Personality factors related to black teenage pregnancy and abortion

48 pregnant adolescents who applied for therapeutic abortions (TAs) were compared with 55 adolescents who planned to have their babies (Terms) and 67 adolescents who were not pregnant (Controls) on the California Psychological Inventory (CPI). All the subjects were single, black, and ages 15-16. CPI results point to psychological differences with the Controls being most socialized, followed by the TAs, and then the Terms. Term girls seem to be experiencing a void and appear to be trying to fill it by assuming an adult role and having a baby; the TAs do not seem to have these same needs. In addition, those girls who became pregnant and described the relationship with the putative father as casual, appear on the CPI to have more daily problems, lack socialization, be less clear thinking, and have poor self-control. Pregnant girls who have good communication with their mothers showed no differences on the CPI from girls with poor communication with their mothers.

HIV-related attitudes and risk behavior of young adolescent mothers

This article reports on the prevalence of HIV-related risk behaviors among young adolescent mothers. To determine the facilitators and barriers to condom use for young adolescent mothers, a survey of HIV-related knowledge, attitudes and behavior and focus groups was conducted. Young mothers (N = 58) have basic knowledge and some personal concern about HIV, but also hold common misconceptions about HIV and people with AIDS. Despite their anxiety about HIV, almost half rarely or never protect themselves against HIV by using a condom. Although 70% of the sample use hormonal contraceptives, more than one third of the sample have had a second child within an average of 18 months after the birth of their first baby. Personal concern about HIV was significantly associated with consistency of condom use. Because of low rates of condom use and substantial rates of multiple sex partners, STDs and second pregnancies, disadvantaged adolescent mothers are at risk of exposure to HIV. Increased personalized concern for HIV may lead to greater motivations for safer behavior for these mothers. In addition to protecting their own safety, the protection of their child may be an important motivator for safe behavior. Cultural taboos against safe sex and the perception of such behavior as "unfeminine" also need to be addressed for these women.

Sex, contraception and childbearing among high-risk youth: do different factors influence males and females?

CONTEXT

The likelihood that adolescents will engage in sexual activity, use contraceptives or become parents is influenced by a range of attitudes and behaviors. These factors may differ for males and females.

METHODS

Data on female respondents to the 1979-1992 waves of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and the linked 1994 young adult data file on their children provided background information on 959 adolescents who had been born to young mothers. Partial correlation analysis was used to examine the factors related to sexual behavior, contraceptive use and childbirth, controlling for maternal and familial characteristics, in this relatively disadvantaged sample.

RESULTS

Youth who are inclined toward risk-taking and those who have run away from home are more likely than others to be sexually active. For young women, having intercourse at an early age, not using contraceptives and having a child are linked with depression, low self-esteem and little sense of control over their lives. The results for young men are less consistent and often in the opposite direction. Young people who have become parents evidence greater maturity than their childless peers; women are less likely to consume alcohol or to spend time with friends who drink, and men are more likely to participate in socially productive work.

CONCLUSIONS

Although sexual behavior is tied to risk-taking in both adolescent males and females, some noticeable psychological differences are evidenced early. Behaviorally, there is room for optimism, in that young parents appear to adopt more mature traits.

Adolescent childbearing in developing countries: a global review

This article discusses the current levels and recent trends in the rate of adolescent childbearing, the timing of the first birth, and births to unmarried women for 43 developing countries. Differences in rates of adolescent childbearing by residence and level of education are also examined. The analysis is based on nationally representative fertility surveys. Substantial declines in adolescent fertility have occurred in North Africa and Asia, but levels are still high in some countries. Declines are beginning to occur in sub-Saharan Africa, but current levels are still high in most countries of this region, and the proportion of births to unmarried adolescents is increasing in some countries. In Latin America, where the level of teenage childbearing is moderate, declines are less prevalent and some small increases have occurred. Higher education is associated with lower rates of adolescent childbearing, but other socioeconomic changes cancel or reduce this effect in several countries.

The changing self-concept of pregnant and parenting teens

Self-concept has been recognized and researched as a powerful variable in relation to teenage pregnancy. Low self-concept frequently has been identified as a cause and consequence of teenage pregnancy as well as a factor in participation and compliance with health care recommendations. Most of the research on self-concept and teenage pregnancy occurred in the 1970s to mid-1980s, and all found lower self-concept in pregnant and parenting teens when compared with their nonpregnant contemporaries and normative data. This study found the opposite to be true. The 126 pregnant and parenting teens in this study had higher self-concepts than the reported normative group. Also, important variations in self-concept were found in relation to sociodemographics. This potentially suggests that what was once known about this aggregate is no longer true, and a reinvestigation is warranted. The purpose of this study was to reinvestigate the self-concept of pregnant and parenting teens and compare them with published normative data and to examine the relationship between sociodemographics and self-concept. The study employed a survey methodology. Data were analyzed using frequencies, percentages, measures of central tendency and dispersion, t test, chi-square test, and analysis of variance. This study found that pregnant and parenting teens had a higher self-concept than the normative data on nonpregnant teens reported by the research instrument authors. Furthermore, this older sample of pregnant and parenting teens (mean age, 17.83 years) had self-concepts more similar to the junior high school normative sample than their senior high school-age contemporaries. Also, this study found that self-concept varies according to the pregnant and parenting teens; ages, years of schooling, types of schools attended, income sources, and receipt of public assistance. This study has implications for health care providers, health and public educators, and nursing researchers in terms of program development and evaluation, health marketing, and development of primary prevention strategies.

Adolescent mothers four years later: narratives of the self and visions of the future

This study examined patterns, variations, and existential turning points in young mothers' narratives of self and their visions of the future as part of a larger hermeneutic, longitudinal study. The study was philosophically based in the phenomenology of everyday practices as inherently meaningful, situated, and historically derived and drew on dialogical views of the self. The sample consisted of 13 (of the original 16) young mothers and family members who had been interviewed 4 years earlier. For the present study, data consisted of life history accounts of the intervening 4 years, stories of caregiving routines, and recent coping episodes of parenting elicited through in-depth interviews. Findings offer a situated understanding of young mothering and highlight meaningful distinctions in the ways young mothers experience the self and project themselves into the future. The discovery of patterns and variations in the young mother's sense of self and future have implications for guiding clinical practice and are preliminary to designing programs and interventions that are tailored to the practical understanding and situated possibilities of young mothers.

Age differences between minors who give birth and their adult partners

The role of adult men in adolescent childbearing has received heightened attention in recent years, and a new policy efforts have focused on statutory rape laws as a way to reduce adolescent childbearing. Analyses of the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey indicate, however, that these policies would not apply to most teenage births. Among mothers aged 15-17 who had a child in 1988, 27% had a partner at least five years older than themselves. In addition, since 23% of minors with older partners were married at the time of the infant's birth, 21% of babies born to unmarried minors were fathered by substantially older men. While births to young mothers and older men raise social concerns, these births make up a small share of all teenage childbearing: Only 8% of all births to 15-19-year-olds are to unmarried minors with a partner five or more years older.

African American teen mothers' perceptions of parenting

The purpose of this study was to describe the childbearing African American teens' perceptions of parenting based on their own experiences. Focus group discussions were held with 17 teens in their school setting for 50 minutes each week. Group discussions were audiotaped, tapes were transcribed, and then analyzed for common themes. The unmarried teens ranged in age from 15 to 18 years. Findings indicated that the teens depended on grandmothers to provide child care and for information about parenting. The teens identified parenting problems including crying, discipline, and conflicts dealing with grandmothers and the child's father. Teens wanted more information about breastfeeding and minor childhood diseases. The researchers identified that teens lacked information about their children's growth and development and safety issues. Findings have implications for nurses who care for childbearing teens and their children; and those involved in planning and implementing parent education programs for African American teen mothers and their families. Further research is indicated with larger samples of African American teens; and to explore the context of family relationships in which teen mothers and grandmothers share parenting for the teens' children.

Early predictors of nonmarital first pregnancy and abortion

Most research on abortion has focused on women's characteristics at the time of the procedure, but individuals' behavior may also be shaped by their experiences from younger ages. This study uses longitudinal data on 351 California white women aged 27-30 in 1990-1991 to identify characteristics in childhood and adolescence that predict who will have a nonmarital first pregnancy and, of those who do, which women will seek an abortion. Bivariate analyses reveal that psychosocial characteristics indicating a strong sense of autonomy, such as feeling it is important not to be tied down and engaging in socially undesirable behavior, are significantly associated with the likelihood of having a nonmarital first pregnancy (odds ratios of 1.7 and 1.5, respectively), but family characteristics are not. However, among women who have a first pregnancy out of wedlock, the odds of having an abortion are mostly influenced by family rather than psychological characteristics, particularly having been a good student and having a well-educated mother (2.0 and 1.7).

Nonmarital childbearing in the 1980s: assessing the importance of women 25 and older

Nonmarital births to women in their late 20s and 30s have attracted increasing attention in recent years. Marital and birth history data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics confirm that births to unmarried women aged 25 and older accounted for a larger proportion of all nonmarital births in the 1980s than in the 1970s (36% vs. 22%). Most of these births were to women who had been previously married or who had other children: Births to never-married, first-time mothers aged 25 and older accounted for only 9% of all nonmarital births to older women in the 1980s. The majority of nonmarital births to older women in the 1980s-58%-involved women who began having children as teenagers.

The younger sisters of childbearing adolescents: their attitudes, expectations, and behaviors

To examine the precursors of the disproportionately high rates of early childbearing among the younger sisters of adolescent mothers, this study compared the attitudes, expectations, and behaviors of early adolescent girls (M age = 12.93) who had an adolescent childbearing sister (n = 75) to those of early adolescent girls who had only adolescent nonchildbearing sisters (n = 348). Results indicated that the younger sisters of childbearing adolescents were consistently different from the younger sisters of nonchildbearing adolescents on key characteristics known to be correlated with early sexual activity and adolescent childbearing: that is, they were more accepting of nonmarital adolescent childbearing, perceived younger ages for typical life-course transitions (best age to get married, have first child), had more pessimistic school and career expectations, and were more likely to have engaged in problem behaviors (smoke cigarettes, skip school). These younger sister characteristics were associated with a nonvirgin sexual status in the current sample and with high closeness and high rivalry with the childbearing sister but could not be accounted for by such within-family experiences as subjects' mothers' permissiveness or lack of mother-daughter communication. Findings suggest the mechanisms by which the younger sisters of childbearing teens themselves become vulnerable to early parenthood.

Poverty, welfare and single teenage mothers: a primary health care concern

This paper draws upon the international literature to support the thesis that poverty is more the cause, then the effect, of single teenage childbearing. The paper demonstrates that the rate of single teenage births has dramatically declined over the past twenty years while the level of government support for sole parents has significantly increased over the same period (an example of current rates of payment is included). The author asserts that there is no direct relationship between the level of welfare support and the incidence of adolescent childbearing. Midwives who function as primary health care providers should be aware of the socio-political environment as it affects disadvantaged young women.

Romanticism and self-esteem among pregnant adolescents, adolescent mothers, and nonpregnant, nonparenting teens

Feelings of romanticism and self-esteem among pregnant adolescents, adolescent mothers, and a control group of nonpregnant, nonparenting adolescents were investigated. The Bachman Self-Esteem Scale (Bachman, O'Malley, & Johnston, 1978) and the Dean Romanticism Scale (Dean, 1961) were distributed to 649 U.S. female adolescents--255 pregnant adolescents, 121 adolescent mothers, and 273 teenagers in the control group. For romanticism, the results indicated a significant main effect for group (pregnant teens, teen mothers, and a control group consisting of nonpregnant, nonparenting teenagers) and ethnicity (White, Hispanic, African American, and Asian) but not for age (13 to 15 years and 16 to 19 years). The pregnant teens and teen mothers thus had a higher degree of romanticism than the control group did. For self-esteem, there was a significant main effect for race, but not for group or for age. This main effect was qualified by a significant interaction between ethnicity and age.

[A preliminary analysis of unmarried mothers who were heads of households in Brazil during 1970 and 1980]

"This paper reports on an attempt to use census data from Brazil in 1970 and 1980 to investigate a rise in household headship by unmarried mothers 15-49.... Demographic analysis can be useful in decomposing the change into that due to a changed propensity of women 15-49 years of age to be unmarried, to have children if unmarried, and to head their own household if an unmarried mother. This was further analyzed in terms of age, marital status (whether single, divorced/separated or widowed), region of residence, and urban-rural status....However, the research encountered data problems that make firm conclusions impossible...." This is a translation of a paper originally presented at the 1992 Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America. (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Predictors of stress in adolescents: an exploratory study of pregnant and of parenting females

This study compared level of stress in pregnant and in parenting adolescentfemales and identified the strongest predictors of overall stress and of various sources of stress. Questionnaire datafrom 60 pregnant and 92 parenting females enrolled in 15 programs for pregnant and parenting adolescents were used. No differences were found in overall stress orsources of stress between the two groups. For pregnant adolescents, esteem was a significant predictor of overall stress, stress from deviant behaviors, and stress from "general distress." Frequent use of coping strategies and age also were significant predictors of stressfrom autonomyfor pregnant adolescents. For parenting adolescents, satisfaction with social support was the sole predictor of overall stress and stress stemmingfrom autonomy. The findings are discussed and recommendations for programs to address the unique needs of pregnant and of parenting adolescents are emphasized.

The ethnographic context of illness among single-women-headed households in rural Peru

Peru is undergoing many deleterious economic and social changes, and the health consequences for families headed by single women is of special concern. However, not all single mothers' families may be at similar risk of morbidity. My purpose in the present study was to determine whether variation in illness prevalence was associated with ostensibly small differences in socioeconomic resources and physical living conditions in areas like Peru. I used both qualitative and quantitative methods in this study. The sample included single-women-headed households from the rural Nuñoa District, located in the southern Peruvian Andes (N = 22 families with 90 individuals). Quantitative cross-sectional survey results suggested that the mother's formal education, the availability of a latrine, drinking water contamination, the gender ratio of the household, and the quality of the social support network were key risk factors. They statistically predicted 35-91% of the morbidity variance between families (p < or = .03-.0001). I illustrate these findings in three ethnographic case studies. The case studies show how the degree of illness among single-women-headed families was affected by small differences in their social and physical living conditions.

Culture and class as determinants of out-of-wedlock childbearing and poverty during late adolescence

Out-of-wedlock childbearing during late adolescence is associated with poverty, both before and after the transition to parenthood. This article compares 2 linked data sets to examine the effects of income level and membership in race/ethnic categories on whether teen pregnancies terminate in abortion and whether those carried to term are legitimated by marriage. One data set consists of ethnographic data from 3 neighborhoods in Brooklyn, New York, that are predominantly African-American, Hispanic (mostly Puerto Rican), and non-Latino White, respectively. The other consists of all birth and abortion records from the health areas of those neighborhoods. Both data sets show higher rates of abortion and lower rates of marriage for poorer people, along with distinctive race/ethnic patterns that cannot be reduced to income differences. The results support the predictions of expectancy theory and show the strong independent role of culture in processes of family and household formation.

Relinquishment of premarital births: evidence from national survey data

According to 1982 and 1988 NSFG data, unmarried white women are far less likely than they were in the early 1970s to place their children for adoption. The levels of relinquishment among black women have remained low throughout this period, and relinquishment among Hispanic women may be virtually nonexistent. Multivariate analysis of the determinants of relinquishment among unmarried non-Hispanic white women suggests that having a well-educated mother, being in school at the time of conception, having no labor force experience, and being older are positively associated with placing a child for adoption. Sons were found to be less likely to be relinquished than daughters.

Antenatal care and educational problems of unmarried teenage mothers in Nairobi

Part of a detailed analysis of 864 unmarried teenage mothers delivering in Pumwani Maternity Hospital and Kenyatta National Hospital is presented. Teenage pregnancy amounted for 42.3% of all deliveries of unmarried mothers. Most teenage patients were above 16 years of age, had a religious background of wide coverage, had low quality antenatal care and low education. 94.6% were found to be primigravidas. This dominance has also been found by other workers.

The incidence of unplanned and unwanted pregnancies among live births from health visitor records

A survey of health visitor records has indicated that approximately one-third of pregnancies resulting in live births are unplanned. The data further revealed an association between planning of pregnancies and socio-demographic variables and use of preventive health care for infants.

A comparative study of plans for infant care made by adolescent and adult mothers

This study evaluated the choices of primiparous adolescent and adult mothers about whom they believe will care for their infant after they go home from the hospital. The responses of 70 younger adolescents (age 14-17 years) and 37 older adolescents (age 18-19 years) were compared with 80 adult (age 20-25 years) primiparas regarding their plans for school or work, type of child care arrangements planned, and the father's anticipated involvement in the care of the baby. There were no statistical differences among our three age groups. The results show that first-time mothers in all three age groups more often expect themselves to be the primary care giver for their infant, all age groups expected their mother to help most when they lived with her, and about three quarters of each age group expect the husband/baby's father to help in some way.

Teenage mothers and their children: risks and problems: a review

Adolescent mothers and their offspring are a high risk group broth physically and emotionally. Poverty, malnutrition, complications of pregnancy, emotional problems such as depression, drug and alcohol use, are all risks for the mother. Children are also at greater risk for physical, cognitive and emotional problems. It is therefore important to identify factors which influence outcome on adolescent mothers and their children in order to suggest interventions which will more positively affect the physical and psychological health of this increasing population.

Breast-feeding attitudes and practices among adolescents

Breast-feeding attitudes of 128 low-income, pregnant adolescents were assessed using a questionnaire developed for this population. Teens who had been breast-fed as infants had more positive attitudes than bottle-fed teens (p less than 0.002); no differences in attitudes were found by race or age. Pregnant teens who planned to breast-feed their infants had higher attitude scores than those who planned to bottle feed or who were uncertain (p less than 0.001). Of the sample, 32.4% subsequently breast-fed their baby; these teen mothers had more positive attitude scores than the teen mothers who bottle fed (p less than 0.001). The prenatal infant feeding plans of these pregnant teens were significantly related to their postnatal feeding practices (p less than 0.001). Selected implications of these data for health care professionals are discussed.

Factors influencing breast-feeding among adolescents

During a 15-month study period, 244 adolescent mothers under 18 years of age were surveyed, of whom 53% elected to breast-feed. A subset of 60 primiparous breast-feeding adolescents were studied regarding the influence of several factors on the duration of breast-feeding. An attitude questionnaire was administered in the hospital within 48 hours of delivery. Follow-up interviews were obtained by telephone or in person at approximately 2 weeks and 2 months after birth. Eighty-three percent made the decision to breast-feed before the third trimester. Thirty-five percent discontinued breast-feeding within the first postpartum month, the most common reason being "nipple confusion" in the infant; 22% nursed for more than 1 month but less than 2 months, and 43% breast-fed for 2 months or more. None of the variables examined (maternal age, ethnic group, education level, involvement of the baby's father, timing of the breast-feeding decision, intended duration of breast-feeding, age at which formula supplementation was started, or availability of maternal support) was predictive of the duration of breast-feeding. Contrary to adolescent stereotypes, 65% of mothers chose breast-feeding because it was "good for the baby," and 67% identified the "closeness" of the nursing relationship as the most enjoyable part of breast-feeding. Twenty-eight percent cited modesty issues about breast-feeding as the greatest disadvantage, and 17% returned to work or school within the first 2 postpartum months, posing additional obstacles to breast-feeding. Our data suggest that adolescents are receptive to breast-feeding, but they may require close follow-up and anticipatory guidance tailored to their individual needs.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The weakening link between marriage and the care of children

Over the last 20 years, the proportion of births that occur to unmarried women has increased dramatically, children are now much more likely to experience the breakup of their parents' marriage, and a much greater proportion of children live at least part of their childhood with only one parent. These changes have occurred predominantly among nonwhites and low-income women and children, but have occurred among whites and higher income women as well. Since these changes have done well-documented damage to children's socioeconomic conditions and prospects, an important issue is whether we can improve children's well-being by strengthening the link between marriage and child care. For a number of reasons, however--cultural, political and economic--the role of public policy is limited. Nevertheless, stronger public support is possible for people who wish to marry or stay married, but who lack the resources to do so. In a nation like Japan, child care is left almost entirely to the family, while in Sweden, the state assumes much of the responsibility; the United States seems to occupy a sort of middle ground. It is likely that U.S. social policy will continue to rely on both the family and the state to care for dependent children, a strategy that implies a continuing tension between public acceptance of changes in family life and public sentiment for a return to older ways.

The relation of family and partner support to the adjustment of adolescent mothers

The influence of teenage mothers' perceptions of family and partner social support on their postpartum adjustment was examined in this study. A structured interview with teenage mothers was conducted prenatally and a follow-up assessment was done when their children were 8 months of age. Both partner and family support were related to greater satisfaction with life, but each was associated in a different way with parenting and concerns about daily living. The results indicate the importance of distinguishing between specific sources of social support and different aspects of adjustment to teen parenthood.

Teenagers willing to consider single parenthood: who is at greatest risk?

Data from the High School and Beyond panel study indicate that of 13,061 female high school sophomores who responded to both the baseline questionnaire in 1980 and a 1982 follow-up, 41 percent of blacks, 29 percent of Hispanics and 23 percent of non-Hispanic whites said they either would or might consider having a child outside of marriage. Such willingness was higher among young women who, according to their background characteristics, were at greater risk of teenage parenthood. In addition, young black women were more willing to consider having a child while single than were white or Hispanic respondents, at every level of risk. The data also show that, with the possible exception of Hispanics, willing respondents generally registered much higher rates of nonmarital childbearing over the two years following the baseline survey than the young women unwilling to consider nonmarital childbearing. Respondents' reports on their own disciplinary problems in school and on their class-cutting and absenteeism showed that such problem behavior was related to the teenagers' willingness to consider nonmarital childbearing: Proportionally more of the respondents who ranked high on a scale of problem behavior were willing to do so, even when background differences were controlled for. In addition, when the respondents' educational expectations were used as proxy measures of the potential opportunity costs of single parenthood, the results revealed that the higher their educational expectations, the lower their willingness to have an out-of-wedlock birth.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)