Substance use treatment completion and criminal justice system contact in Chile: A retrospective, linked data cohort study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Substance use treatment (SUT) has shown to be effective in reducing self-reported offending; however, the association between SUT completion and criminal justice system (CJS) contact has been underexplored, especially in Latin America. This study aimed to estimate the association between SUT completion status and (1) any subsequent CJS contact and (2) CJS contact leading to imprisonment, at 1, 3 and 5 years post-discharge, in Chile.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study using multivariable survival analysis based on linked administrative data from 2010 to 2019.

SETTING

This study took place in Chile, where SUT is available at no cost through Chile's publicly funded health-care, and is provided in outpatient and inpatient modalities in public and private centres.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 70 854 individuals received their first SUT from 2010 to 2019. They were mainly males (76.3%), and their main substance used at admission was cocaine paste (39.2%).

MEASUREMENTS

SUT completion status included completion, late dropout (≥ 3 months) and early dropout (< 3 months). Outcomes were (1) any CJS contact and (2) CJS contact leading to imprisonment after baseline treatment. We estimated the association between treatment completion and CJS contact through flexible parametric Royston-Parmar models while adjusting for several covariates.

FINDINGS

Those who completed SUT (27.2%) were less likely to have any CJS contact at 5 years post-SUT compared with those who dropped out late [with a gap of -9.5%, 95% confidence interval (CI) = -8.7, -10.3] and early (-11.2%, 95% CI = -10.1, -12.3). Also, those who completed SUT were less likely to have CJS contact leading to imprisonment at 5 years post-SUT compared with those who dropped out late (-2.6%, 95% CI = -2.2, -3.1) and early (-4.0%, 95% CI = -3.3, -4.6). These differences were also observed at 1 and 3 years post-SUT for each outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

In Chile, completion of substance use treatment appears to be associated with lower probabilities of both any criminal justice system contact and contact leading to imprisonment.

Correctional policies for the management of trans people in Australian prisons

Background: Despite existing international standards for the prison management of incarcerated trans people, carceral policies across Australian jurisdictions vary in their availability, breadth, and appropriateness. Trans populations in prison represent a vulnerable population, having specific needs surrounding their health, safety, and wellbeing. Prior reviews into Australian carceral policies highlight where contemporary prison practices fall short of meeting those specific needs. Aims/method: A review was conducted on the available carceral policy documents of each Australian correctional service regime, examining their coverage of issues including healthcare access, placement decisions, and classification systems against international standards and prior Australian recommendations. Forty-one relevant policy documents were reviewed against eighteen benchmark recommendations, along with supplementary data. Results: Australian jurisdictions varied widely on the coverage of the reviewed areas. Benchmark attainment ranged from twelve out of eighteen (Victoria and Western Australia) to three out of eighteen (Queensland). The use of administrative segregation was identified as the area in most need of policy reform. No jurisdiction met every benchmark.Conclusions: This review highlights the need for carceral policy reform across Australian jurisdictions in order to meet the unique needs of incarcerated trans people, especially in the areas of administrative segregation and healthcare access. The review also highlights the need for carceral policy reform to bring Australian jurisdictions in line with each other on the management of incarcerated trans people, to reduce disparate outcomes across states and territories.

Experiences of Sentencing and the Pains of Punishment: Prisoners' Perspectives

Although sentencing is often described as a human process, the subjective experiences of those subject to sentencing are seldom discussed or highlighted as an important source of guidance for how sentencing might be made more fair, consistent, or proportionate. Tyler's work on the links between experiences of procedural justice and perceptions of legitimacy in the criminal justice system show that how people are treated during sentencing and/or when serving their sentence matters in that it impacts their long-term compliance with the law. However, we suggest here that it may not only be long-term compliance that is impacted; subjective experiences of imprisonment, in terms of the pains of imprisonment, may also be exacerbated for those whose experiences of the sentencing process are predominantly negative. This article draws on 37 in-depth interviews with Irish prisoners that explored their subjective experiences of their own sentencing in court and how this related to their subjective experiences of their prison sentences. Those who felt they had received unreasonably harsh or unfair sentences, or who felt they were effectively excluded from the sentencing process, were more likely to experience specific pains and increased salience of punishment. The article concludes by arguing that these findings have a role to play in educating sentencers about how their treatment of convicted persons during sentencing can have meaningful, long-term consequences on the subjective experiences of those serving prison sentences.

Sex Differences in Inmates: Anger, Sensitivity to Provocation and Family History of Imprisonment

Little research has explored the role of aggression, anger, and family history of incarceration as they relate to female offenders. The current study aimed to address this gap in the literature by investigating these possible risk factors for incarceration among both men and women. The survey involved 123 (61 female and 62 male) prisoners convicted for violent crimes and a comparison group of 118 (60 female and 58 male) adults from the community. We found that women (convicted and non-convicted) were more sensitive to provocation than men, while community adults showed higher levels of trait anger than prisoners. Detainees were more likely than community adults to have a relative in prison. Although male and female inmates were equally likely to have a relative in prison, they differed in their relation to the imprisoned relative. Male and female prisoners showed increased risk for incarceration of same sex, first degree relatives (father and brothers for men, and mothers for women). These results may contribute to improved understanding of incarcerated populations. As such, this represents a critical first step in creating recovery programs that are more gender appropriate.

Benefits and risks of conjugal visits in prison: A systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

Imprisonment impacts on lives beyond the prisoner's. In particular, family and intimate relationships are affected. Only some countries permit private conjugal visits in prison between a prisoner and community living partner.

AIMS

Our aim was to find evidence from published international literature on the safety, benefits or harms of such visits.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was conducted using broad search terms, including words like 'private' and 'family', to maximise search sensitivity but strict criteria for inclusion - of visits unobserved by prison staff and away from other prisoners. All included papers were quality assessed. Two of us independently extracted data from included papers, according to a prepared checklist. Meta-analysis was considered.

RESULTS

Seventeen papers were identified from 12 independent studies, all but three of them from North America. The only study of health benefits found a positive association with maintaining sexual relationships. The three before-and-after study of partnership qualities suggested benefit, but conjugal visiting was within a wider family-support programme. Studies with in-prison behaviour as a possible outcome suggest small, if any, association, although one US-wide study found significantly fewer in-prison sexual assaults in states allowing conjugal visiting than those not. Other studies were of prisoner, staff or partner attitudes. There is little evidence of adverse effects, although two qualitative studies raise concerns about the visiting partner's sense of institutionalisation or coercion.

CONCLUSIONS

The balance of evidence about conjugal visiting is positive, but there is little of it. As stable family relationships have, elsewhere, been associated with desistance from crime, the contribution of conjugal visiting to these should be better researched.

Suicide Rates in Nordic Prisons 2000-2016

OBJECTIVE

To compare suicide rates of people in prison and the general population in the Nordic countries.

METHODS

Data on deaths by suicide and person-years for people in prison and the general population were obtained for the Nordic countries during 2000-2016. Age-standardized rate ratios were calculated.

RESULTS

The suicide rate in the Nordic countries overall was 110.1 (95% CI = 98.1, 122.2) per 100,000 person-years for people in prison. A significant decline was noted for the suicide rate of people in prison between 2000 and 2016 (p < 0.0001). The age-standardized mortality ratio was 7.4 (95% CI = 5.9-8.2) for males and 17.8 (95% CI = 7.3-33.2) for females in Denmark, Iceland, and Norway.

CONCLUSION

Despite a decreasing trend over time, excess suicide mortality was noted for people in prison.

Parental detention and psychosocial wellbeing of migrant children in Japan

Immigration policies in Japan and elsewhere have been toughened in recent years. To investigate the potential effects of parental detention on migrant children, psychosocial wellbeing of children from migrant families with and without parental detention was compared. In this cross-sectional study, adult asylum seekers and migrant workers with children staying in Japan were invited through non-governmental organizations to answer a self-administered anonymous questionnaire in June and July 2020. Children's psychosocial wellbeing was assessed based on the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. In the 49 participating families, including 28 where either parent had ever been detained in Japan, there were 85 children aged 4-17 years who were subject to the analyses. Psychosocial wellbeing of children in families with parental detention appeared to be worse than that of their counterparts, especially on the dimension of emotional problems. More attention should be paid to the wellbeing of migrant children in Japans immigration policy.

Are People Experiencing the 'Pains of Imprisonment' During the COVID-19 Lockdown?

BACKGROUND

By the end of March 2020, more than a fifth of the world's population was in various degrees of "lockdown" in order to slow the spread of COVID-19. This enforced confinement led some to liken lockdown to imprisonment. We directly compared individual's experiences of lockdown with prisoners' experiences of imprisonment in order to determine whether psychological parallels can be drawn between these two forms of confinement.

METHODS

Online surveys of adults in lockdown in the UK (N = 300) and California (N = 450) were conducted 4 and 5 weeks into lockdown in each region, respectively. The UK data was then compared to Souza and Dhami's (2010) sample of 267 medium security prisoners in England, and the Californian data was compared to Dhami et al.'s (2007) sample of 307 medium security Federal prisoners in California. We measured the effects of Group (Lockdown v. Prison) on five categories of dependent variables (i.e., activity, social contact, thoughts, feelings, and rule-breaking), controlling for demographic differences between the groups.

RESULTS

In both regions, people in lockdown thought significantly less often about missing their freedom, as well as missing their family and friends living elsewhere than did first-time prisoners. However, people in lockdown in both regions were also significantly less engaged in a range of daily activities than were first-time prisoners. Additionally, in both regions, people in lockdown reported feeling more hopeless than first-time prisoners.

CONCLUSION

Although Governments introducing lockdown policies do not intend to punish their citizens as courts do when sending convicted offenders to prison, such policies can have unintended adverse consequences. Psychological parallels can be drawn between the two forms of confinement.

COVID-19: Criminal Law, Public Assemblies and Human Rights Litigation

Australia's criminal law was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic from the outset and then progressively as statutory measures and judicial rulings on matters such as bail entitlements, judge-alone trials, sentences and applications for demonstrations and public assemblies were made by courts. This column identifies some of the major decisions made during the period of the lockdown measures between March and July 2020, and reviews significant New South Wales judgments in relation to the lawfulness of mass gatherings during the period of lockdown as expert assessments of risks of community transmission of the virus waxed and waned. It explores the importation into Australia's criminal law of public health principles for the protection of the community, and its compatibility with traditional principles of criminal justice.

The Associations between Risky Psychosocial Environment, Substance Addiction Severity and Imprisonment: A Swedish Registry Study

Objective: Both childhood and adult psychosocial stressors have been identified as links to both increased risk for substance use disorder (SUD) and increased risk of imprisonment. The aim of this retrospective study is to identify, for a sample of 14,914 adults who all were assessed for risky substance use or a SUD, the importance of having a history of psychosocial stressors compared to current addiction severity. The analyses control for age, gender and education on the likelihood of future imprisonment. Method: Baseline Addiction Severity Index data (ASI) were merged with national registry data on prison sentences from 2003 to 2016. In the analysis, a Cox regression was used to study the association between independent variables and the likelihood of future imprisonment. Results: In the regression, five variables showed significant association to increased risk of imprisonment: ASI drugs other than alcohol Composite Score (positive relationship), ASI alcohol Composite Score (negative relationship), age (younger), education (lower) and parental problems with drugs other than alcohol. The factor with strongest association with imprisonment was the ASI drugs other than alcohol Composite Score, which showed the highest HR = 10.63 (3.50-32.31) for women and HR = 5.52 (3.77-8.08) for men to predict the likelihood of imprisonment. Discussion: Research is needed on why individuals with history of psychosocial stressors have a higher likelihood of imprisonment compared to their counterparts. Findings indicate that a high ASI Composite Score for drugs other than alcohol are strong predictors of future criminality and criminal justice system involvement.

Treatment, Reintegration, and Quality of Prison Life: Perception by Inmates

This article inquires into the validity of the hypothesis on which prison sentences are formally based in Spain, according to Article 25.2 of Spanish Constitution: reeducation and social reintegration of the convicted person. For this purpose, we have analyzed the current state of prison "morals" in five penitentiary facilities located in the south of Spain through a representative sample of prisoners. They have answered a questionnaire that includes, among others, some questions connected with the following two issues: (a) their relationship with prison staff, and (b) the prison environment as related to the effectiveness of their treatment in terms of their reintegration into society. This investigation will also allow to detect possible differences in the quality of prison life in the five penitentiaries analyzed.

Did We Forget Something? Fathering Supports and Programs in Prisons in Victoria, Australia

This article draws from data gathered for an Australian Research Council-funded study conducted in Victoria and New South Wales between 2011 and 2015, which examined how dependent children are responded to when their primary carer is imprisoned. In particular, this article specifically addresses a gap in knowledge by examining the current state of fathering programs in prison in Victoria. To do so, the views of 39 primary carer fathers incarcerated in Victoria are analysed. We argue that there is a distinct lack of support for fathers in prison, acting as a barrier towards maintaining father-child relationships. Findings indicate that 79% of the fathers in this study were never offered any parenting support services or programs. By clearly highlighting the state of fathering programs in prisons in Victoria, this article offers suggestions as to how best to facilitate the connection between incarcerated fathers and their children.

Revisiting the Stanford prison experiment, again: Examining demand characteristics in the guard orientation

The day before the Stanford prison experiment began, the investigators held an orientation session for the guards in which they communicated expectations for hostile guard behavior, a flippant prisoner mindset, and the possibility of ending the study prematurely. While the study's principal investigator has minimized the influence of this orientation, critics have speculated that it provided a "script" for guard abuse. In the present studies, participants were presented with a hypothetical prison simulation study and randomly assigned as guards to an orientation session that included these expectations (Stanford orientation) or one providing basic study information. Across three studies, participants exposed to the Stanford orientation relative to a control orientation, reported greater expectations for hostile and oppressive behavior on the part of the study's investigator and from others and themselves as guards. The present results provide empirical support for speculation that the language of the guard orientation in the Stanford prison experiment sanctioned abuse among guards.

[What is the care path for a patient in ambulatory surgery?]

The inmate is a special patient. Indeed, his status requires a specific organization. The Versailles hospital centre (78) is the reference centre for the Yvelines prison and the women's prison. The majority of interventions for detained patients are performed on an outpatient basis.

Increasing Maximum Penalties for Animal Welfare Offences in South Australia-Has It Caused Penal Change?

Simple Summary

Evidence suggests that the South Australian public regard the penalties handed down in court for animal abuse as too lenient. Parliament responded to this concern when amending the Animal Welfare Act 1985 (SA), and increased the maximum penalties for animal welfare offences. However, since sentencing information is not readily accessible, it is unknown whether the increases to the maximum penalties in the legislation have caused any changes to the penalties handed down in court. This study investigated this issue by analyzing closed case files gathered from the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SA), to determine the average prison sentence and fine given for animal welfare offences. Fines and prison sentences handed down have doubled in magnitude since Parliament increased the maximum penalties. However, it remains unknown whether these increases to the average penalties are enough to effectively punish animal abusers, and if the general public is content with this outcome.

Abstract

Animal welfare legislation in South Australia underwent amendments in 2008, where all the maximum penalties for animal welfare offences were doubled. This commitment to increased penalties arguably provides evidence of the legislature’s intent with respect to penalties. Studies have speculated that the legislative intent behind the increased penalties is not being reflected in the courts. This interdisciplinary research sought to gain evidence to confirm or disprove these speculations, by quantifying the average custodial sentence and monetary fine handed down in court before and after the 2008 amendments. Furthermore, trends relating to the species of animal affected and the demographics of the offender were identified. A total of 314 RSPCA (SA) closed case files from 2006 to 2018 were converted into an electronic form. Since the amendments, the average penalties have doubled in magnitude; fines have increased from $700 to $1535, while prison sentences have increased from 37 days to 77 days. Cases of companion animal abuse were most common (75% of all cases) and the location of the offence was found to influence offending. These findings suggest that the 2008 amendments have caused the average penalties to increase. However, it is debatable whether these increases are enough to effectively punish animal abusers.

[The nurse, at the front line of the demand for care in the prison environment]

The specific nature of care in prisons requires that caregivers adapt it to the needs of the population in a particular context and environment. The prevalent pathologies of detainees guide health care missions towards actions of education and health promotion. In this context, the nursing role requires specific relational and technical skills related to general care, but also addictology, psychiatry and actions for health promotion and education.

A 17-Year National Study of Prison Suicides in Belgium

BACKGROUND

Suicide is a leading cause of mortality in prisoners worldwide, yet empirical data on this matter are lacking in Belgium.

AIMS

This study sought to describe characteristics associated with a consecutive series of suicides in Belgian prisons from 2000 to 2016 inclusive, in order to inform suicide prevention strategies.

METHOD

All documented cases of suicide ( N = 262) were reviewed using a standardized assessment checklist. Official records were abstracted for prisoners' sociodemographic, criminological, and clinical information, as well as for suicide-related characteristics.

RESULTS

Over the 17-year study period, suicides accounted for one third of all deaths in Belgian prisons. The average annual suicide rate in Belgium from 2000 to 2016 was 156.2 per 100,000 prisoners. Examination of all cases highlights both individual (psychiatric disorders and a history of suicide attempt) and situational (the early period of incarceration, interfacility transfers, and placement in solitary confinement) factors common in many prison suicides; some of them amenable to (clinical) management, which presents several potential avenues for suicide prevention.

LIMITATIONS

Given the absence of a matched control group, no conclusions could be ascertained regarding risk factors.

CONCLUSION

Suicide is a common, preventable cause of death among prisoners in Belgium. The results underscore the timely need for national standards and guidelines for suicide prevention in Belgian prisons.

Short-Term Effects of Imprisonment Length on Recidivism in the Netherlands

This article assesses the relationship between imprisonment length and recidivism. The data come from a unique longitudinal and nationwide study of Dutch prisoners, serving an average of 4.1 months of confinement (N = 1,467). A propensity score methodology is used to examine the dose-response relationship for three types of registered recidivism (i.e., reoffending, reconviction, and reincarceration) within a 6-month follow-up period. Findings indicate that length of imprisonment exerts an overall null effect on future rates of recidivism and that this conclusion holds across the various types of recidivism. These findings contribute to continuing scholarly debates over the social and economic costs of imprisonment.

Not Just Any Job Will Do: A Study on Employment Characteristics and Recidivism Risks After Release

Ex-prisoners' recidivism risks are high. Several theories state that employment can reduce these risks but emphasize that the protective role of employment is conditional on job qualities (work intensity, job duration, etc.). Longitudinal research on the role of employment in ex-prisoners' recidivism patterns is scarce, and most existing work used a simplistic employment measure (i.e., employed vs. unemployed), leaving the topic of job quality underexplored. This study examines the association between employment characteristics and recidivism among Dutch ex-prisoners. Using longitudinal data of the Prison Project ( n = 714), we found that not just any job, but particularly stable employment and jobs with a higher occupational level could help reduce crime rates among these high-risk offenders. Many ex-prisoners face a human capital deficit that complicates the guidance to high-quality jobs. It might, however, be possible to help place ex-prisoners in stable employment.

Suicide in Relation to the Experience of Stressful Life Events: A Population-Based Study

Stressful life events have been associated with high risk of suicidal behavior. The aim of this study was to examine whether persons who died by suicide in Denmark had more frequently been exposed to stressful life events, specifically divorce, death of a close relative, exposure to violence, and imprisonment, when compared to gender and age-matched controls. Data from Danish national registers were obtained for the period of 2000-2010 and a nested case-control design was applied. The association between exposure to stressful life events and suicide was examined using logistic regression analysis. In all, 7,115 suicides were identified during the 11 years of follow-up. For each of these, 20 age- and gender-matched controls were randomly selected (n = 142,300). Cases who died by suicide had an odds ratio of 9.3 (CI-95%: 7.8-11.0) of having been exposed to imprisonment five or more times when compared to controls. People who died by suicide had 1.5-fold (CI-95%: 1.3-1.6) higher risk of having experienced a divorce. Stressful life events, such as divorce and imprisonment, were more frequent in temporal proximity to the date of death among the suicide cases than for end of exposure for controls (p < .001 and p < .001, respectively). Our findings confirm that, using nationwide data, stressful life events are positively associated to subsequent suicide. Causal pathways linking the two may, however, be indirect.

Imprisonment, Social Support, and Desistance: A Theoretical Approach to Pathways of Desistance and Persistence for Imprisoned Men

Desistance should be the main ground for reentry policies for imprisoned offenders. However, theories on desistance are diverse, and they disagree about the key factors related to the origin, maintenance, and failures of the desistance process. This research considers three main theories of desistance-control, cognitive transformation, and strain-social support-to explain desistance in a sample of imprisoned men in Spain. The main finding of the research is that strain-social support theory may be of primary importance for understanding desistance because of its capacity to explain processes of change that begin during imprisonment and that continue upon release.

Listening to Australian Indigenous men: stories of incarceration and hope

OBJECTIVE

This paper reports on a project conducted between 2008 and 2011 that was established to allow eight Australian Indigenous men who had been in prison to tell their stories of incarceration.

BACKGROUND

The Shed in Western Sydney, NSW, Australia, was set up in response to the high male suicide rate in that area, its objective being to support men at risk. Aboriginal men were the most at risk, and they are presently imprisoned at a rate of 13 times more than non-Indigenous men. This small project sought to give voice to the men behind the statistics and point to a significant problem in Australian society.

METHODS

Interviews were conducted by an Indigenous male, questions covering age at first entering the penal system, number of prison stays, support, and health. This paper is framed around responses to these questions.

RESULTS

All but one of the men were recidivist offenders, and over half were under 15 years of age when first offending. All talked about a lack of support both inside and after leaving prison, and alcohol and depression figured strongly in the accounts. Disadvantage and social exclusion, lack of support such as access to housing and health services, figure significantly in the men's stories. It is only when social issues are addressed that any gains will be achieved and a cycle of recidivism broken.

Making Sense of Imprisonment: Narratives of Posttraumatic Growth Among Female Prisoners

The literature on prison effects is characterised by a focus on negative outcomes. There is a need to acknowledge individual differences. The theme of posttraumatic growth emerged in a subsample of interviews from a study on psychological adjustment in prison. The narratives of this subsample (six female, first-time prisoners) were used to explore the phenomenon of posttraumatic growth during imprisonment. It is argued that the initial shock of incarceration challenged these prisoners' assumptive worlds, but they managed to overcome this crisis by finding meaning in the prison experience and using it as an opportunity for personal development. This facilitated a positive reconstruction of their identity. The potential implications of posttraumatic growth for desistance are discussed.

[The right to be a mother in prison]

Since the beginning of the 21st century, legislation has been in place framing the rights of women prisoners. Pregnancy, motherhood and family life can be organised despite the complications and the difficulties. It is however preferable to favour alternative sentences, outside prison, in order to offer the child and the mother more suitable solutions.

[Child health nurse in prison, a unique experience]

A child health nurse from the mother and infant welfare protection service describes her work in prisons, with women prisoners and their children. A unique experience in which professionalism and emotion go hand in hand. Indeed, while prison is a place of detention, it can also be a place of care and support.

Prevention of Drinking and Driving

Since the early 1980's, legislative initiatives, such as the minimum legal drinking age of 21, administrative license revocation, and lower legal blood alcohol concentration limits for youth and adults, have significantly decreased alcohol-related traffic fatalities. General deterrence legislation is aimed at dissuading the general public from driving after drinking, whereas specific deterrence laws seek to prevent people who have been convicted for driving under the influence from repeating their offense. Education, enforcement, and comprehensive community programs, combined with legislation, can substantially reduce alcohol-related traffic deaths.