The association between adverse childhood experiences and depression trajectories in the Add Health study

BACKGROUND

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are potentially traumatic experiences that occur before age 18. ACEs are linked to depression in adulthood, but little is known about the association between ACEs and depression trajectories across the lifespan.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between specific types of ACEs, cumulative ACE scores, and depression trajectories from adolescence to adulthood.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Waves 1-4 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 12,888), spanning ages 12 years to 43 years.

METHODS

We constructed trajectories of depression scores using a modified 9-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-9). We used weighted logistic regression to calculate odds ratios and confidence intervals for each ACE and ACE score and depression trajectories after adjusting for confounders.

RESULTS

We found 75.3 % experienced at least one ACE and 14.7 % experienced 4+ ACEs. We identified three CES-D-9 trajectories: consistently low (Group 1), decreasing (Group 2), and increasing (Group 3) depression scores. All types of abuse, neglect, and community violence were significantly associated with trajectory Groups 2 and 3 vs 1 (p < .05). Foster home placement, poverty, and parental incarceration were associated with Group 2 vs 1. ACE scores showed a dose-response association with Group 3 vs 1 [aORs for 1ACE = 1.43 (0.93-2.20); 2-3ACEs = 1.97 (1.30-3.00); 4+ACEs = 3.08 (1.86-5.09)], and Group 2 vs 1 [aORs for 1ACE = 1.26 (0.87-1.83); 2-3ACEs = 1.93 (1.36-2.74); 4+ACES = 2.70 (1.90-3.84)].

CONCLUSIONS

ACEs can have a lasting impact on depression through adulthood, highlighting the need to mitigate their impact to prevent depression-associated morbidity and mortality.

The Association Between Genetic Predisposition and Parental Socialization: An Examination of Gene-Environment Correlations Using an Adoption-Based Design

An extensive body of research has examined the role that genetic influences play in the development of antisocial behavior. Even so, there remains much that is unknown regarding the intersections among antisocial behavior, environments, and genetic influences. The current study is designed to shed some light on this issue by examining whether gene-environment correlations are present in the lives of adopted adolescents. More specifically, this article seeks to contribute to scholarship efforts aimed at understanding whether biological parents' antisocial behavioral phenotypes-behaviors often attributed to an increased likelihood of receiving a genetic propensity for antisocial behaviors-predict variation in environments that are experienced by their adopted-away offspring. To do so, the biological parents of adoptees were assessed and used to identify ways in which children elicit certain responses from their adoptive parents based, in part, on their genotype. Correlational analyses were calculated on a sample of adoptees (the final analytic sample ranged between n = 229 and n = 293) drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). The results of the study revealed very little evidence of gene-environment correlations. The implications of these findings are considered.

Self-rated health among multiracial young adults in the United States: findings from the add health study

OBJECTIVE

The multiracial adult population is one of the fastest growing segments of the U.S. population, yet much remains to be learned about multiracial health. Considerable research finds racial/ethnic disparities in self-rated health, however subgroups within the multiracial population have not been consistently described.

DESIGN

We use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (Add Health) and multivariate logistic regression analyses to compare self-rated health of multiracial and monoracial young adults (n = 7880).

RESULTS

Overall, there were no significant differences in poor self-rated health status of multiracial adults as a single group odds ratio 0.84 (95% CI: 0.52-1.36) compared to monoracial White adults. Analyses further revealed important variations in health-status by specific subgroups and show that some multiracial subgroups may not fit existing patterns of health disparities. For instance, Asian-White multiracial adults do not fit documented patterns of health disparities and report better health than monoracial Asian and monoracial White adults.

CONCLUSION

This study illustrates that the inclusion of specific multiracial categories provides evidence to enhance understanding of the pathways that are linked to health outcomes and the implications for health disparities.

Race Differences in Patterns of Risky Behavior and Associated Risk Factors in Adolescence

Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), this study expands on previous research by (a) examining differences across race in patterns or "subgroups" of adolescents based on nine self-reported behaviors (e.g., delinquency, substance use, risky sexual practices) and (b) comparing the risk factors (e.g., peer association, parenting, neighborhood cohesion), both within and across the race-specific subgroups, related to membership into the identified latent classes. The data used in this study include respondents aged 13 to 17 who participated in Waves 1 and 2 of the Add Health in-home interview. Latent class analysis (LCA) identified key differences in the number and characteristics of the latent classes across the racial subgroups. In addition, both similarities and differences in the risk factors for membership into the latent classes were identified across and within the race-specific subgroups. Implications for understanding risky behavior in adolescence, as well as directions for future research, are discussed.

Childhood weight status and timing of first substance use in an ethnically diverse sample

BACKGROUND

We examined associations between weight status during childhood and timing of first cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use in an ethnically diverse sample.

METHODS

Data were drawn from child respondents of the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, including 1448 Hispanic, 2126 non-Hispanic Black, and 3304 non-Hispanic, non-Black (White) respondents aged 10 years and older as of last assessment. Cox proportional hazards regression was conducted predicting age at first use from weight status (obese, overweight, and underweight relative to healthy weight) assessed at ages 7/8, separately by substance class, sex, and race/ethnicity. Tests of interactions between weight status and respondent sex and race/ethnicity were also conducted.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy-weight females of the same race/ethnicity, overweight Hispanic females were at increased likelihood of alcohol and marijuana use and overweight White females were at increased likelihood of cigarette and marijuana use. Compared to healthy-weight males of the same race/ethnicity, obese White males were at decreased likelihood of cigarette and alcohol use and underweight Hispanic and Black males were at decreased likelihood of alcohol and marijuana use. Significant differences in associations by sex and race/ethnicity were observed in tests of interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight childhood weight status as a predictor of timing of first substance use among Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Black and White female and male youth. Results suggest that collapsing across sex and race/ethnicity, a common practice in prior research, may obscure important within-group patterns of associations and thus may be of limited utility for informing preventive and early intervention efforts.

The Functions and Longitudinal Outcomes of Adolescents' Naturally Occurring Mentorships

Adolescence is a time during which positive adults outside the familial context may be most influential to development. A growing body of research on naturally occurring mentors has found favorable outcomes for youth who have these types of positive adult figures in their lives. Less is known, however, about how these naturally occurring mentors influence youths' development in the long-term. This study examines the long-term outcomes related to having a naturally occurring community mentor in adolescence. Results from longitudinal analyses of a nationally representative sample of adolescents revealed that having a mentor in adolescence was related to higher educational attainment, lower criminal activity, higher psychological well-being (i.e., optimism, self-efficacy, and lack of depressive symptoms), and greater romantic relationship satisfaction in adulthood. Additionally, a taxonomy of mentoring functions was created from qualitative responses and drawing upon the youth, work, and academic mentoring literature. This taxonomy aims to serve as a framework for understanding the functions of youth mentors to provide a foundation for future research. Implications of findings and future directions are considered.

Genes, Parenting, Self-Control, and Criminal Behavior

Self-control has been found to predict a wide variety of criminal behaviors. In addition, studies have consistently shown that parenting is an important influence on both self-control and offending. However, few studies have examined the role that biological factors may play in moderating the relationship between parenting, self-control, and offending. Using a sample of adolescent males drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 3,610), we explore whether variants of the monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) and the dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene interact with parenting to affect self-control and offending. Results reveal that parenting interacts with these genes to influence self-control and offending, and that the parenting-by-gene interaction effect on offending is mediated by self-control. The effects of parenting on self-control and offending are most pronounced for those who carry plasticity alleles for both MAOA and DAT1. Thus, MAOA and DAT1 may be implicated in offending because they increase the negative effects of parenting on self-control. Implications for theory are discussed.

Adolescent Survival Expectations: Variations by Race, Ethnicity, and Nativity

Adolescent survival expectations are linked to a range of problem behaviors, poor health, and later socioeconomic disadvantage, yet scholars have not examined how survival expectations are differentially patterned by race, ethnicity, and/or nativity. This is a critical omission given that many risk factors for low survival expectations are themselves stratified by race and ethnicity. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we modeled racial, ethnic, and immigrant group differences in trajectories of adolescent survival expectations and assess whether these differences are accounted for by family, neighborhood, and/or other risk factors (e.g., health care access, substance use, exposure to violence). Findings indicated that most racial, ethnic, and immigrant groups were more pessimistic about their survival than were non-Hispanic whites, with the exception of Cuban youth, who were the most optimistic. Foreign-born Mexican youth had the lowest survival expectations, contrary to expectations from the "healthy-immigrant" hypothesis.

Life course transitions and racial and ethnic differences in smoking prevalence

This study aims to: (1) describe trajectories in the likelihood of smoking by racial or ethnic group across the transition to adulthood, (2) identify the influence of achieved socioeconomic status (SES) and the nature and timing of adult role transitions, and (3) determine the extent to which achieved SES and adult roles mediate the effects of race and ethnicity on smoking. The analyses use U.S. longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), which follows a representative national sample over four waves and from ages 11-17 in 1994/95 to 26-34 in 2007/08. Growth curve models compare trajectories of smoking likelihood for white, black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native individuals. While whites have higher rates of smoking than blacks and Hispanics during their teen years and 20s, blacks and Hispanics lose their advantage relative to whites as they approach and enter their 30s. American Indian/Alaska Natives show high rates of smoking at earlier ages and an increasing likelihood to smoke. Although life course transitions are influential for smoking prevalence in the overall U.S. population, SES and the nature and timing of adult role transitions account for little of the gap between whites and black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native individuals. Racial and ethnic disparities in adult smoking are independent of SES and life transitions, pointing to explanations such as culturally specific normative environments or experiences of discrimination.

Genetic bio-ancestry and social construction of racial classification in social surveys in the contemporary United States

Self-reported race is generally considered the basis for racial classification in social surveys, including the U.S. census. Drawing on recent advances in human molecular genetics and social science perspectives of socially constructed race, our study takes into account both genetic bio-ancestry and social context in understanding racial classification. This article accomplishes two objectives. First, our research establishes geographic genetic bio-ancestry as a component of racial classification. Second, it shows how social forces trump biology in racial classification and/or how social context interacts with bio-ancestry in shaping racial classification. The findings were replicated in two racially and ethnically diverse data sets: the College Roommate Study (N = 2,065) and the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 2,281).

Accuracy of self-reported versus measured weight over adolescence and young adulthood: findings from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health, 1996-2008

Many studies rely on self-reports to capture population trends and trajectories in weight gain over adulthood, but the validity of self-reports is often considered a limitation. The purpose of this work was to examine long-term trajectories of self-reporting bias in a national sample of American youth. With 3 waves of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (1996-2008), we used growth curve models to examine self-reporting bias in trajectories of weight gain across adolescence and early adulthood (ages 13-32 years). We investigated whether self-reporting bias is constant over time, or whether adolescents become more accurate in reporting their weight as they move into young adulthood, and we examined differences in self-reporting bias by sex, race/ethnicity, and attained education. Adolescent girls underreported their weight by 0.86 kg on average, and this rate of underreporting increased over early adulthood. In contrast, we found no evidence that boys underreported their weight either in adolescence or over the early adult years. For young men, self-reports of weight were unbiased estimates of measured weight among all racial/ethnic and educational subpopulations over adolescence and early adulthood.

The relationship between academic achievement and likelihood of police arrest among delinquents

Drawing upon a recent study on the association between low self-control and differential responses from the criminal justice system, this study examined whether academic performance, a construct linked to self-control, was also associated with the probability of police arrest. The result indicated that academic performance did have a statistically significant inverse association with the likelihood of police arrest, net of low self-control and delinquency.

A longitudinal study of paternal mental health during transition to fatherhood as young adults

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Rates of paternal depression range from 5% to 10% with a growing body of literature describing the harm to fathers, children, and families. Changes in depression symptoms over the life course, and the role of social factors, are not well known. This study examines associations with changes in depression symptoms during the transition to fatherhood for young fathers and whether this association differed by key social factors.

METHODS

We combined all 4 waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to support a 23-year longitudinal analysis of 10 623 men and then created a "fatherhood-year" data set, regressing age-adjusted standardized depressive symptoms scores on fatherhood status (nonresidence/residence), fatherhood-years, and covariates to determine associations between Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale scores and fatherhood life course intervals.

RESULTS

Depressive symptom scores reported at the entry into fatherhood are higher for nonresident fathers than nonfathers, which in turn are higher than those of resident fathers. Resident fathers have a significant decrease in scores during late adolescence (β = -0.035, P = .023), but a significant increase in scores during early fatherhood (β = 0.023, P = .041). From entrance into fatherhood to the end of early fatherhood (+5 years), the depressive symptoms score for resident fathers increases on average by 68%.

CONCLUSIONS

In our longitudinal, population-based study, resident fathers show increasing depressive symptom scores during children's key attachment years of 0-5. Identifying at-risk fathers based on social factors and designing effective interventions may ultimately improve health outcomes for the entire family.

That's what friends are for: adolescent peer social status, health-related quality of life and healthcare costs

BACKGROUND

Social connections at all stages of life are essential for physical and mental well-being. Of particular importance are social relationships during adolescence that shape adult health behaviors and health outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to estimate the association between adolescent peer status in school and later-life quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and healthcare costs.

METHODS

This study used social network and health outcomes data from Wave I (ages 12-18 years) and Wave III (ages 18-24 years) of the US National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 10,578) to compare QALYs and healthcare costs (in 2012 US$) by adolescent peer status in US schools. Generalized linear models controlled for school fixed effects, individual and family characteristics, and US census block neighborhood effects. Non-parametric bootstrapping accounted for residual skewness in QALYs and healthcare costs. Net monetary benefit (NMB) was calculated by converting adjusted 5-year QALYs into US$ values and subtracting 5-year healthcare costs. NMB was then compared across quintiles of adolescent peer status in school at Wave I.

RESULTS

Results obtained from non-parametric bootstrapping indicate that adolescents with higher peer status in school experience significantly better health and lower healthcare costs over the next 5 years. At US$50,000 per QALY, adolescents with 8 or more friends achieved NMB of US$214,300 (95 % CI 212,800-215,800) over a 5-year span, in comparison to adolescents with 0-1 friends, who attained US$209,900 (95 % CI 207,900-211,700) NMB. This difference translates into approximately US$4,440 (95 % CI 2,036-6,825) per socially disengaged adolescent in additional health costs and/or reduced QALYs over 5 years.

CONCLUSION

The study calls for randomized controlled trials targeting adolescent peer group structures in schools as a means to promote better health and lower healthcare costs in adulthood.

Youth violence and connectedness in adolescence: what are the implications for later sexually transmitted infections?

PURPOSE

To examine associations between (1) youth violence victimization and perpetration and later sexually transmitted infections (STI) and (2) parent-family and school connectedness and later STI, and to explore the moderating role of connectedness on the associations between youth violence victimization and perpetration and later STI.

METHODS

We used data from Waves I and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, which provided a baseline weighted sample of 14,800 respondents. We used logistic regression to examine associations between youth violence and connectedness with self-reported ever STI diagnosis, including gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, genital herpes, genital warts or human papillomavirus, or human immunodeficiency virus. If participants reported having an STI at Wave I they were excluded from the analysis.

RESULTS

Controlling for biological sex, race/ethnicity, age, parent's highest education level, and parent's marital status, both youth violence victimization and perpetration were associated with an increased risk of later STI (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.27, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.07-1.52; and AOR, 1.21, 95% CI, 1.04-1.41, respectively). Parent-family and school connectedness in adolescence were associated with a decreased risk for later STI (AOR, .96, 95% CI, .95-.98; and AOR, .97, 95% CI, .95-.99, respectively); however, connectedness did not moderate the associations between nonsexual violence involvement and later STI.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that youth violence victimization and perpetration may be risk factors for STI later in life. Conversely, parent-family and school connectedness in adolescence appear to protect against subsequent STI. The findings suggest that provider efforts to address youth violence and connectedness in adolescence can promote positive sexual health outcomes in adulthood.

Same-sex sexual attraction does not spread in adolescent social networks

Peers have a powerful effect on adolescents' beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Here, we examine the role of social networks in the spread of attitudes towards sexuality using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Although we found evidence that both sexual activity (OR = 1.79) and desire to have a romantic relationship (OR = 2.69) may spread from person to person, attraction to same sex partners did not spread (OR = 0.96). Analyses of comparable power to those that suggest positive and significant peer-to-peer influence in sexual behavior fail to demonstrate a significant relationship on sexual attraction between friends or siblings. These results suggest that peer influence has little or no effect on the tendency toward heterosexual or homosexual attraction in teens, and that sexual orientation is not transmitted via social networks.

Prevalence and predictors of sexual inexperience in adulthood

The emergence of partnered sexual behavior represents an important developmental transition. However, little is known about individuals who remain sexually inexperienced well into adulthood. We used data from 2,857 individuals who participated in Waves I-IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) and reported no sexual activity (i.e., oral-genital, vaginal, or anal sex) by age 18 to identify, using discrete-time survival models, adolescent sociodemographic, biosocial, and behavioral characteristics that predicted adult sexual inexperience. The mean age of participants at Wave IV was 28.5 years (SD = 1.92). Over one out of eight participants who did not initiate sexual activity during adolescence remained abstinent as young adults. Sexual non-attraction significantly predicted sexual inexperience among both males (aOR = 0.5) and females (aOR = 0.6). Males also had lower odds of initiating sexual activity after age 18 if they were non-Hispanic Asian, reported later than average pubertal development, or were rated as physically unattractive (aORs = 0.6-0.7). Females who were overweight, had lower cognitive performance, or reported frequent religious attendance had lower odds of sexual experience (aORs = 0.7-0.8) while those who were rated by the interviewers as very attractive or whose parents had lower educational attainment had higher odds of sexual experience (aORs = 1.4-1.8). Our findings underscore the heterogeneity of this unique population and suggest that there are a number of different pathways that may lead to either voluntary or involuntary adult sexual inexperience. Understanding the meaning of sexual inexperience in young adulthood may have important implications for the study of sexuality development across the life course.

Selected preconception health indicators and birth weight disparities in a national study

BACKGROUND

This analysis explored the effect of timing, sequencing, and change in preconception health across adolescence and young adulthood on racial/ethnic disparities in birth weight in a diverse national cohort of young adult women.

METHODS

Data came from Waves I (1994-1995), III (2001-2002), and IV (2007-2008) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Eligibility was restricted to all singleton live births to female non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Mexican-origin Latina, or Asian/Pacific Islander participants (n = 3,014) occurring between the Wave III (ages 18-26 years) and IV (ages 24-32 years) interviews. Birth weight was categorized into low (<2,500 g), normal (2,500-4,000 g), and macrosomic (>4,000 g). Preconception health indicators were cigarette smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, overweight or obesity, and inadequate physical activity, measured in adolescence (Wave I, ages 11-19 years) and early adulthood (Wave III) and combined into four-category variables to capture the timing and sequencing of exposure.

FINDINGS

Measures of preconception health did not explain the Black-White disparity in low birth weight, which increased after adjustment for confounders (odds ratio [OR], 2.17; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.33-3.53) and effect modification by overweight/obesity (OR, 3.58; 95% CI, 1.65-7.78). A positive association between adult-onset overweight/obesity and macrosomia was modified by race (OR, 3.83; 95% CI, 1.02-14.36 for Black women).

CONCLUSIONS

This longitudinal analysis provides new evidence on preconception health and racial/ethnic disparities in birth weight. Specifically, it indicates that interventions focused on prevention of overweight/obesity and maintenance of healthy weight during the transition to adulthood, especially among Black females, may be warranted.

Peer influence on marijuana use in different types of friendships

PURPOSE

Although several social network studies have demonstrated peer influence effects on adolescent substance use, findings for marijuana use have been equivocal. This study examines whether structural features of friendships moderate friends' influence on adolescent marijuana use over time.

METHODS

Using 1-year longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this article examines whether three structural features of friendships moderate friends' influence on adolescent marijuana use: whether the friendship is reciprocated, the popularity of the nominated friend, and the popularity/status difference between the nominated friend and the adolescent. The sample consists of students in grade 10/11 at wave I, who were in grade 11/12 at wave II, from two large schools with complete grade-based friendship network data (N = 1,612).

RESULTS

In one school, friends' influence on marijuana use was more likely to occur within mutual, reciprocated friendships compared with nonreciprocated relationships. In the other school, friends' influence was stronger when the friends were relatively popular within the school setting or much more popular than the adolescents themselves.

CONCLUSIONS

Friends' influence on youth marijuana use may play out in different ways, depending on the school context. In one school, influence occurred predominantly within reciprocated relationships that are likely characterized by closeness and trust, whereas in the other school adopting friends' drug use behaviors appeared to be a strategy to attain social status. Further research is needed to better understand the conditions under which structural features of friendships moderate friends' influence on adolescent marijuana use.

Data quality control in social surveys using genetic information

This article introduces a novel way of taking advantage of genetic data in social surveys for the purposes of data quality control. Genetic information could detect and repair data issues such as missing data, reporting errors, differences in measures of the same variable, and flawed data. Using data from two surveys, the College Roommate Study (ROOM) and the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), we show that proportion identical by descent score (a measure of genetic relationships) can identify "misreported" and unreported sibling type and detect misrepresented participants, bio-ancestry score (a measure of ancestral population memberships) can repair and recover missing race and discrepancies among different measures of self-reported race, and sex chromosomal information may help cross-check self-reported sex. This article represents an initial effort to utilize genetic data for the purposes of data quality control. As genetic data become increasingly available, researchers may explore more approaches to improving data quality.

The educational consequences of teen childbearing

A huge literature shows that teen mothers face a variety of detriments across the life course, including truncated educational attainment. To what extent is this association causal? The estimated effects of teen motherhood on schooling vary widely, ranging from no discernible difference to 2.6 fewer years among teen mothers. The magnitude of educational consequences is therefore uncertain, despite voluminous policy and prevention efforts that rest on the assumption of a negative and presumably causal effect. This study adjudicates between two potential sources of inconsistency in the literature—methodological differences or cohort differences—by using a single, high-quality data source: namely, The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. We replicate analyses across four different statistical strategies: ordinary least squares regression; propensity score matching; and parametric and semiparametric maximum likelihood estimation. Results demonstrate educational consequences of teen childbearing, with estimated effects between 0.7 and 1.9 fewer years of schooling among teen mothers. We select our preferred estimate (0.7), derived from semiparametric maximum likelihood estimation, on the basis of weighing the strengths and limitations of each approach. Based on the range of estimated effects observed in our study, we speculate that variable statistical methods are the likely source of inconsistency in the past. We conclude by discussing implications for future research and policy, and recommend that future studies employ a similar multimethod approach to evaluate findings.

The relationship between cognitive ability and depression: a longitudinal data analysis

PURPOSE

There is literature indicating cognitive ability and depression are related, but few studies have examined the direction of the relationship. This study examined the relationship between depression levels and cognitive abilities from adolescence to early adulthood.

METHODS

Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 14,322), this study used path modeling to investigate the relationship between depression and cognitive ability at baseline and again 8 years later.

RESULTS

After controlling for initial levels of depression, cognitive ability, and other covariates, depressive symptoms in adolescence are related to cognitive ability in early adulthood, but adolescent cognitive ability is not related to adult depression levels. Moreover, after controlling for adolescent levels of depression and cognitive ability, the cognitive ability-depression relationship disappears in adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

The cognitive ability-depression relationship appears early in life, and it is likely that the presence of depressive symptoms leads to lower cognitive ability. Thus, intervening at early signs of depression not only can help alleviate depression, but will likely have an effect of cognitive ability as well.

Longitudinal trajectories of BMI and cardiovascular disease risk: the national longitudinal study of adolescent health

OBJECTIVE

In adulthood, excess BMI is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD); it is unknown whether risk differs by BMI trajectories from adolescence to adulthood.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, a nationally representative, longitudinal adolescent cohort (mean age: 16.9 years) followed into adulthood (mean age: 28.8 years) [n = 13,984 individuals (41,982 observations)] was examined. Separate logistic regression models for diabetes, hypertension, and inflammation were used to examine odds of risk factors at given adult BMI according to varying BMI trajectories from adolescence to adulthood.

RESULTS

CVD risk factor prevalence at follow-up ranged from 5.5% (diabetes) to 26.4% (hypertension) and 31.3% (inflammation); risk differed across BMI trajectories. For example, relative to men aged 27 years (BMI = 23 kg/m(2) maintained over full study period), odds for diabetes were comparatively higher for men of the same age and BMI ≈ 30 kg/m(2) with ≈8 BMI unit gain between 15 and 20 years (OR = 2.35; 95% CI, 1.51, 3.66) or in those who maintained BMI ≈ 30 kg/m(2) across the study period (OR = 2.33; 1.92, 2.83) relative to the same ≈8 BMI unit gain, but between 20 and 27 years (OR = 1.44; 1.10, 1.87).

CONCLUSIONS

Specific periods and patterns of weight gain in the transition from adolescence to adulthood might be critical for CVD preventive efforts.

Parent-child relationship quality directly and indirectly influences hooking up behavior reported in young adulthood through alcohol use in adolescence

Utilizing data from all four waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health; n = 4,594), the current study explored the direct and indirect effect of parent-child relationship quality during adolescence (Wave 1) on young adult reports of hookup frequency (Wave 4) via alcohol use during adolescence (intercept at Wave 1) and the trajectory of alcohol use across time (slope from Wave 1 through 4). Results from structural equation modeling with a latent growth curve indicated that parent-child relationship quality was related to a lower alcohol use intercept and fewer reported hookups. Both alcohol use slope and intercept were related to more hookups during young adulthood. Bootstrap tests of the indirect paths revealed that, overall, parent-child relationship quality was associated with fewer reported hookups during young adulthood via the mechanism of the alcohol use intercept.

The Native American adolescent: social network structure and perceptions of alcohol induced social problems

Race/ethnicity and the structure of an adolescent's social network are both important factors in the etiology of delinquent behavior. Yet, much of the minority-group delinquency literature overlooks the Native American youth population that traditionally exhibits high rates of alcohol use and abuse. Utilizing data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we compare the structural characteristics of school-based friendship networks of American Indian youth and other racial/ethnic groups. Our core sample for the descriptive analysis consists of 70,841 youth (Caucasian = 42,096; Black = 13,554; Asian = 4,758; Hispanic = 4,464; American Indian = 3,426; Other = 2,543; Female = 50%). We find that Native American youth generally occupy similar social positions within school hierarchies compared to other minority groups. However, American Indian youth have fewer ties at the school level than Caucasian youth, including reports of fewer reciprocated friendships, a smaller number of in-school friends, and membership in less cohesive personal networks. We also focus on the detrimental social and physical consequences of alcohol use during adolescence and offer an extended consequences model (n = 5,841) that includes the interactive effects of race/ethnicity, age, and drinking influences on relationships with friends (Caucasian = 59%; Black = 19%; Asian = 7%; Hispanic = 7%; American Indian = 5%; Other = 3%; Female = 54%). American Indian youth are no more likely than other youth to report personal drinking as being detrimental to social relationships with parents, peers, and romantic partners. We address ties between our findings and criminal justice policies and practices, as well as the implications for similar network analyses involving other racial/ethnic groups.

Postsecondary employment experiences among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder

OBJECTIVE

We examined postsecondary employment experiences of young adults with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and compared these outcomes with those of young adults with different disabilities.

METHOD

Data were from Wave 5 of the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2), a nationally representative survey of young adults who had received special education services during high school. We examined the prevalence of ever having had, and currently having, a paid job at 21 to 25 years of age. We analyzed rates of full-time employment, wages earned, number of jobs held since high school, and job types.

RESULTS

Approximately one-half (53.4%) of young adults with an ASD had ever worked for pay outside the home since leaving high school, the lowest rate among disability groups. Young adults with an ASD earned an average of $8.10 per hour, significantly lower than average wages for young adults in the comparison groups, and held jobs that clustered within fewer occupational types. Odds of ever having had a paid job were higher for those who were older, from higher-income households, and with better conversational abilities or functional skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings of worse employment outcomes for young adults with an ASD suggest that this population is experiencing particular difficulty in successfully transitioning into employment. Research is needed to determine strategies for improving outcomes as these young adults transition into adulthood.

Binge drinking and sleep problems among young adults

OBJECTIVE

As most of the literature exploring the relationships between alcohol use and sleep problems is descriptive and with small sample sizes, the present study seeks to provide new information on the topic by employing a large, nationally representative dataset with several waves of data and a broad set of measures for binge drinking and sleep problems.

METHODS

We use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a nationally representative survey of adolescents and young adults. The analysis sample consists of all Wave 4 observations without missing values for the sleep problems variables (N=14,089, 53% females). We estimate gender-specific multivariate probit models with a rich set of socioeconomic, demographic, physical, and mental health variables to control for confounding factors.

RESULTS

Our results confirm that alcohol use, and specifically binge drinking, is positively and significantly associated with various types of sleep problems. The detrimental effects on sleep increase in magnitude with frequency of binge drinking, suggesting a dose-response relationship. Moreover, binge drinking is associated with sleep problems independent of psychiatric conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

The statistically strong association between sleep problems and binge drinking found in this study is a first step in understanding these relationships. Future research is needed to determine the causal links between alcohol misuse and sleep problems to inform appropriate clinical and policy responses.

The relative importance of body change strategies, weight perception, perceived social support, and self-esteem on adolescent depressive symptoms: longitudinal findings from a national sample

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the relative importance of body change strategies and weight perception in adolescent depression after accounting for established risk factors for depression, namely low social support across key adolescent contexts. The moderating effect of self-esteem was also examined.

METHODS

Participants (N=4587, 49% female) were selected from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Regression analyses were conducted on the association between well-known depression risk factors (lack of perceived support from parents, peers, and schools), body change strategies, weight perception, and adolescent depressive symptoms one year later.

RESULTS

Each well-known risk factor significantly predicted depressive symptoms. Body change strategies related to losing weight and overweight perceptions predicted depressive symptoms above and beyond established risk factors. Self-esteem moderated the relationship between trying to lose weight and depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Maladaptive weight loss strategies and overweight perceptions should be addressed in early identification depression programs.

Invisible and at risk: STDs among young adult sexual minority women in the United States

CONTEXT

Sexual minority women are not adequately assessed by national STD surveillance systems, and research regarding STD burden in nationally representative samples of such women is rare. Moreover, few studies have assessed STD risk exclusively among young adult women.

METHODS

Wave 4 (2007-2008) data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health on 7,296 females aged 24-32 were used to examine the relationship between sexual orientation and receipt of an STD diagnosis in the past year. Multivariate logistic regression analyses used two measures of sexual orientation: sexual identity and gender of sex partners.

RESULTS

Eighty percent of women considered themselves straight; 16% mostly straight; and 4% bisexual, mostly gay or gay. Eighty-five percent had had only male partners, while 7% had had one female partner, and 8% two or more female partners. In unadjusted models, women who identified themselves as mostly straight were more likely than straight women to have had an STD (odds ratio, 1.4); mostly gay or gay women were at lower risk (0.4). Women who had had two or more female partners had a higher STD risk than did women who had had only male partners (1.7). Adjusting for social and demographic characteristics did not substantially alter these results; however, the associations between sexual identity, gender of sex partners and STD diagnosis were eliminated after adjustment for sexual behaviors (e.g., having had anal sex).

CONCLUSIONS

Sexual identity, gender of sex partners and sexual behaviors should be taken into account in assessments of women's STD risk.

The dynamic association between same-sex contact and educational attainment

Previous studies have shown that sexual minorities and heterosexuals differ in the level of success in educational attainment. Because these studies treated sexual orientation as a static trait, they could not address how the dynamic aspect of sexual orientation impacts educational attainment. This study seeks to answer this question while focusing on sexual contact as an indicator of sexual orientation and highest educational degree obtained by young adulthood as an attainment outcome. Ordered logistic regression analysis was conducted using US data (the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health or "Add Health," Waves 1-4). Among women, those who report same-sex contact obtain lower educational degrees than those without such contact regardless of its timing and continuity. Among men, those who report their first same-sex contact in young adulthood obtain higher degrees than others. These associations are explained by self-exploratory attitudes, depressive symptoms, and academic performance and expectations. These results help understand how same-sex sexual development creates opportunities and constraints in the educational attainment process, thereby extending the existing attainment literature, which concentrates on implications of heterosexual development.

Genetic sensitivity to peer behaviors: 5HTTLPR, smoking, and alcohol consumption

We investigate whether the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5HTTLPR), a gene associated with environmental sensitivity, moderates the association between smoking and drinking patterns at adolescents' schools and their corresponding risk for smoking and drinking themselves. Drawing on the school-based design of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health in conjunction with molecular genetic data for roughly 15,000 respondents (including over 2,000 sibling pairs), we show that adolescents smoke more cigarettes and consume more alcohol when attending schools with elevated rates of tobacco and alcohol use. More important, an individual's susceptibility to school-level patterns of smoking or drinking is conditional on the number of short alleles he or she has in 5HTTLPR. Overall, the findings demonstrate the utility of the differential susceptibility framework for medical sociology by suggesting that health behaviors reflect interactions between genetic factors and the prevalence of these behaviors in a person's context.

The role of perceived peer prejudice and teacher discrimination on adolescent substance use: a social determinants approach

Although Black adolescents have reported a lower prevalence of substance use relative to non-Hispanic Whites, Black youth are disproportionately affected by adverse social outcomes. Social scientists have highlighted that using a framework that includes perceived peer prejudice and teacher discrimination as social determinants of adolescent risk behaviors is essential to fully understanding substance use behaviors in adolescents. However, this area of research remains underdeveloped. This study examined whether and to what extent perceived peer prejudice and teacher discrimination affect binge drinking and marijuana use by Black (n = 514) and non-Hispanic White (n = 2,818) adolescents using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, Wave 2, Public Use dataset. Findings suggest that peer prejudice increased the risk of substance use in non-Hispanic White youth only, whereas experiences of teacher discrimination increased the risk of substance use in both Black and non-Hispanic White youth. The study's limitations are noted, and implications for future research are discussed.

The effect of body weight on adolescent sexual activity

Recent research suggests that overweight females suffer penalties in the labor and marriage markets, while overweight males do not. This study explores whether similar gender differences in the effect of body weight exist in what Cawley et al. (2006) labeled 'the adolescent sex market'. Drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we use fixed effects and instrumental variables identification strategies to estimate the relationship between body weight and sexual activity. We find evidence that increased body weight lowers the probability that female adolescents become sexually active. In contrast, there is little evidence of a causal relationship between body weight and sexual activity for male adolescents.