reinjected into reservoirs during the disposal of oil field production waters.

Naphthenic acids and surrogate naphthenic acids in methanogenic microcosms

Naphthenic acids (NAs) are a complex mixture of naturally occurring acyclic and cyclic aliphatic carboxylic acids in petroleum. In the Athabasca oil sands. NAs have been identified as the largest component of dissolved organic matter in the tailings waters from oils sands extraction processes. They are the major contributor to the acute toxicity of the fine tailings wastewaters at the oil sands extraction plants in northeastern Alberta, Canada. In this study, three sources of NAs were studied, including commercially available NAs, those extracted from oil sands process-affected waters, and individual naphthenic-like surrogate compounds. Analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry demonstrated differences between the commercial and extracted NAs. The NAs derived from the process-affected waters showed a short-term inhibition of methanogenesis from H2 or acetate, but with time the populations resumed methane production. It has been postulated that microbial metabolism of the carboxylated side chains of NAs would lead to methane production. The two NA mixtures failed to stimulate methanogenesis in microcosms that contained either oil sands fine tailings or domestic sewage sludge. However, in microcosms with sewage sludge, methanogenesis was stimulated by some surrogate NAs including 3-cyclohexylpropanoic acid at 400-800 mg/L, 5-cyclohexylpentanoic acid at 200 mg/L or 6-phenylhexanoic acid at 200 and 400 mg/L. When added at 200 mg/L to methanogenic microcosms containing fine tailings, 3-cyclohexylpropanoic and 4-cyclohexylbutanoic acids produced methane yields that suggested mineralization of the side chain and the ring.

Nutrient stimulation of sulfolane biodegradation in a contaminated soil from a sour natural gas plant and in a pristine soil

Natural gas in western Canada can contain up to 35% H2S. The Sulfinol process for sour gas treatment makes use of sulfolane and an amine to remove H2S and other sour components from natural gas. Sulfolane has leached into groundwaters at sour gas treatment plant sites, and poses a risk for off-site contamination. Sulfolane biodegradation was monitored in shake-flask cultures and air-sparged microcosms inoculated with uncontaminated topsoil or with sulfolane contaminated soil obtained near a Sulfinol process building at a sour gas treatment facility in western Canada. For both soils, supplementation with a source of fixed nitrogen stimulated sulfolane biodegradation. Topsoil cultures and microcosms were only slightly affected by the addition of phosphate. Contaminated soil microcosms and cultures were stimulated by phosphate addition, but not to the same degree as by the addition of nitrogen. For these cultures and microcosms, amendment with both fixed nitrogen and phosphate produced an additive effect. It was possible to predict the nutrient requirements of air-sparged microcosms inoculated with each soil type using shake-flask cultures. Shake-flask cultures require less time and effort and fewer materials than the more complex air-sparged soil microcosms, and will be useful for large-scale experiments to predict the nutrient supplements required for bioremediation of sulfolane-contaminated sites.

Purification, stability, and mineralization of 3-hydroxy-2- formylbenzothiophene, a metabolite of dibenzothiophene

3-Hydroxy-2-formylbenzothiophene (HFBT) is a metabolite found in many bacterial cultures that degrade dibenzothiophene (DBT) via the Kodama pathway. The fate of HFBT in cultures and in the environment is unknown. In this study, HFBT was produced by a DBT-degrading bacterium and purified by sublimation. When stored in organic solvent or as a crystal, the HFBT slowly decomposed, yielding colored products. Two of these were identified as thioindigo and cis-thioindigo. The supernatant of the DBT-degrading culture contained thioindigo, which has not been reported previously as a product of DBT biodegradation. In mineral salts medium, HFBT was sufficiently stable to allow biodegradation studies with a mixed microbial culture over a 3- to 4-week period. High-performance liquid chromatography analyses showed that HFBT was removed from the medium. 2-Mercaptophenylglyoxalate, detected as benzothiophene-2,3-dione, was found in an HFBT-degrading mixed culture, and the former appears to be a metabolite of HFBT. This mixed culture also mineralized HFBT to CO2.

Methanogens and sulfate-reducing bacteria in oil sands fine tailings waste

In the past decade, the large tailings pond (Mildred Lake Settling Basin) on the Syncrude Canada Ltd. lease near Fort McMurray, Alta., has gone methanogenic. Currently, about 60%-80% of the flux of gas across the surface of the tailings pond is methane. As well as adding to greenhouse gas emissions, the production of methane in the fine tailings zone of this and other settling basins may affect the performance of these settling basins and impact reclamation options. Enumeration studies found methanogens (10(5)-10(6) MPN/g) within the fine tailings zone of various oil sands waste settling basins. SRB were also present (10(4)-10(5) MPN/g) with elevated numbers when sulfate was available. The methanogenic population was robust, and sample storage up to 9 months at 4 degrees C did not cause the MPN values to change. Nor was the ability of the consortium to produce methane delayed or less efficient after storage. Under laboratory conditions, fine tailings samples released 0.10-0.25 mL CH4 (at STP)/mL fine tailings. The addition of sulfate inhibited methanogenesis by stimulating bacterial competition.

Sulfolane degradation by mixed cultures and a bacterial isolate identified as a Variovorax sp

Sulfolane (tetrahydrothiophene-1,1-dioxide) is used in the Sulfinol process for natural gas sweetening. At many sour-gas processing plants spills, landfills and leakage from unlined surface storage ponds have contaminated groundwaters with sulfolane. Due to its high water solubility and mobility in aquifers, sulfolane poses a risk for off-site contamination. This study investigated the aerobic biodegradation of sulfolane by two mixed microbial enrichment cultures and by three bacterial isolates. Sulfolane served as the sole C, S and energy source for these cultures. In the two mixed cultures, 60% and 80% of the sulfolane C was recovered as CO2, whereas in cultures of the three isolates only 40-42% of the substrate C was recovered as CO,. In the mixed cultures, 81% and 97% of the sulfolane S was converted to sulfate, and in the pure isolates, 55-90% of the substrate S was converted to sulfate. Thus, the mixed cultures were capable of greater mineralization than the pure isolates. One isolate, strain WP1, was identified using a combination of 16S rRNA gene sequencing, physiological traits and cell morphology. WP1 was determined to be most similar to Varioivorax paradoxus.

Bacterial metabolism of fluorene, dibenzofuran, dibenzothiophene, and carbazole

Fluorene and its three heteroatomic analogs, dibenzofuran, dibenzothiophene, and carbazole, are environmental contaminants in areas impacted by spills of creosote. In addition, dibenzofuran has been used as an insecticide, and it is formed from the photolysis of chlorinated biphenyl ethers. Many biodegradation studies of dibenzofuran have considered it as a model for chlorinated dibenzofurans, which are of greater environmental concern. This paper reviews the bacterial degradation of fluorene and its analogs. These compounds are susceptible to three different modes of initial oxidation: (i) the naphthalene-like attack, in which one of the aromatic rings is oxidized to a dihydrodiol; (ii) an angular dioxygenase attack, in which the carbon bonded to the methylene group in fluorene or to the heteroatoms in the analogs, and the adjacent carbon in the aromatic ring are both oxidized; and (iii) the five-membered ring attack, in which the methylene carbon atom in fluorene or the sulfur atom in dibenzothiophene is oxidized. The metabolites, enzymology, and genetics of these transformation are summarized. Literature data are presented, indicating that the electronegativity of the atom connecting the two aromatic rings influences the attack of the angular dioxygenase. In dibenzofuran and carbazole, the connecting atoms, O and N respectively, have high electronegativities, and these compounds serve as substrates for angular dioxygenases. In contrast, the connecting atoms in dibenzothiophene and fluorene, S and C respectively, have lower electronegativities, and these atoms must be oxidized before the angular dioxygenases attack these compounds.

Low surfactant concentration increases fungal mineralization of a polychlorinated biphenyl congener but has no effect on overall metabolism

Three white rot fungi were compared for their ability to attack polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners in the presence and absence of the non-ionic Triton X-100 or the anionic Dowfax 8390 surfactants at half their critical micelle concentrations. Neither surfactant affected PCB biodegradation monitored by gas chromatography but the release of 14CO2 from 2,4',5-[U-14C]trichlorobiphenyl by Trametes versicolor was stimulated 12% by Triton X-100. Since mineralization is the complete metabolism of the congener and biodegradation was measured as substrate disappearance, Triton X-100 is proposed to aid intracellular solubilization of 2,4',5-trichlorobiphenyl for complete oxidation by T. versicolor.

Microbial mineralization of diisopropanolamine

Diisopropanolamine (DIPA) is a "sweetening agent" used to remove hydrogen sulfide from sour natural gas, and it is a contaminant at some sour gas treatment facilities in western Canada. To investigate the biodegradation of this alkanolamine, 14C-DIPA was used in anaerobic and aerobic mineralization studies. Between 3 and 78% of the radioactivity from this compound was released as 14CO2 in sediment-enrichment cultures incubated under nitrate-reducing conditions. Similarly, 12-78% of the label was converted to 14CO2 in sediment-enrichment cultures incubated under Mn(IV)-reducing conditions. These activities were observed at 8 degrees C, a typical groundwater temperature in western Canada, and at 28 degrees C. In contrast, DIPA-degrading activity was difficult to sustain under Fe(III)-reducing conditions, and < 25% of the radioactive label from 14C-DIPA was liberated as 14CO2. Two mixed cultures and two isolates (both irregular, non-sporeforming, Gram-positive rods) were used to assess aerobic mineralization of 14C-DIPA. The aerobic mixed cultures released 73 and 79% of the radioactive label as 14CO2, whereas the pure cultures liberated only 39 and 47% as 14CO2. Between one-third and one-half of the nitrogen from DIPA was found as ammonium-N in aerobic batch cultures. These results clearly demonstrate that DIPA is mineralized under a variety of incubation conditions.

Biodegradation of benzothiophene sulfones by a filamentous bacterium

Previous studies showed that benzothiophene and 3- and 5-methylbenzothiophenes are oxidized by some bacteria to yield their corresponding sulfones, which were not subsequently degraded. In this study, a filamentous bacterium was isolated, which grew on each of these three sulfones as its sole carbon, sulfur, and energy source. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing and scanning electron microscopy, the isolate was found to belong to the genus Pseudonocardia and assigned the strain designation DB1. Benzothiophene sulfone and 3-methylbenzothiophene sulfone were more readily biodegraded than 5-methylbenzothiophene sulfone, and growth on these three compounds resulted in the release of 57, 62, and 28% of the substrate carbon as CO2, respectively. The thiophene ring was also cleaved, and between 44 and 88% of the sulfur from the consumed substrate was found as sulfate and (or) sulfite. Strain DB1 grew on benzoate, dibenzothiophene sulfone, and hexadecanoic acid, but it could not grow on benzofuran, dibenzothiophene, dibenzothiophene sulfoxide, hexadecane, indole, naphthalene, phenol, 2-sulfobenzoic acid, sulfolane, benzothiophene, or 3- or 5-methylbenzothiophenes. In addition, it did not oxidize the latter three compounds to their sulfones.

A review of the occurrence, toxicity, and biodegradation of condensed thiophenes found in petroleum

Condensed thiophenes comprise a significant portion of the organosulfur compounds in petroleum and in other products from fossil fuels. Dibenzothiophene (DBT) has served as a model compound in biodegradation studies for over two decades. However, until quite recently, few other organosulfur compounds were studied, and their fates in petroleum-contaminated environments are largely unknown. This paper presents a review of the types of organosulfur compounds found in petroleum and summarizes the scant literature on toxicity studies with condensed thiophenes. Reports on the biodegradation of benzothiophene, alkylbenzothiophenes, DBT, alkylDBTs, and naphthothiophenes are reviewed with a focus on the identification of metabolites detected in laboratory cultures. In addition, recent reports on quantitative studies with DBT and naphtho[2,1-b]thiophene indicate the existence of polar sulfur-containing metabolites that have escaped detection and identification.

Comparison of gas chromatography and mineralization experiments for measuring loss of selected polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in cultures of white rot fungi

Two methods were used to compare the biodegradation of six polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners by 12 white rot fungi. Four fungi were found to be more active than Phanerochaete chrysosporium ATCC 24725. Biodegradation of the following congeners was monitored by gas chromatography: 2,3-dichlorobiphenyl, 4,4'-dichlorobiphenyl, 2,4',5-trichlorobiphenyl (2,4',5-TCB), 2,2',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl, 2,2',5,5'-tetrachlorobiphenyl, and 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl. The congener tested for mineralization was 2,4',5-[U-14C]TCB. Culture supernatants were also assayed for lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase activities. Of the fungi tested, two strains of Bjerkandera adusta (UAMH 8258 and UAMH 7308), one strain of Pleurotus ostreatus (UAMH 7964), and Trametes versicolor UAMH 8272 gave the highest biodegradation and mineralization. P. chrysosporium ATCC 24725, a strain frequently used in studies of PCB degradation, gave the lowest mineralization and biodegradation activities of the 12 fungi reported here. Low but detectable levels of lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase activity were present in culture supernatants, but no correlation was observed among any combination of PCB congener biodegradation, mineralization, and lignin peroxidase or manganese peroxidase activity. With the exception of P. chrysosporium, congener loss ranged from 40 to 96%; however, these values varied due to nonspecific congener binding to fungal biomass and glassware. Mineralization was much lower, </=11%, because it measures a complete oxidation of at least part of the congener molecule but the results were more consistent and therefore more reliable in assessment of PCB biodegradation.

Bacterial transformations of naphthothiophenes

Vol. 63, no. 9, p. 3468, Table 1, subheading under heading "Total recovery": "((delta)mol)" should read "((mu)mol)." [This corrects the article on p. 3463 in vol. 63.].

Bacterial transformations of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydrodibenzothiophene and dibenzothiophene

The transformations of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydrodibenzothiophene (THDBT) were investigated with pure cultures of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria. Metabolites were extracted from cultures with dichloromethane (DCM) and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) with flame photometric, mass, and Fourier transform infrared detectors. Three 1-methylnaphthalene (1-MN)-utilizing Pseudomonas strains oxidized the sulfur atom of THDBT to give the sulfoxide and sulfone. They also degraded the benzene ring to yield 3-hydroxy-2-formyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydrobenzothiophene. A cell suspension of a cyclohexane-degrading bacterium oxidized the alicyclic ring to give a hydroxy-substituted THDBT and a ketone, and it oxidized the aromatic ring to give a phenol, but no ring cleavage products were detected. GC analyses with an atomic emission detector, using the sulfur-selective mode, were used to quantify the transformation products from THDBT and dibenzothiophene (DBT). The cyclohexane degrader oxidized 19% of the THDBT to three metabolites. The cometabolism of THDBT and DBT by the three 1-MN-grown Pseudomonas strains resulted in a much greater depletion of the condensed thiophenes than could be accounted for in the metabolites detected by GC analysis, but there was no evidence of sulfate release from DBT. These 1-MN-grown strains transiently accumulated 3-hydroxy-2-formylbenzothiophene (HFBT) from DBT, but it was subsequently degraded. On the other hand, Pseudomonas strain BT1d, which was maintained on DBT as a sole carbon source, accumulated 52% of the sulfur from DBT as HFBT over 7 days, and, in total, 82% of the sulfur from DBT was accounted for by the GC method used. Lyophilization of cultures grown on 1-MN with DBT and methyl esterification of the residues gave improved recoveries of total sulfur over that obtained by DCM extraction and GC analysis. This suggested that the further degradation of HFBT by these cultures leads to the formation of organosulfur compounds that are too polar to be extracted with DCM. We believe that this is the first attempt to quantify the products of DBT degradation by the so-called Kodama pathway.

Anaerobic Degradation of m-Cresol by a Sulfate-Reducing Bacterium

m-Cresol metabolism under sulfate-reducing conditions was studied with a pure culture of Desulfotomaculum sp. strain Groll. Previous studies with a sulfate-reducing consortium indicated that m-cresol was degraded via an initial para-carboxylation reaction. However, 4-hydroxy-2-methylbenzoic acid was not degraded by strain Groll, and no evidence for ring carboxylation of m-cresol was found. Strain Groll readily metabolized the putative metabolites of a methyl group oxidation pathway, including 3-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, and benzoic acid. Degradation of these compounds preceded and inhibited m-cresol decay. 3-Hydroxybenzoic acid was detected in cultures that received either m-cresol or 3-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, and trace amounts of benzoic acid were detected in m-cresol-degrading cultures. Therefore, we propose that strain Groll metabolizes m-cresol by a methyl group oxidation pathway which is an alternate route for the catabolism of this compound under sulfate-reducing conditions.

Aerobic degradation of 2-sulphobenzoic acid by Pseudomonas strain SB(W)

A 2-sulphobenzoic acid-degrading bacterium, Pseudomonas sp. strain SB(W), was isolated from creosote-contaminated soil. It used this compound as its sole carbon, sulphur and energy source, and gave a nearly stoichiometric release of sulphate from 2-sulphobenzoic acid. It did not grow on 3- to 4- sulphobenzoic acids. Isolated SB(W) produced two transient metabolites. The first to appear, and the more abundant metabolite, was identified as 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid. The second metabolite was identified as salicylic acid. Both of these compounds served as growth substrates for the isolates.

Transformations of six isomers of dimethylbenzothiophene by three Pseudomonas strains

Dimethylbenzothiophenes are among the sulfur heterocycles in petroleum that are known to be degraded by microbial activity. Six of the 15 possible isomers of dimethylbenzothiophene were synthesized and used in bio-transformation studies with three Pseudomonas isolates that oxidize a variety of condensed thiophenes including methylbenzothiophenes and methyldibenzothiophenes. The isomers of dimethylbenzothiophene were chosen to have a variety of substitution patterns: both methyl groups on the thiophene ring (the 2,3-isomer); a methyl group on each of the rings (the 2,7-, 3,5-and 3,7-isomers); and both methyl groups on the benzene ring (the 4,6-and 4,7-isomers). Each isolate was grown on 1-methylnaphthalene or glucose in the presence of one of the dimethylbenzothiophenes and culture extracts were analyzed to identify nearly 30 sulfur-containing metabolites in total. Sulfoxides and sulfones were commonly found metabolites in culture extracts from the 2,3-, 2,7- and 3,7-isomers, whereas 2,3-diones, 3(2H)-ones and 2(3H)-ones were formed from the 4,6- and 4,7-isomers. High-molecular-weight products, some of which were tentatively identified as tetramethylbenzo[b]naphtho[1,2-d]thiophenes, were detected in the extracts of cultures incubated with 4,6- or 4,7-dimethylbenzothiophene. The methyl groups of all of the isomers, except 4,6-, were oxidized to give hydroxymethyl-methylbenzothiophenes and methylbenzothiophene-carboxylic acids, and these were the only products detected from the oxidation of 3,5-dimethylbenzothiophene.

Characterization of the diversity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in soil and mining waste water environments by nucleic acid hybridization techniques

Nucleic acid hybridization techniques were used to characterize the sulfate-reducing bacterial communities at seven waste water and two soil sites in Canada. Genomic DNA was obtained from liquid enrichment cultures of samples taken from these nine sites. The liquid enrichment protocol favored growth of the sulfate-reducing bacterial component of the communities at these sites. The genomic DNA preparations were analyzed with (i) a specific gene probe aimed at a single genus (Desulfovibrio), (ii) a general 16S rRNA gene probe aimed at all genera of sulfate-reducing bacteria and other bacteria, and (iii) whole genome probes aimed at specific bacteria. This three-pronged approach provided information on the sulfate-reducing bacterial community structures for the nine sites. These were compared with each other and with the sulfate-reducing bacterial communities of western Canadian oil field production waters, studied previously. It was found that there is considerable diversity in the sulfate-reducing bacterial community at each site. Most sulfate-reducing bacteria isolated from distinct sites are genomically different and differ also from sulfate-reducing bacteria found in oil field production waters.

Microbially Mediated Formation of Benzonaphthothiophenes from Benzo[ b ]thiophenes

Studies of the microbial metabolism of benzo[ b ]thiophene (molecular weight 134) by three Pseudomonas isolates showed the formation of benzothiophene sulfoxide, benzothiophene sulfone, and a sulfur-containing metabolite with a molecular weight of 234. Desulfurization of the high-molecular-weight product with nickel boride gave 1-phenylnaphthalene, indicating that the metabolite was benzo[ b ]naphtho[1,2- d ]thiophene. Similarly, the isolates were capable of producing the analogous dimethyl-substituted benzonaphthothiophenes from methylbenzothiophenes that had the methyl substitution on the benzene ring. The formation of benzo[ b ] naphtho[1,2- d ]thiophene was also observed when a petroleum-degrading mixed culture was incubated with benzothiophene-supplemented Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Investigations into the mechanism of formation of these high-molecular-weight compounds showed that they resulted from an abiotic, Diels-Alder-type condensation of two molecules of the sulfoxide, which were microbially produced from the respective benzothiophene, with the subsequent loss of two atoms of hydrogen and oxygen and one atom of sulfur. The condensation products also formed from the sulfoxides of benzothiophene and methylbenzothiophenes when the sulfoxides were enzymatically synthesized by oxidation of the benzothiophene with horse heart cytochrome c and H 2 O 2 .

Biodegradation of naphthenic acids by microbial populations indigenous to oil sands tailings

Organic acids, similar in structure to naphthenic acids, have been associated with the acute toxicity of tailings produced by the oil sands industry in northeastern Alberta, Canada. Bacterial cultures enriched from oil sands tailings were found to utilize as their sole carbon source both a commercial mixture of naphthenic acids and a mixture of organic acids extracted from oil sands tailings. Gas chromatographic analysis of both the commercial naphthenic acids and the extracted organic acids revealed an unresolved "hump" formed by the presence of many overlapping peaks. Microbial activity directed against the commercial mixture of naphthenic acids converted approximately 50% of organic carbon into CO2 and resulted in a reduction in many of the gas chromatographic peaks associated with this mixture. Acute toxicity testing utilizing the Microtox test revealed a complete absence of detectable toxicity following the biodegradation of the naphthenic acids. Microbial activity mineralized approximately 20% of the organic carbon present in the extracted organic acids mixture, although there was no indication of a reduction in any gas chromatographic peaks with biodegradation. Microbial attack on the organic acids mixture reduced acute toxicity to approximately one half of the original level. Respirometric measurements of microbial activity within microcosms containing oil sands tailings were used to provide further evidence that the indigenous microbial community could biodegrade naphthenic acids and components within the extracted organic acids mixture.

Lignin Peroxidase Oxidation of Aromatic Compounds in Systems Containing Organic Solvents

Lignin peroxidase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium was used to study the oxidation of aromatic compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic compounds, that are models of moieties of asphaltene molecules. The oxidations were done in systems containing water-miscible organic solvents, including methanol, isopropanol, N, N -dimethylformamide, acetonitrile, and tetrahydrofuran. Of the 20 aromatic compounds tested, 9 were oxidized by lignin peroxidase in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. These included anthracene, 1-, 2-, and 9-methylanthracenes, acenaphthene, fluoranthene, pyrene, carbazole, and dibenzothiophene. Of the compounds studied, lignin peroxidase was able to oxidize those with ionization potentials of <8 eV (measured by electron impact). The reaction products contain hydroxyl and keto groups. In one case, carbon-carbon bond cleavage, yielding anthraquinone from 9-methylanthracene, was detected. Kinetic constants and stability characteristics of lignin peroxidase were determined by using pyrene as the substrate in systems containing different amounts of organic solvent. Benzyl alkylation of lignin peroxidase improved its activity in a system containing water-miscible organic solvent but did not increase its resistance to inactivation at high solvent concentrations.

Effect of water-miscible organic solvents on the catalytic activity of cytochrome c

The effect of five water-miscible organic solvents (tetrahydrofuran, N,N-dimethylformamide, acetonitrile, 2-propanol, and methanol) on the oxidation of pinacyanol chloride (Quinaldine Blue) by horse heart cytochrome c was determined. Hydrogen peroxide was used as the oxidant, and a change in catalytic property of the dissolved protein was observed after a certain threshold concentration of the organic solvent had been reached. The maximum specific activity was correlated with the Dimroth-Reichardt parameter for the solvents, which is directly related to the free energy of the solvation process. The kinetic constants for the oxidation of pinacyanol chloride were determined in systems containing different proportions of tetrahydrofuran. The best catalytic efficiency (kcat/KM,app) was obtained in a system containing 50% tetrahydrofuran in phosphate buffer. In a mixture containing 90% tetrahydrofuran, cytochrome c showed 18% of its maximum activity. The inactivation of cytochrome c was mainly due to the presence of hydrogen peroxide, and a direct correlation was found between the inactivation constant and the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the system. The chemical modifications and immobilization of cytochrome c were able to change its biocatalytic activity and stability in the organic solvent system. The kinetic constants and the inactivation of three other type c cytochromes, from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough in a system containing 90% tetrahydrofuran were compared with those of cytochrome c from horse heart. Cytochrome c551 from P. aeruginosa showed the best stability against hydrogen peroxide and a higher catalytic efficiency than that of horse heart cytochrome c.

Use of Fluorinated Compounds To Detect Aromatic Metabolites from m -Cresol in a Methanogenic Consortium: Evidence for a Demethylation Reaction

Anaerobic sewage sludge was used to enrich a methanogenic m -cresol-degrading consortium. 6-Fluoro-3-methylphenol was synthesized and added to subcultures of the consortium with m -cresol. This caused the accumulation of 4-hydroxy-2-methylbenzoic acid. In a separate experiment, the addition of 3-fluorobenzoic acid caused the transient accumulation of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid. Inhibition with bromoethanesulfonic acid caused the accumulation of benzoic acid. Thus, the proposed degradation pathway was m -cresol → 4-hydroxy-2-methylbenzoic acid → 4-hydroxybenzoic acid → benzoic acid. The m -cresol-degrading consortium was able to convert exogenous 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and benzoic acid to methane. In addition, for each metabolite of m -cresol identified, the corresponding fluorinated metabolite was detected, giving the following sequence: 6-fluoro-3-methylphenol → 5-fluoro-4-hydroxy-2-methylbenzoic acid → 3-fluoro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid → 3-fluorobenzoic acid. The second step in each of these pathways is a novel demethylation which was rate limiting. This demethylation reaction would likely facilitate the transformation of the methyl group to methane, which is consistent with the results of a previous study that showed that the methyl carbon of m -[ methyl - 14 C]cresol was recovered predominantly as [ 14 C]methane (D. J. Roberts, P. M. Fedorak, and S. E. Hrudey, Can. J. Microbiol. 33:335-338, 1987). The final aromatic compound in the proposed route for m -cresol metabolism was benzoic acid, and its detection in these cultures merges the pathway for the methanogenic degradation of m -cresol with those for the anaerobic metabolism of many phenols.

Biodegradation of cycloalkane carboxylic acids in oil sand tailings

The biodegradation of both an n-alkane and several carboxylated cycloalkanes was examined within tailings produced by the extraction of bitumen from the Athabasca oil sands. The carboxylated cycloalkanes examined were structurally similar to naphthenic acids that have been associated with the acute toxicity of oil sand tailings. The biodegradation potential of naphthenic acids was estimated by determining the biodegradation of both the carboxylated cycloalkanes and hexadecane in oil sand tailings. Carboxylated cycloalkanes were biodegraded within oil sand tailings, although compounds with methyl substitutions on the cycloalkane ring were more resistant to microbial degradation. Microbial activity against hexadecane and certain carboxylated cycloalkanes was found to be nitrogen and phosphorus limited.

Methanogenic Degradation of Poly(3-Hydroxyalkanoates)

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and the copolymer poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) were fermented to methane and carbon dioxide within 16 days by an anaerobic sewage sludge consortium. The cultures adapted quickly to metabolize these polymeric compounds, and between 83 and 96% of the substrate carbon was transformed to methane and carbon dioxide.

Mineralization of [14C]hexadecane and [14C]phenanthrene in crude oil: specificity among bacterial isolates

Bacteria isolated from freshwater, marine, and estuarine samples were tested for the ability to produce 14CO2 from n-[1-14C]hexadecane or [9-14C]phenanthrene added to Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Of 138 isolates tested, 54 (39%) mineralized the model aliphatic compound hexadecane and 6 (4%) mineralized the model aromatic compound phenanthrene. None mineralized both compounds. There was no apparent correlation between degradative ability and genus or source. Additional hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria from diverse sources were tested and found to mineralize either hexadecane or phenanthrene. Of 61 hexadecane- and 21 phenanthrene-mineralizing bacteria tested, none mineralized both model compounds. Selected isolates and commercially available cultures were tested for mineralization of specific 14C-labelled mono-, di-, and tri-cyclic aromatics. An apparent hierarchy of degradation was observed: strains mineralizing the mono- and di-cyclic aromatics toluene and naphthalene did not mineralize biphenyl or the tricyclic aromatics anthracene and phenanthrene, whereas those strains that mineralized the tricyclic aromatics also mineralized the smaller substrates. Similarly, not all n-alkane-mineralizing isolates tested mineralized the isoprenoid pristane. A combined culture consisting of one aliphatic- and one aromatic-degrading isolate was tested for mineralization of the model compounds and for degradation of other crude oil components by gas chromatography. No synergism or antagonism was observed compared with degradation by the individual isolates.

CO 2 Incorporation and 4-Hydroxy-2-Methylbenzoic Acid Formation during Anaerobic Metabolism of m -Cresol by a Methanogenic Consortium

The metabolism of m -cresol by methanogenic cultures enriched from domestic sewage sludge was investigated. In the initial studies, bromoethanesulfonic acid was used to inhibit methane production. This led to the accumulation of 4.0 � 0.8 mol of acetate per mol of m -cresol metabolized. These results suggested that CO 2 incorporation occurred because each molecule of m -cresol contained seven carbon atoms, whereas four molecules of acetate product contained a total of eight carbon atoms. To verify this, [ 14 C]bicarbonate was added to bromoethanesulfonic acid-inhibited cultures, and those cultures yielded [ 14 C]acetate. Of the label recovered as acetate, 89% was found in the carboxyl position. Similar cultures fed [ methyl - 14 C] m -cresol yielded methyl-labeled acetate. A 14 C-labeled transient intermediate was detected in cultures given either m -cresol and [ 14 C]bicarbonate or bicarbonate and [ methyl - 14 C] m -cresol. The intermediate was identified as 4-hydroxy-2-methylbenzoic acid. In addition, another metabolite was detected and identified as 2-methylbenzoic acid. This compound appeared to be produced only sporadically, and it accumulated in the medium, suggesting that the dehydroxylation of 4-hydroxy-2-methylbenzoic acid led to an apparent dead-end product.

Microbial degradation of n-alkyl tetrahydrothiophenes found in petroleum

Although n-alkyl-substituted tetrahydrothiophenes are found in nonbiodegraded petroleums, they are not found in petroleums which have undergone biodegradation in their reservoirs. These observations suggested that this group of compounds with alkyl chain lengths from approximately C10 to at least C30 is biodegradable. Two of these sulfides, 2-n-dodecyltetrahydrothiophene (DTHT) and 2-n-undecyltetrahydrothiophene, were synthesized, and their biodegradabilities were tested by using five gram-positive, n-alkane-degrading bacterial isolates. The alkyl side chains of these compounds were oxidized, and the major intermediates found in 2-n-undecyltetrahydrothiophene- and DTHT-metabolizing cultures were 2-tetrahydrothiophenecarboxylic acid (THTC) and 2-tetrahydrothiopheneacetic acid (THTA), respectively. Four n-alkane-degrading fungi were also shown to degrade DTHT, yielding both THTA and THTC. Quantitation of tetrahydrothiophene ring-containing products in 28-day-old bacterial and fungal cultures suggested that THTC and THTA were metabolized further to unidentified products. In addition, two of the bacterial isolates were shown to degrade a mixture of n-alkyl tetrahydrothiophenes isolated from Bellshill Lake crude oil.

Microbial release of 226Ra2+ from (Ba,Ra)SO4 sludges from uranium mine wastes

226Ra2+ is removed from uranium mine effluents by coprecipitation with BaSO4. (Ba,Ra)SO4 sludge samples from two Canadian mine sites were found to contain active heterotrophic populations of aerobic, anaerobic, denitrifying, and sulfate-reducing bacteria. Under laboratory conditions, sulfate reduction occurred in batch cultures when carbon sources such as acetate, glucose, glycollate, lactate, or pyruvate were added to samples of (Ba,Ra)SO4 sludge. No external sources of nitrogen or phosphate were required for this activity. Further studies with lactate supplementation showed that once the soluble SO4(2-) in the overlying water was depleted, Ba2+ and 226Ra2+ were dissolved from the (Ba,Ra)SO4 sludge, with the concurrent production of S2-. Levels of dissolved 226Ra2+ reached approximately 400 Bq/liter after 10 weeks of incubation. Results suggest that the ultimate disposal of these sludges must maintain conditions to minimize the activity of the indigenous sulfate-reducing bacteria to ensure that unacceptably high levels of 226Ra2+ are not released to the environment.

Fungal Metabolism of n -Alkylbenzenes

Isolates of Paecilomyces, Verticillium, Beauveria , and Penicillium species were tested for ability to metabolize a variety of n -alkylbenzenes. Minimum side chain lengths were required for metabolism of these substrates. These were C 4 for the Paecilomyces sp., C 8 for the Verticillium sp., and C 9 for the other two isolates. Growth on dodecylbenzene yielded benzoic and phenylacetic acids as transient intermediates, and these acids supported growth of the isolates.

Oil-degrading capabilities of yeasts and fungi isolated from coastal marine environments

Seventy-four yeasts and 224 fungi were isolated from marine water and sediment samples taken from the Strait of Juan de Fuca and northern Puget Sound. When these isolates were grown in the presence of Prudhoe Bay crude oil, only three yeasts and 63 fungi were able to degrade some or all of the n-alkanes. None degraded the isoprenoids, pristane and phytane. Forty-seven isolates were identified as Penicillium species and of these, 39 attacked the n-alkanes in the crude oil. Twelve organisms which degrade n-alkanes were tested for their ability to mineralize [14C]naphthalene and [14C]phenanthrene which had been added to the crude oil. No 14CO2 was detected from any of the cultures containing these compounds. Capillary gas chromatographic analyses of the aromatic fractions from these 12 cultures showed no loss of hydrocarbons or sulfur hetero-cycles, indicating that they were unable to completely or partially oxidize any of the resolvable compounds in this fraction.