Cannabidiol potentiates hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN4) channels

Cannabidiol (CBD), the main non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid produced by the Cannabis sativa plant, blocks a variety of cardiac ion channels. We aimed to identify whether CBD regulated the cardiac pacemaker channel or the hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel (HCN4). HCN4 channels are important for the generation of the action potential in the sinoatrial node of the heart and increased heart rate in response to β-adrenergic stimulation. HCN4 channels were expressed in HEK 293T cells, and the effect of CBD application was examined using a whole-cell patch clamp. We found that CBD depolarized the V1/2 of activation in holo-HCN4 channels, with an EC50 of 1.6 µM, without changing the current density. CBD also sped activation kinetics by approximately threefold. CBD potentiation of HCN4 channels occurred via binding to the closed state of the channel. We found that CBD's mechanism of action was distinct from cAMP, as CBD also potentiated apo-HCN4 channels. The addition of an exogenous PIP2 analog did not alter the ability of CBD to potentiate HCN4 channels, suggesting that CBD also acts using a unique mechanism from the known HCN4 potentiator PIP2. Lastly, to gain insight into CBD's mechanism of action, computational modeling and targeted mutagenesis were used to predict that CBD binds to a lipid-binding pocket at the C-terminus of the voltage sensor. CBD represents the first FDA-approved drug to potentiate HCN4 channels, and our findings suggest a novel starting point for drug development targeting HCN4 channels.

Ivabradine restores tonic cardiovascular autonomic control and reduces tachycardia, hypertension and left ventricular inflammation in post-weaning protein malnourished rats

Malnutrition results in autonomic imbalance and heart hypertrophy. Overexpression of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (HCN) in the left ventricles (LV) is linked to hypertrophied hearts and abnormal myocardium automaticity. Given that ivabradine (IVA) has emerging pleiotropic effects, in addition to the widely known bradycardic response, this study evaluated if IVA treatment could repair the autonomic control and cardiac damages in malnourished rats.

AIM

Assess the impact of IVA on tonic cardiovascular autonomic control and its relationship with hemodynamics regulation, LV inflammation, and HCN gene expression in post-weaning protein malnutrition condition.

MAIN METHODS

After weaning, male rats were divided into control (CG; 22 % protein) and malnourished (MG; 6 % protein) groups. At 35 days, groups were subdivided into CG-PBS, CG-IVA, MG-PBS and MG-IVA (PBS 1 ml/kg or IVA 1 mg/kg) received during 8 days. We performed jugular vein cannulation and electrode implant for drug delivery and ECG registration to assess tonic cardiovascular autonomic control; femoral cannulation for blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) assessment; and LV collection to evaluate ventricular remodeling and HCN gene expression investigation.

KEY FINDINGS

Malnutrition induced BP and HR increases, sympathetic system dominance, and LV remodeling without affecting HCN gene expression. IVA reversed the cardiovascular autonomic imbalance; prevented hypertension and tachycardia; and inhibited the LV inflammatory process and fiber thickening caused by malnutrition.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings suggest that ivabradine protects against malnutrition-mediated cardiovascular damage. Moreover, our results propose these effects were not attributed to HCN expression changes, but rather to IVA pleiotropic effects on autonomic control and inflammation.

Pacemaker Channels and the Chronotropic Response in Health and Disease

Loss or dysregulation of the normally precise control of heart rate via the autonomic nervous system plays a critical role during the development and progression of cardiovascular disease-including ischemic heart disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. While the clinical significance of regulating changes in heart rate, known as the chronotropic effect, is undeniable, the mechanisms controlling these changes remain not fully understood. Heart rate acceleration and deceleration are mediated by increasing or decreasing the spontaneous firing rate of pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node. During the transition from rest to activity, sympathetic neurons stimulate these cells by activating β-adrenergic receptors and increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate. The same signal transduction pathway is targeted by positive chronotropic drugs such as norepinephrine and dobutamine, which are used in the treatment of cardiogenic shock and severe heart failure. The cyclic adenosine monophosphate-sensitive hyperpolarization-activated current (If) in pacemaker cells is passed by hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channels and is critical for generating the autonomous heartbeat. In addition, this current has been suggested to play a central role in the chronotropic effect. Recent studies demonstrate that cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent regulation of HCN4 (hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channel isoform 4) acts to stabilize the heart rate, particularly during rapid rate transitions induced by the autonomic nervous system. The mechanism is based on creating a balance between firing and recently discovered nonfiring pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node. In this way, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channels may protect the heart from sinoatrial node dysfunction, secondary arrhythmia of the atria, and potentially fatal tachyarrhythmia of the ventricles. Here, we review the latest findings on sinoatrial node automaticity and discuss the physiological and pathophysiological role of HCN pacemaker channels in the chronotropic response and beyond.

Alterations in HCN1 expression and distribution during epileptogenesis in rats

BACKGROUND

The hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channel (HCN1) is predominantly located in key regions associated with epilepsy, such as the neocortex and hippocampus. Under normal physiological conditions, HCN1 plays a crucial role in the excitatory and inhibitory regulation of neuronal networks. In temporal lobe epilepsy, the expression of HCN1 is decreased in the hippocampi of both animal models and patients. However, whether HCN1 expression changes during epileptogenesis preceding spontaneous seizures remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine whether the expression of HCN1 is altered during the epileptic prodromal phase, thereby providing evidence for its role in epileptogenesis.

METHODS

We utilized a cobalt wire-induced rat epilepsy model to observe changes in HCN1 during epileptogenesis and epilepsy. Additionally, we also compared HCN1 alterations in epileptogenic tissues between cobalt wire- and pilocarpine-induced epilepsy rat models. Long-term video EEG recordings were used to confirm seizures development. Transcriptional changes, translation, and distribution of HCN1 were assessed using high-throughput transcriptome sequencing, total protein extraction, membrane and cytoplasmic protein fractionation, western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence techniques.

RESULTS

In the cobalt wire-induced rat epilepsy model during the epileptogenesis phase, total HCN1 mRNA and protein levels were downregulated. Specifically, the membrane expression of HCN1 was decreased, whereas cytoplasmic HCN1 expression showed no significant change. The distribution of HCN1 in the distal dendrites of neurons decreased. During the epilepsy period, similar HCN1 alterations were observed in the neocortex of rats with cobalt wire-induced epilepsy and hippocampus of rats with lithium pilocarpine-induced epilepsy, including downregulation of mRNA levels, decreased total protein expression, decreased membrane expression, and decreased distal dendrite expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Alterations in HCN1 expression and distribution are involved in epileptogenesis beyond their association with seizure occurrence. Similarities in HCN1 alterations observed in epileptogenesis-related tissues from different models suggest a shared pathophysiological pathway in epileptogenesis involving HCN1 dysregulation. Therefore, the upregulation of HCN1 expression in neurons, maintenance of the HCN1 membrane, and distal dendrite distribution in neurons may represent promising disease-modifying strategies in epilepsy.

Two contrasting mediodorsal thalamic circuits target the mouse medial prefrontal cortex

At the heart of the prefrontal network is the mediodorsal (MD) thalamus. Despite the importance of MD in a broad range of behaviors and neuropsychiatric disorders, little is known about the physiology of neurons in MD. We injected the retrograde tracer cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) into the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of adult wild-type mice. We prepared acute brain slices and used current clamp electrophysiology to measure and compare the intrinsic properties of the neurons in MD that project to mPFC (MD→mPFC neurons). We show that MD→mPFC neurons are located predominantly in the medial (MD-M) and lateral (MD-L) subnuclei of MD. MD-L→mPFC neurons had shorter membrane time constants and lower membrane resistance than MD-M→mPFC neurons. Relatively increased hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channel activity in MD-L neurons accounted for the difference in membrane resistance. MD-L neurons had a higher rheobase that resulted in less readily generated action potentials compared with MD-M→mPFC neurons. In both cell types, HCN channels supported generation of burst spiking. Increased HCN channel activity in MD-L neurons results in larger after-hyperpolarization potentials compared with MD-M neurons. These data demonstrate that the two populations of MD→mPFC neurons have divergent physiologies and support a differential role in thalamocortical information processing and potentially behavior.NEW & NOTEWORTHY To realize the potential of circuit-based therapies for psychiatric disorders that localize to the prefrontal network, we need to understand the properties of the populations of neurons that make up this network. The mediodorsal (MD) thalamus has garnered attention for its roles in executive functioning and social/emotional behaviors mediated, at least in part, by its projections to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Here, we identify and compare the physiology of the projection neurons in the two MD subnuclei that provide ascending inputs to mPFC in mice. Differences in intrinsic excitability between the two populations of neurons suggest that neuromodulation strategies targeting the prefrontal thalamocortical network will have differential effects on these two streams of thalamic input to mPFC.

LRMP inhibits cAMP potentiation of HCN4 channels by disrupting intramolecular signal transduction

Lymphoid restricted membrane protein (LRMP) is a specific regulator of the hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-sensitive isoform 4 (HCN4) channel. LRMP prevents cAMP-dependent potentiation of HCN4, but the interaction domains, mechanisms of action, and basis for isoform-specificity remain unknown. Here, we identify the domains of LRMP essential for this regulation, show that LRMP acts by disrupting the intramolecular signal transduction between cyclic nucleotide binding and gating, and demonstrate that multiple unique regions in HCN4 are required for LRMP isoform-specificity. Using patch clamp electrophysiology and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), we identified the initial 227 residues of LRMP and the N-terminus of HCN4 as necessary for LRMP to associate with HCN4. We found that the HCN4 N-terminus and HCN4-specific residues in the C-linker are necessary for regulation of HCN4 by LRMP. Finally, we demonstrated that LRMP-regulation can be conferred to HCN2 by addition of the HCN4 N-terminus along with mutation of five residues in the S5 region and C-linker to the cognate HCN4 residues. Taken together, these results suggest that LRMP inhibits HCN4 through an isoform-specific interaction involving the N-terminals of both proteins that prevents the transduction of cAMP binding into a change in channel gating, most likely via an HCN4-specific orientation of the N-terminus, C-linker, and S4-S5 linker.

Loose Coupling between the Voltage Sensor and the Activation Gate in Mammalian HCN Channels Suggests a Gating Mechanism

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels and hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels share similar structures but have opposite gating polarity. Kv channels have a strong coupling (>109) between the voltage sensor (S4) and the activation gate: when S4s are activated, the gate is open to >80% but, when S4s are deactivated, the gate is open <10-9 of the time. Using noise analysis, we show that the coupling between S4 and the gate is <200 in HCN channels. In addition, using voltage clamp fluorometry, locking the gate open in a Kv channel drastically altered the energetics of S4 movement. In contrast, locking the gate open or decreasing the coupling between S4 and the gate in HCN channels had only minor effects on the energetics of S4 movement, consistent with a weak coupling between S4 and the gate. We propose that this loose coupling is a prerequisite for the reversed voltage gating in HCN channels.

Interaction Between HCN and Slack Channels Regulates mPFC Pyramidal Cell Excitability in Working Memory Circuits

The ability of monkeys and rats to carry out spatial working memory tasks has been shown to depend on the persistent firing of pyramidal cells in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), arising from recurrent excitatory connections on dendritic spines. These spines express hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels whose open state is increased by cAMP signaling, and which markedly alter PFC network connectivity and neuronal firing. In traditional neural circuits, activation of these non-selective cation channels leads to neuronal depolarization and increased firing rate. Paradoxically, cAMP activation of HCN channels in PFC pyramidal cells reduces working memory-related neuronal firing. This suggests that activation of HCN channels may hyperpolarize rather than depolarize these neurons. The current study tested the hypothesis that Na+ influx through HCN channels activates Slack Na+-activated K+ (KNa) channels to hyperpolarize the membrane. We have found that HCN and Slack KNa channels co-immunoprecipitate in cortical extracts and that, by immunoelectron microscopy, they colocalize at postsynaptic spines of PFC pyramidal neurons. A specific blocker of HCN channels, ZD7288, reduces KNa current in pyramidal cells that express both HCN and Slack channels, but has no effect on KNa currents in an HEK cell line expressing Slack without HCN channels, indicating that blockade of HCN channels in neurons reduces K+ current indirectly by lowering Na+ influx. Activation of HCN channels by cAMP in a cell line expressing a Ca2+ reporter results in elevation of cytoplasmic Ca2+, but the effect of cAMP is reversed if the HCN channels are co-expressed with Slack channels. Finally, we used a novel pharmacological blocker of Slack channels to show that inhibition of Slack in rat PFC improves working memory performance, an effect previously demonstrated for blockers of HCN channels. Our results suggest that the regulation of working memory by HCN channels in PFC pyramidal neurons is mediated by an HCN-Slack channel complex that links activation HCN channels to suppression of neuronal excitability.

Selective and brain-penetrant HCN1 inhibitors reveal links between synaptic integration, cortical function, and working memory

Hyperpolarization-activated and cyclic-nucleotide-gated 1 (HCN1) ion channels are proposed to be critical for cognitive function through regulation of synaptic integration. However, resolving the precise role of HCN1 in neurophysiology and exploiting its therapeutic potential has been hampered by minimally selective antagonists with poor potency and limited in vivo efficiency. Using automated electrophysiology in a small-molecule library screen and chemical optimization, we identified a primary carboxamide series of potent and selective HCN1 inhibitors with a distinct mode of action. In cognition-relevant brain circuits, selective inhibition of native HCN1 produced on-target effects, including enhanced excitatory postsynaptic potential summation, while administration of a selective HCN1 inhibitor to rats recovered decrement working memory. Unlike prior non-selective HCN antagonists, selective HCN1 inhibition did not alter cardiac physiology in human atrial cardiomyocytes or in rats. Collectively, selective HCN1 inhibitors described herein unmask HCN1 as a potential target for the treatment of cognitive dysfunction in brain disorders.

cAMP binding to closed pacemaker ion channels is cooperative

The cooperative action of the subunits in oligomeric receptors enables fine-tuning of receptor activation, as demonstrated for the regulation of voltage-activated HCN pacemaker ion channels by relating cAMP binding to channel activation in ensemble signals. HCN channels generate electric rhythmicity in specialized brain neurons and cardiomyocytes. There is conflicting evidence on whether binding cooperativity does exist independent of channel activation or not, as recently reported for detergent-solubilized receptors positioned in zero-mode waveguides. Here, we show positive cooperativity in ligand binding to closed HCN2 channels in native cell membranes by following the binding of individual fluorescence-labeled cAMP molecules. Kinetic modeling reveals that the affinity of the still empty binding sites rises with increased degree of occupation and that the transition of the channel to a flip state is promoted accordingly. We conclude that ligand binding to the subunits in closed HCN2 channels not pre-activated by voltage is already cooperative. Hence, cooperativity is not causally linked to channel activation by voltage. Our analysis also shows that single-molecule binding measurements at equilibrium can quantify cooperativity in ligand binding to receptors in native membranes.

An LQT2-related mutation in the voltage-sensing domain is involved in switching the gating polarity of hERG

BACKGROUND

Cyclic Nucleotide-Binding Domain (CNBD)-family channels display distinct voltage-sensing properties despite sharing sequence and structural similarity. For example, the human Ether-a-go-go Related Gene (hERG) channel and the Hyperpolarization-activated Cyclic Nucleotide-gated (HCN) channel share high amino acid sequence similarity and identical domain structures. hERG conducts outward current and is activated by positive membrane potentials (depolarization), whereas HCN conducts inward current and is activated by negative membrane potentials (hyperpolarization). The structural basis for the "opposite" voltage-sensing properties of hERG and HCN remains unknown.

RESULTS

We found the voltage-sensing domain (VSD) involves in modulating the gating polarity of hERG. We identified that a long-QT syndrome type 2-related mutation within the VSD, K525N, mediated an inwardly rectifying non-deactivating current, perturbing the channel closure, but sparing the open state and inactivated state. K525N rescued the current of a non-functional mutation in the pore helix region (F627Y) of hERG. K525N&F627Y switched hERG into a hyperpolarization-activated channel. The reactivated inward current induced by hyperpolarization mediated by K525N&F627Y can be inhibited by E-4031 and dofetilide quite well. Moreover, we report an extracellular interaction between the S1 helix and the S5-P region is crucial for modulating the gating polarity. The alanine substitution of several residues in this region (F431A, C566A, I607A, and Y611A) impaired the inward current of K525N&F627Y.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data provide evidence that a potential cooperation mechanism in the extracellular vestibule of the VSD and the PD would determine the gating polarity in hERG.

Chronic but not acute nicotine treatment ameliorates acute inflammation-induced working memory impairment by increasing CRTC1 and HCN2 in adult male mice

BACKGROUND

Systemic inflammation in which lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is released into circulation can cause cognitive dysfunction and we have previously shown that LPS impaired working memory (WM) which refers to the ability to guide incoming behavior by retrieving recently acquired information. However, the mechanism is not very clear, and currently, there is no approved strategy to improve inflammation-induced WM deficit. Notably, epidemiological studies have demonstrated a lower occurrence rate of inflammatory-related diseases in smoking patients, suggesting that inflammation-induced WM impairment may be improved by nicotine treatment. Here, our object is to investigate the effect and potential mechanisms of acute and chronic nicotine treatment on LPS-produced WM deficiency.

METHODS

Delayed alternation T-maze task (DAT) was applied for evaluating WM which includes both the short-term information storage and the ability to correct errors in adult male mice. Immunofluorescence staining and immunoblotting were used for assessing the levels and distribution of CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1) and hyperpolarization-activated cation channels 2 (HCN2) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus. Quantitative PCR and ELISA were employed for analyzing the mRNA and protein levels of TNF-α and IL-1β.

RESULTS

Our results revealed that administration of LPS (i.p.) at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg significantly produced WM impairment in the DAT task accompanied by an increase in IL-1β and TNF-α expression in the mPFC. Moreover, intra-mPFC infusion of IL-1Ra, an IL-1 antagonist, markedly alleviated LPS-induced WM deficiency. More important, chronic (2 weeks) but not acute nicotine (0.2 mg/kg, subcutaneous) treatment significantly alleviated LPS-induced WM deficiency by upregulating CRTC1 and HCN2. Of note, intra-mPFC infusion of HCN blocker ZD7288 produced significant WM deficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, in this study, we show that chronic nicotine treatment ameliorates acute inflammation-induced working memory deficiency by increasing CRTC1 and HCN2 in adult male mice.

A high affinity switch for cAMP in the HCN pacemaker channels

Binding of cAMP to Hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide gated (HCN) channels facilitates pore opening. It is unclear why the isolated cyclic nucleotide binding domain (CNBD) displays in vitro lower affinity for cAMP than the full-length channel in patch experiments. Here we show that HCN are endowed with an affinity switch for cAMP. Alpha helices D and E, downstream of the cyclic nucleotide binding domain (CNBD), bind to and stabilize the holo CNBD in a high affinity state. These helices increase by 30-fold cAMP efficacy and affinity measured in patch clamp and ITC, respectively. We further show that helices D and E regulate affinity by interacting with helix C of the CNBD, similarly to the regulatory protein TRIP8b. Our results uncover an intramolecular mechanism whereby changes in binding affinity, rather than changes in cAMP concentration, can modulate HCN channels, adding another layer to the complex regulation of their activity.

The method of sinus node-like pacemaker cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells by BMP and Wnt signaling

The embryonic development of sinus nodes (SAN) is co-regulated by multiple signaling pathways. Among these, the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and Wnt signaling pathways are involved in the development of SAN. In this study, the effects of BMP and Wnt signaling on the differentiation of SAN-like pacemaker cells (SANLPCs) were investigated. Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) were divided into four groups: control, BMP4, CHIR-3, and BMP4 + CHIR (CHIR: a Wnt signaling activator). The samples were tested at day (D) 15 of differentiation. The final protocol for the activation of BMP signaling at D0-D3 and reactivation of Wnt signaling at D5-D7 in the differentiation of hiPSCs were determined. The results showed that the mRNA levels of pacemaker markers (TBX18, SHOX2, TBX3, HCN4, and HCN1) were higher in the BMP4 + CHIR group than in the control group, and working myocardial genes were downregulated. The immunofluorescence assay revealed that the expression of SHOX2 and HCN4 increased in the BMP4 + CHIR group compared to that in the other groups. In addition, the results of patch clamps revealed that a funny current of higher density and typical SAN action potentials were recorded, except in the control group, in which the L-type calcium current was higher in the BMP4 + CHIR group than in the other groups. Finally, the proportion of SANLPCs (cTnT+ NKX2.5-) was further enhanced by the combination of BMP4 and CHIR treatment. In summary, the combination of BMP and Wnt signaling promotes the differentiation of SANLPCs from hiPSCs.

Melanopsin activates divergent phototransduction pathways in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell subtypes

Melanopsin signaling within intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGC) subtypes impacts a broad range of behaviors from circadian photoentrainment to conscious visual perception. Yet, how melanopsin phototransduction within M1-M6 ipRGC subtypes impacts cellular signaling to drive diverse behaviors is still largely unresolved. The identity of the phototransduction channels in each subtype is key to understanding this central question but has remained controversial. In this study, we resolve two opposing models of M4 phototransduction, demonstrating that hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are dispensable for this process and providing support for a pathway involving melanopsin-dependent potassium channel closure and canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channel opening. Surprisingly, we find that HCN channels are likewise dispensable for M2 phototransduction, contradicting the current model. We instead show that M2 phototransduction requires TRPC channels in conjunction with T-type voltage-gated calcium channels, identifying a novel melanopsin phototransduction target. Collectively, this work resolves key discrepancies in our understanding of ipRGC phototransduction pathways in multiple subtypes and adds to mounting evidence that ipRGC subtypes employ diverse phototransduction cascades to fine-tune cellular responses for downstream behaviors.

Structure and electromechanical coupling of a voltage-gated Na+/H+ exchanger

Voltage-sensing domains control the activation of voltage-gated ion channels, with a few exceptions1. One such exception is the sperm-specific Na+/H+ exchanger SLC9C1, which is the only known transporter to be regulated by voltage-sensing domains2-5. After hyperpolarization of sperm flagella, SLC9C1 becomes active, causing pH alkalinization and CatSper Ca2+ channel activation, which drives chemotaxis2,6. SLC9C1 activation is further regulated by cAMP2,7, which is produced by soluble adenyl cyclase (sAC). SLC9C1 is therefore an essential component of the pH-sAC-cAMP signalling pathway in metazoa8,9, required for sperm motility and fertilization4. Despite its importance, the molecular basis of SLC9C1 voltage activation is unclear. Here we report cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of sea urchin SLC9C1 in detergent and nanodiscs. We show that the voltage-sensing domains are positioned in an unusual configuration, sandwiching each side of the SLC9C1 homodimer. The S4 segment is very long, 90 Å in length, and connects the voltage-sensing domains to the cytoplasmic cyclic-nucleotide-binding domains. The S4 segment is in the up configuration-the inactive state of SLC9C1. Consistently, although a negatively charged cavity is accessible for Na+ to bind to the ion-transporting domains of SLC9C1, an intracellular helix connected to S4 restricts their movement. On the basis of the differences in the cryo-EM structure of SLC9C1 in the presence of cAMP, we propose that, upon hyperpolarization, the S4 segment moves down, removing this constriction and enabling Na+/H+ exchange.

Structures of a sperm-specific solute carrier gated by voltage and cAMP

The newly characterized sperm-specific Na+/H+ exchanger stands out by its unique tripartite domain composition1,2. It unites a classical solute carrier unit with regulatory domains usually found in ion channels, namely, a voltage-sensing domain and a cyclic-nucleotide binding domain1,3, which makes it a mechanistic chimera and a secondary-active transporter activated strictly by membrane voltage. Our structures of the sea urchin SpSLC9C1 in the absence and presence of ligands reveal the overall domain arrangement and new structural coupling elements. They allow us to propose a gating model, where movements in the voltage sensor indirectly cause the release of the exchanging unit from a locked state through long-distance allosteric effects transmitted by the newly characterized coupling helices. We further propose that modulation by its ligand cyclic AMP occurs by means of disruption of the cytosolic dimer interface, which lowers the energy barrier for S4 movements in the voltage-sensing domain. As SLC9C1 members have been shown to be essential for male fertility, including in mammals2,4,5, our structure represents a potential new platform for the development of new on-demand contraceptives.

Direct regulation of the voltage sensor of HCN channels by membrane lipid compartmentalization

Ion channels function within a membrane environment characterized by dynamic lipid compartmentalization. Limited knowledge exists regarding the response of voltage-gated ion channels to transmembrane potential within distinct membrane compartments. By leveraging fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), we visualized the localization of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels in membrane domains. HCN4 exhibits a greater propensity for incorporation into ordered lipid domains compared to HCN1. To investigate the conformational changes of the S4 helix voltage sensor of HCN channels, we used dual stop-codon suppression to incorporate different noncanonical amino acids, orthogonal click chemistry for site-specific fluorescence labeling, and transition metal FLIM-FRET. Remarkably, altered FRET levels were observed between VSD sites within HCN channels upon disruption of membrane domains. We propose that the voltage-sensor rearrangements, directly influenced by membrane lipid domains, can explain the heightened activity of pacemaker HCN channels when localized in cholesterol-poor, disordered lipid domains, leading to membrane hyperexcitability and diseases.

HCN2 Channels in the Ventral Hippocampal CA1 Regulate Nociceptive Hypersensitivity in Mice

Chronic pain is a significant health problem worldwide. Recent evidence has suggested that the ventral hippocampus is dysfunctional in humans and rodents, with decreased neuronal excitability and connectivity with other brain regions, parallel pain chronicity, and persistent nociceptive hypersensitivity. But the molecular mechanisms underlying hippocampal modulation of pain remain poorly elucidated. In this study, we used ex vivo whole-cell patch-clamp recording, immunofluorescence staining, and behavioral tests to examine whether hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels 2 (HCN2) in the ventral hippocampal CA1 (vCA1) were involved in regulating nociceptive perception and CFA-induced inflammatory pain in mice. Reduced sag potential and firing rate of action potentials were observed in vCA1 pyramidal neurons from CFA-injected mice. Moreover, the expression of HCN2, but not HCN1, in vCA1 decreased in mice injected with CFA. HCN2 knockdown in vCA1 pyramidal neurons induced thermal hypersensitivity, whereas overexpression of HCN2 alleviated thermal hyperalgesia induced by intraplantar injection of CFA in mice. Our findings suggest that HCN2 in the vCA1 plays an active role in pain modulation and could be a promising target for the treatment of chronic pain.

cAMP-mediated upregulation of HCN channels in VTA dopamine neurons promotes cocaine reinforcement

Chronic cocaine exposure induces enduring neuroadaptations that facilitate motivated drug taking. Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are known to modulate neuronal firing and pacemaker activity in ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine neurons. However, it remained unknown whether cocaine self-administration affects HCN channel function and whether HCN channel activity modulates motivated drug taking. We report that rat VTA dopamine neurons predominantly express Hcn3-4 mRNA, while VTA GABA neurons express Hcn1-4 mRNA. Both neuronal types display similar hyperpolarization-activated currents (Ih), which are facilitated by acute increases in cAMP. Acute cocaine application decreases voltage-dependent activation of Ih in VTA dopamine neurons, but not in GABA neurons. Unexpectedly, chronic cocaine self-administration results in enhanced Ih selectively in VTA dopamine neurons. This differential modulation of Ih currents is likely mediated by a D2 autoreceptor-induced decrease in cAMP as D2 (Drd2) mRNA is predominantly expressed in dopamine neurons, whereas D1 (Drd1) mRNA is barely detectable in the VTA. Moreover, chronically decreased cAMP via Gi-DREADD stimulation leads to an increase in Ih in VTA dopamine neurons and enhanced binding of HCN3/HCN4 with tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b-interacting protein (TRIP8b), an auxiliary subunit that is known to facilitate HCN channel surface trafficking. Finally, we show that systemic injection and intra-VTA infusion of the HCN blocker ivabradine reduces cocaine self-administration under a progressive ratio schedule and produces a downward shift of the cocaine dose-response curve. Our results suggest that cocaine self-administration induces an upregulation of Ih in VTA dopamine neurons, while HCN inhibition reduces the motivation for cocaine intake.

The role of P21-activated kinase (Pak1) in sinus node function

Sinoatrial node (SAN) dysfunction (SND) and atrial arrhythmia frequently occur simultaneously with a hazard ratio of 4.2 for new onset atrial fibrillation (AF) in SND patients. In the atrial muscle attenuated activity of p21-activated kinase 1 (Pak1) increases the risk for AF by enhancing NADPH oxidase 2 dependent production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, the role of Pak1 dependent ROS regulation in SAN function has not yet been determined. We hypothesize that Pak1 activity maintains SAN activity by regulating the expression of the hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide gated cation channel (HCN). To determine Pak1 dependent changes in heart rate (HR) regulation we quantified the intrinsic sinus rhythm in wild type (WT) and Pak1 deficient (Pak1-/-) mice of both sexes in vivo and in isolated Langendorff perfused hearts. Pak1-/- hearts displayed an attenuated HR in vivo after autonomic blockage and in isolated hearts. The contribution of the Ca2+ clock to pacemaker activity remained unchanged, but Ivabradine (3 μM), a blocker of HCN channels that are a membrane clock component, eliminated the differences in SAN activity between WT and Pak1-/- hearts. Reduced HCN4 expression was confirmed in Pak1-/- right atria. The reduced HCN activity in Pak1-/- could be rescued by class II HDAC inhibition (LMK235), ROS scavenging (TEMPOL) or attenuation of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase (ERK) 1/2 activity (SCH772984). No sex specific differences in Pak1 dependent SAN regulation were determined. Our results establish Pak1 as a class II HDAC regulator and a potential therapeutic target to attenuate SAN bradycardia and AF susceptibility.

HCN channels and absence seizures

Hyperpolarization-activation cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels were for the first time implicated in absence seizures (ASs) when an abnormal Ih (the current generated by these channels) was reported in neocortical layer 5 neurons of a mouse model. Genetic studies of large cohorts of children with Childhood Absence Epilepsy (where ASs are the only clinical symptom) have identified only 3 variants in HCN1 (one of the genes that code for the 4 HCN channel isoforms, HCN1-4), with one (R590Q) mutation leading to loss-of-function. Due to the multi-faceted effects that HCN channels exert on cellular excitability and neuronal network dynamics as well as their modulation by environmental factors, it has been difficult to identify the detailed mechanism by which different HCN isoforms modulate ASs. In this review, we systematically and critically analyze evidence from established AS models and normal non-epileptic animals with area- and time-selective ablation of HCN1, HCN2 and HCN4. Notably, whereas knockout of rat HCN1 and mouse HCN2 leads to the expression of ASs, the pharmacological block of all HCN channel isoforms abolishes genetically determined ASs. These seemingly contradictory results could be reconciled by taking into account the well-known opposite effects of Ih on cellular excitability and network function. Whereas existing evidence from mouse and rat AS models indicates that pan-HCN blockers may provide a novel approach for the treatment of human ASs, the development of HCN isoform-selective drugs would greatly contribute to current research on the role for these channels in ASs generation and maintenance as well as offer new potential clinical applications.

Similar voltage-sensor movement in spHCN channels can cause closing, opening, or inactivation

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels contribute to the rhythmic firing of pacemaker neurons and cardiomyocytes. Mutations in HCN channels are associated with cardiac arrhythmia and epilepsy. HCN channels belong to the superfamily of voltage-gated K+ channels, most of which are activated by depolarization. HCN channels, however, are activated by hyperpolarization. The mechanism behind this reversed gating polarity of HCN channels is not clear. We here show that sea urchin HCN (spHCN) channels with mutations in the C-terminal part of the voltage sensor use the same voltage-sensor movement to either close or open in response to hyperpolarizations depending on the absence or presence of cAMP. Our results support that non-covalent interactions at the C-terminal end of the voltage sensor are critical for HCN gating polarity. These interactions are also critical for the proper closing of the channels because these mutations exhibit large constitutive currents. Since a similar voltage-sensor movement can cause both depolarization- and hyperpolarization-activation in the same channel, this suggests that the coupling between the voltage sensor and the pore is changed to create channels opened by different polarities. We also show an identical voltage-sensor movement in activated and inactivated spHCN channels and suggest a model for spHCN activation and inactivation. Our results suggest the possibility that channels open by opposite voltage dependence, such as HCN and the related EAG channels, use the same voltage-sensor movement but different coupling mechanisms between the voltage sensor and the gate.

An evolutionarily conserved pacemaker role for HCN ion channels in smooth muscle

Although hyperpolarization-activated cation (HCN) ion channels are well established to underlie cardiac pacemaker activity, their role in smooth muscle organs remains controversial. HCN-expressing cells are localized to renal pelvic smooth muscle (RPSM) pacemaker tissues of the murine upper urinary tract and HCN channel conductance is required for peristalsis. To date, however, the Ih pacemaker current conducted by HCN channels has never been detected in these cells, raising questions on the identity of RPSM pacemakers. Indeed, the RPSM pacemaker mechanisms of the unique multicalyceal upper urinary tract exhibited by humans remains unknown. Here, we developed immunopanning purification protocols and demonstrate that 96% of isolated HCN+ cells exhibit Ih . Single-molecule STORM to whole-tissue imaging showed HCN+ cells express single HCN channels on their plasma membrane and integrate into the muscular syncytium. By contrast, PDGFR-α+ cells exhibiting the morphology of ICC gut pacemakers were shown to be vascular mural cells. Translational studies in the homologous human and porcine multicalyceal upper urinary tracts showed that contractions and pacemaker depolarizations originate in proximal calyceal RPSM. Critically, HCN+ cells were shown to integrate into calyceal RPSM pacemaker tissues, and HCN channel block abolished electrical pacemaker activity and peristalsis of the multicalyceal upper urinary tract. Cumulatively, these studies demonstrate that HCN ion channels play a broad, evolutionarily conserved pacemaker role in both cardiac and smooth muscle organs and have implications for channelopathies as putative aetiologies of smooth muscle disorders. KEY POINTS: Pacemakers trigger contractions of involuntary muscles. Hyperpolarization-activated cation (HCN) ion channels underpin cardiac pacemaker activity, but their role in smooth muscle organs remains controversial. Renal pelvic smooth muscle (RPSM) pacemakers trigger contractions that propel waste away from the kidney. HCN+ cells localize to murine RPSM pacemaker tissue and HCN channel conductance is required for peristalsis. The HCN (Ih ) current has never been detected in RPSM cells, raising doubt whether HCN+ cells are bona fide pacemakers. Moreover, the pacemaker mechanisms of the unique multicalyceal RPSM of higher order mammals remains unknown. In total, 97% of purified HCN+ RPSM cells exhibit Ih . HCN+ cells integrate into the RPSM musculature, and pacemaker tissue peristalsis is dependent on HCN channels. Translational studies in human and swine demonstrate HCN channels are conserved in the multicalyceal RPSM and that HCN channels underlie pacemaker activity that drives peristalsis. These studies provide insight into putative channelopathies that can underlie smooth muscle dysfunction.

Characterization of Kv1.2-mediated outward current in TRIP8b-deficient mice

Tonic current through hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation (HCN) channels is influencing neuronal firing properties and channel function is strongly influenced by the brain-specific auxiliary subunit tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b-interacting protein (TRIP8b). Since Kv1.2 channels and TRIP8b were also suggested to interact, we assessed brain Kv1.2 mRNA and protein expression as well as the reduction of K⁺ outward currents by Kv1.2-blocking compounds (Psora-4; tityustoxin-Kα, TsTX-Kα) in different brain areas of TRIP8b-deficient (TRIP8b ^-/- ) compared to wildtype (WT) mice. We found that transcription levels of Kv1.2 channels were not different between genotypes. Furthermore, Kv1.2 current amplitude was not affected upon co-expression with TRIP8b in oocytes. However, Kv1.2 immunofluorescence was stronger in dendritic areas of cortical and hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, the peak net outward current was increased and the inactivation of the Psora-4-sensitive current component was less pronounced in cortical neurons in TRIP8b ^-/- mice. In current clamp recordings, application of TsTX increased the excitability of thalamocortical (TC) neurons with increased number of elicited action potentials upon step depolarization. We conclude that TRIP8b may not preferentially influence the amplitude of current through Kv1.2 channels but seems to affect current inactivation and channel localization. In TRIP8b ^-/- a compensatory upregulation of other Kv channels was observed.

Retinal Dysfunction in a Mouse Model of HCN1 Genetic Epilepsy

Pathogenic variants in HCN1 are associated with a range of epilepsy syndromes including a developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. The recurrent de novo HCN1 pathogenic variant (M305L) results in a cation leak, allowing the flux of excitatory ions at potentials where the wild-type channels are closed. The Hcn1M294L mouse recapitulates patient seizure and behavioral phenotypes. As HCN1 channels are highly expressed in rod and cone photoreceptor inner segments, where they shape the light response, mutated channels are likely to impact visual function. Electroretinogram (ERG) recordings from male and female mice Hcn1M294L mice revealed a significant decrease in the photoreceptor sensitivity to light, as well as attenuated bipolar cell (P2) and retinal ganglion cell responses. Hcn1M294L mice also showed attenuated ERG responses to flickering lights. ERG abnormalities are consistent with the response recorded from a single female human subject. There was no impact of the variant on the structure or expression of the Hcn1 protein in the retina. In silico modeling of photoreceptors revealed that the mutated HCN1 channel dramatically reduced light-induced hyperpolarization, resulting in more Ca2+ flux during the response when compared with the wild-type situation. We propose that the light-induced change in glutamate release from photoreceptors during a stimulus will be diminished, significantly blunting the dynamic range of this response. Our data highlight the importance of HCN1 channels to retinal function and suggest that patients with HCN1 pathogenic variants are likely to have a dramatically reduced sensitivity to light and a limited ability to process temporal information.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Pathogenic variants in HCN1 are emerging as an important cause of catastrophic epilepsy. HCN1 channels are ubiquitously expressed throughout the body, including the retina. Electroretinogram recordings from a mouse model of HCN1 genetic epilepsy showed a marked decrease in the photoreceptor sensitivity to light and a reduced ability to respond to high rates of light flicker. No morphologic deficits were noted. Simulation data suggest that the mutated HCN1 channel blunts light-induced hyperpolarization and consequently limits the dynamic range of this response. Our results provide insights into the role HCN1 channels play in retinal function as well as highlighting the need to consider retinal dysfunction in disease caused by HCN1 variants. The characteristic changes in the electroretinogram open the possibility of using this tool as a biomarker for this HCN1 epilepsy variant and to facilitate development of treatments.

Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors Modulate HCN Channel Properties in Vestibular Ganglion Neurons

Efferent modulation of vestibular afferent excitability is linked to muscarinic signaling cascades that close low-voltage-gated potassium channels (i.e., KCNQ). Here, we show that muscarinic signaling cascades also depolarize the activation range of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic-nucleotide gated (HCN) channels. We compared the voltage activation range and kinetics of HCN channels and induced firing patterns before and after administering the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) agonist oxotremorine-M (Oxo-M) in dissociated vestibular ganglion neurons (VGNs) from rats of either sex using perforated whole-cell patch-clamp methods. Oxo-M depolarized HCN channels' half-activation voltage (V 1/2) and sped up the rate of activation near resting potential twofold. HCN channels in large-diameter and/or transient firing VGN (putative cell bodies of irregular firing neuron from central epithelial zones) had relatively depolarized V 1/2 in control solution and were less sensitive to mAChR activation than those found in small-diameter VGN with sustained firing patterns (putatively belonging to regular firing afferents). The impact of mAChR on HCN channels is not a direct consequence of closing KCNQ channels since pretreating the cells with Linopirdine, a KCNQ channel blocker, did not prevent HCN channel depolarization by Oxo-M. Efferent signaling promoted ion channel configurations that were favorable to highly regular spiking in some VGN, but not others. This is consistent with previous observations that low-voltage gated potassium currents in VGN are conducted by mAChR agonist-sensitive and -insensitive channels. Connecting efferent signaling to HCN channels is significant because of the channel's impact on spike-timing regularity and nonchemical transmission between Type I hair cells and vestibular afferents.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Vestibular afferents express a diverse complement of ion channels. In vitro studies identified low-voltage activated potassium channels and hyperpolarization-activated cyclic-nucleotide gated (HCN) channels as crucial for shaping the timing and sensitivity of afferent responses. Moreover, a network of acetylcholine-releasing efferent neurons controls afferent excitability by closing a subgroup of low-voltage activated potassium channels on the afferent neuron. This work shows that these efferent signaling cascades also enhance the activation of HCN channels by depolarizing their voltage activation range. The size of this effect varies depending on the endogenous properties of the HCN channel and on cell type (as determined by discharge patterns and cell size). Simultaneously controlling two ion-channel groups gives the vestibular efferent system exquisite control over afferent neuron activity.

The Impact of Altered HCN1 Expression on Brain Function and Its Relationship with Epileptogenesis

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channel 1 (HCN1) is predominantly expressed in neurons from the neocortex and hippocampus, two important regions related to epilepsy. Both animal models for epilepsy and epileptic patients show decreased HCN1 expression and HCN1-mediated Ih current. It has been shown in neuroelectrophysiological experiments that a decreased Ih current can increase neuronal excitability. However, some studies have shown that blocking the Ih current in vivo can exert antiepileptic effects. This paradox raises an important question regarding the causal relationship between HCN1 alteration and epileptogenesis, which to date has not been elucidated. In this review, we summarize the literature related to HCN1 and epilepsy, aiming to find a possible explanation for this paradox, and explore the correlation between HCN1 and the mechanism of epileptogenesis. We analyze the alterations in the expression and distribution of HCN1 and the corresponding impact on brain function in epilepsy. In addition, we also discuss the effect of blocking Ih on epilepsy symptoms. Addressing these issues will help to inspire new strategies to explore the relationship between HCN1 and epileptogenesis, and ultimately promote the development of new targets for epilepsy therapy.

Adenylyl cyclase isoform 1 contributes to sinoatrial node automaticity via functional microdomains

Sinoatrial node (SAN) cells are the heart's primary pacemaker. Their activity is tightly regulated by β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) signaling. Adenylyl cyclase (AC) is a key enzyme in the β-AR pathway that catalyzes the production of cAMP. There are current gaps in our knowledge regarding the dominant AC isoforms and the specific roles of Ca2+-activated ACs in the SAN. The current study tests the hypothesis that distinct AC isoforms are preferentially expressed in the SAN and compartmentalize within microdomains to orchestrate heart rate regulation during β-AR signaling. In contrast to atrial and ventricular myocytes, SAN cells express a diverse repertoire of ACs, with ACI as the predominant Ca2+-activated isoform. Although ACI-KO (ACI-/-) mice exhibit normal cardiac systolic or diastolic function, they experience SAN dysfunction. Similarly, SAN-specific CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene silencing of ACI results in sinus node dysfunction. Mechanistically, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated 4 (HCN4) channels form functional microdomains almost exclusively with ACI, while ryanodine receptor and L-type Ca2+ channels likely compartmentalize with ACI and other AC isoforms. In contrast, there were no significant differences in T-type Ca2+ and Na+ currents at baseline or after β-AR stimulation between WT and ACI-/- SAN cells. Due to its central characteristic feature as a Ca2+-activated isoform, ACI plays a unique role in sustaining the rise of local cAMP and heart rates during β-AR stimulation. The findings provide insights into the critical roles of the Ca2+-activated isoform of AC in sustaining SAN automaticity that is distinct from contractile cardiomyocytes.

HCN1 channels mediate mu opioid receptor long-term depression at insular cortex inputs to the dorsal striatum

Mu opioid receptors (MORs) are expressed in the dorsal striatum, a brain region that mediates goal-directed (via the dorsomedial striatum) and habitual (via the dorsolateral striatum, DLS) behaviours. Our previous work indicates that glutamate transmission is depressed when MORs are activated in the dorsal striatum, inducing MOR-mediated long-term synaptic depression (MOR-LTD) or short-term depression (MOR-STD), depending on the input. In the DLS, MOR-LTD is produced by MORs on anterior insular cortex (AIC) inputs and MOR-STD occurs at thalamic inputs, suggesting input-specific MOR plasticity mechanisms. Here, we evaluated the mechanisms of induction of MOR-LTD and MOR-STD in the DLS using pharmacology and optogenetics combined with patch-clamp electrophysiology. We found that cAMP/PKA signalling and protein synthesis are necessary for MOR-LTD expression, similar to previous studies of cannabinoid-mediated LTD in DLS. MOR-STD does not utilize these same mechanisms. We also demonstrated that cannabinoid-LTD occurs at AIC inputs to DLS. However, while cannabinoid-LTD requires mTOR signalling in DLS, MOR-LTD does not. We characterized the role of presynaptic HCN1 channels in MOR-LTD induction as HCN1 channels expressed in AIC are necessary for MOR-LTD expression in the DLS. These results suggest a mechanism in which MOR activation requires HCN1 to induce MOR-LTD, suggesting a new target for pharmacological modulation of synaptic plasticity, providing new opportunities to develop novel drugs to treat alcohol and opioid use disorders. KEY POINTS: Mu opioid receptor-mediated long-term depression at anterior insular cortex inputs to dorsolateral striatum involves presynaptic cAMP/PKA signalling and protein translation, similar to known mechanisms of cannabinoid long-term depression. Dorsal striatal cannabinoid long-term depression also occurs at anterior insular cortex inputs to the dorsolateral striatum. Dorsal striatal cannabinoid long-term depression requires mTOR signalling, similar to hippocampal cannabinoid long-term depression, but dorsal striatal mu opioid long-term depression does not require mTOR signalling. Mu opioid long-term depression requires presynaptic HCN1 channels at anterior insular cortex inputs to dorsolateral striatum.

Tbx18 Orchestrates Cytostructural Transdifferentiation of Cardiomyocytes to Pacemaker Cells by Recruiting the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Program

Previously, we reported that heterologous expression of an embryonic transcription factor, Tbx18, reprograms ventricular cardiomyocytes into induced pacemaker cells (Tbx18-iPMs), though the key pathways are unknown. Here, we have used a tandem mass tag proteomic approach to characterize the impact of Tbx18 on neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Tbx18 expression triggered vast proteome remodeling. Tbx18-iPMs exhibited increased expression of known pacemaker ion channels, including Hcn4 and Cx45 as well as upregulation of the mechanosensitive ion channels Piezo1, Trpp2 (PKD2), and TrpM7. Metabolic pathways were broadly downregulated, as were ion channels associated with ventricular excitation-contraction coupling. Tbx18-iPMs also exhibited extensive intracellular cytoskeletal and extracellular matrix remodeling, including 96 differentially expressed proteins associated with the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). RNAseq extended coverage of low abundance transcription factors, revealing upregulation of EMT-inducing Snai1, Snai2, Twist1, Twist2, and Zeb2. Finally, network diffusion mapping of >200 transcriptional regulators indicates EMT and heart development factors occupy adjacent network neighborhoods downstream of Tbx18 but upstream of metabolic control factors. In conclusion, transdifferentiation of cardiac myocytes into pacemaker cells entails massive electrogenic, metabolic, and cytostructural remodeling. Structural changes exhibit hallmarks of the EMT. The results aid ongoing efforts to maximize the yield and phenotypic stability of engineered biological pacemakers.

HCN2 Ion Channels Drive Pain in Rodent Models of Migraine

Migraine is believed to be initiated by neuronal activity in the CNS, that triggers excitation of nociceptive trigeminal ganglion (TG) nerve fibers innervating the meninges and thus causes a unilateral throbbing headache. Drugs that precipitate or potentiate migraine are known to elevate intracellular levels of the cyclic nucleotides cAMP or cGMP, while anti-migraine treatments couple to signaling pathways that reduce cAMP or cGMP, suggesting an involvement of these cyclic nucleotides in migraine. Members of the HCN ion channel family are activated by direct binding of cAMP or cGMP, suggesting in turn that a member of this family may be a critical trigger of migraine. Here, we show that pharmacological block or targeted genetic deletion of HCN2 abolishes migraine-like pain in three rodent migraine models (in both sexes). Induction of migraine-like pain in these models triggered expression of the protein C-FOS, a marker of neuronal activity, in neurons of the trigeminocervical complex (TCC), where TG neurons terminate, and C-FOS expression was reversed by peripheral HCN2 inhibition. HCN2 block in vivo inhibited both evoked and spontaneous neuronal activity in nociceptive TG neurons. The NO donor glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) caused an increase in cGMP in the TG in vivo Exposing isolated TG neurons to GTN caused a rightward shift in the voltage dependence of HCN currents and thus increased neuronal excitability. This work identifies HCN2 as a novel target for the development of migraine treatments.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Migraine is believed to be initiated by localized excitability of neurons within the CNS, but the most disturbing symptom, the characteristic throbbing migraine headache pain, is widely agreed to be caused by activity in afferent pain-sensitive (nociceptive) nerve fibers of the trigeminal nerve. Using a variety of preclinical models of migraine, we identify the HCN2 ion channel as the molecular source of trigeminal hyperexcitability in migraine and we show that pharmacological or genetic inhibition of HCN2 can relieve migraine-like pain symptoms. The work highlights the HCN2 ion channel as a potential pharmacological target for the development of novel analgesics effective in migraine.

Ionic and morphological contributions to the variable gain of membrane responses in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons of mouse primary visual cortex

Many neuronal cell types exhibit a sliding scale of neuronal excitability in the subthreshold voltage range. This is due to a variable contribution of different voltage-gated ion channels, leading to scaling of input resistance (RN) as a function of membrane potential (Vm) and a voltage-dependent dynamic gain of neuronal responsiveness. In layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons within the primary visual cortex (V1), this response influences sensory processing by tightening neuronal tuning to preferred orientations, but the identity of the ionic conductances involved remains unknown. Here, we used in vitro physiological recordings in acute slices to identify the contributions of several voltage-dependent conductances to the dynamic gain of membrane responses in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons in mouse primary visual cortex. We found that the steep voltage dependence of input resistance in these cells was mediated in part by a combination of persistent sodium, inwardly rectifying potassium, and hyperpolarization-activated nonselective cation channels. In addition, the steepness of the slope of the RN/Vm relationship was inversely correlated with the number of branches on the proximal apical dendrite. These data have uncovered physiological and morphological factors that underlie the scaling of membrane responses in L2/3 neurons of rodent V1. Regulation of these channels would serve as a mechanism of real-time neuromodulation of neuronal processing of sensory information.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons in primary visual cortex scale subthreshold voltage responses with resting membrane potential because RN increases as Vm is depolarized. Here, we uncovered the voltage-dependent contributions of NaP, Kir, and HCN conductances toward this behavior, and we additionally demonstrated that the strength of the RN/Vm relationship is inversely correlated with proximal branching along the apical dendrite.

Investigating and Resolving Cardiotoxicity Induced by COVID-19 Treatments using Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes and Engineered Heart Tissues

Coronavirus disease 2019 continues to spread worldwide. Given the urgent need for effective treatments, many clinical trials are ongoing through repurposing approved drugs. However, clinical data regarding the cardiotoxicity of these drugs are limited. Human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hCMs) represent a powerful tool for assessing drug-induced cardiotoxicity. Here, by using hCMs, it is demonstrated that four antiviral drugs, namely, apilimod, remdesivir, ritonavir, and lopinavir, exhibit cardiotoxicity in terms of inducing cell death, sarcomere disarray, and dysregulation of calcium handling and contraction, at clinically relevant concentrations. Human engineered heart tissue (hEHT) model is used to further evaluate the cardiotoxic effects of these drugs and it is found that they weaken hEHT contractile function. RNA-seq analysis reveals that the expression of genes that regulate cardiomyocyte function, such as sarcomere organization (TNNT2, MYH6) and ion homeostasis (ATP2A2, HCN4), is significantly altered after drug treatments. Using high-throughput screening of approved drugs, it is found that ceftiofur hydrochloride, astaxanthin, and quetiapine fumarate can ameliorate the cardiotoxicity of remdesivir, with astaxanthin being the most prominent one. These results warrant caution and careful monitoring when prescribing these therapies in patients and provide drug candidates to limit remdesivir-induced cardiotoxicity.

Liraglutide increases islet Ca2+ oscillation frequency and insulin secretion by activating hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels

AIM

To determine whether hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels impact glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor (GLP-1R) modulation of islet Ca²⁺ handling and insulin secretion.

METHODS

The impact of liraglutide (GLP-1 analogue) on islet Ca²⁺ handling, HCN currents and insulin secretion was monitored with fluorescence microscopy, electrophysiology and enzyme immunoassays, respectively. Furthermore, liraglutide-mediated β-to-δ-cell cross-communication was assessed following selective ablation of either mouse islet δ or β cells.

RESULTS

Liraglutide increased β-cell Ca²⁺ oscillation frequency in mouse and human islets under stimulatory glucose conditions. This was dependent in part on liraglutide activation of HCN channels, which also enhanced insulin secretion. Similarly, liraglutide activation of HCN channels also increased β-cell Ca²⁺ oscillation frequency in islets from rodents exposed to a diabetogenic diet. Interestingly, liraglutide accelerated Ca²⁺ oscillations in a majority of islet δ cells, which showed synchronized Ca²⁺ oscillations equivalent to β cells; therefore, we assessed if either cell type was driving this liraglutide-mediated islet Ca²⁺ response. Although δ-cell loss did not impact liraglutide-mediated increase in β-cell Ca²⁺ oscillation frequency, β-cell ablation attenuated liraglutide-facilitated acceleration of δ-cell Ca²⁺ oscillations.

CONCLUSION

The data presented here show that liraglutide-induced stimulation of islet HCN channels augments Ca²⁺ oscillation frequency. As insulin secretion oscillates with β-cell Ca²⁺ , these findings have important implications for pulsatile insulin secretion that is probably enhanced by liraglutide activation of HCN channels and therapeutics that target GLP-1Rs for treating diabetes. Furthermore, these studies suggest that liraglutide as well as GLP-1-based therapies enhance δ-cell Ca²⁺ oscillation frequency and somatostatin secretion kinetics in a β-cell-dependent manner.

Positive chronotropic action of HCN channel antagonism in human collecting lymphatic vessels

Spontaneous action potentials precede phasic contractile activity in human collecting lymphatic vessels. In this study, we investigated the expression of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels in human collecting lymphatics and by pharmacological inhibition ex vivo tested their potential role in controlling contractile function. Spontaneous and agonist-evoked tension changes of isolated thoracic duct and mesenteric lymphatic vessels-obtained from surgical patients with informed consent-were investigated by isometric myography, and ivabradine, ZD7288 or cesium were used to inhibit HCN. Analysis of HCN isoforms by RT-PCR and immunofluorescence revealed HCN2 to be the predominantly expressed mRNA isoform in human thoracic duct and mesenteric lymphatic vessels and HCN2-immunoreactivity confirmed protein expression in both vessel types. However, in functional experiments ex vivo the HCN inhibitors ivabradine, ZD7288, and cesium failed to lower contraction frequency: conversely, all three antagonists induced a positive chronotropic effect with concurrent negative inotropic action, though these effects first occurred at concentrations regarded as supramaximal for HCN inhibition. Based on these results, we conclude that human collecting vessels express HCN channel proteins but under the ex vivo experimental conditions described here HCN channels have little involvement in regulating contraction frequency in human collecting lymphatic vessels. Furthermore, HCN antagonists can produce concentration-dependent positive chronotropic and negative inotropic effects, which are apparently unrelated to HCN antagonism.

Identification of HCN1 as a 14-3-3 client

Hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 1 (HCN1) is expressed throughout the nervous system and is critical for regulating neuronal excitability, with mutations being associated with multiple forms of epilepsy. Adaptive modulation of HCN1 has been observed, as has pathogenic dysregulation. While the mechanisms underlying this modulation remain incompletely understood, regulation of HCN1 has been shown to include phosphorylation. A candidate phosphorylation-dependent regulator of HCN1 channels is 14-3-3. We used bioinformatics to identify three potential 14-3-3 binding sites in HCN1. We confirmed that 14-3-3 could pull down HCN1 from multiple tissue sources and used HEK293 cells to detail the interaction. Two sites in the intrinsically disordered C-terminus of HCN1 were necessary and sufficient for a phosphorylation-dependent interaction with 14-3-3. The same region of HCN1 containing the 14-3-3 binding peptides is required for phosphorylation-independent protein degradation. We propose a model in which phosphorylation of mouse S810 and S867 (human S789 and S846) recruits 14-3-3 to inhibit a yet unidentified factor signaling for protein degradation, thus increasing the half-life of HCN1.

Propofol, an Anesthetic Agent, Inhibits HCN Channels through the Allosteric Modulation of the cAMP-Dependent Gating Mechanism

Propofol is a broadly used intravenous anesthetic agent that can cause cardiovascular effects, including bradycardia and asystole. A possible mechanism for these effects is slowing cardiac pacemaker activity due to inhibition of the hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels. However, it remains unclear how propofol affects the allosteric nature of the voltage- and cAMP-dependent gating mechanism in HCN channels. To address this aim, we investigated the effect of propofol on HCN channels (HCN4 and HCN2) in heterologous expression systems using a whole-cell patch clamp technique. The extracellular application of propofol substantially suppressed the maximum current at clinical concentrations. This was accompanied by a hyperpolarizing shift in the voltage dependence of channel opening. These effects were significantly attenuated by intracellular loading of cAMP, even after considering the current modification by cAMP in opposite directions. The differential degree of propofol effects in the presence and absence of cAMP was rationalized by an allosteric gating model for HCN channels, where we assumed that propofol affects allosteric couplings between the pore, voltage-sensor, and cyclic nucleotide-binding domain (CNBD). The model predicted that propofol enhanced autoinhibition of pore opening by unliganded CNBD, which was relieved by the activation of CNBD by cAMP. Taken together, these findings reveal that propofol acts as an allosteric modulator of cAMP-dependent gating in HCN channels, which may help us to better understand the clinical action of this anesthetic drug.

Gene knockdown of HCN2 ion channels in the ventral tegmental area reduces ethanol consumption in alcohol preferring rats

Background: Hyperpolarization-Activated Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated (HCN) ionic channels are known to play a key role in the control of neuron excitability and have been proposed as a molecular target of ethanol. Previous studies in rats have shown that gene-induced overexpression of the HCN2 channel in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) increases the rewarding effects of ethanol and its intake by the animals.Objective: The aim of this work was to study the effects of VTA HCN2 gene knockdown in the voluntary ethanol consumption of alcohol-preferring UChB rats.Methods: Two lentiviral vectors were generated; LV-siRNA-HCN2, coding for a siRNA that elicited >95% reduction of HCN2 protein levels in vitro, and a control vector coding for a scrambled siRNA sequence. Female UChB naïve rats (n = 14) were microinjected into the VTA with LV-siRNA-HCN2 or the scrambled control vector (n = 11). Four days after, animals were given a daily free access to 10% ethanol and water for 10 days.Results: Rats treated with the LV-siRNA-HCN2 vector showed a ~ 70% reduction (p < .001) in their ethanol preference and ethanol intake compared to control animals. No changes were observed in the total fluid intake of both groups. HCN2 levels in the VTA were measured by Western blot showing a reduction of 40% (p < .05) in the rats injected with LV-siRNA-HCN2, compared to control animals.Conclusion: These results show that knockdown of HCN2 ionic channels in the VTA of UChB rats markedly reduces their voluntary ethanol intake, supporting the idea that HCN2 channels may constitute a therapeutic target for alcohol use disorders.

Modulation of Pacemaker Channel Function in a Model of Thalamocortical Hyperexcitability by Demyelination and Cytokines

A consensus is yet to be reached regarding the exact prevalence of epileptic seizures or epilepsy in multiple sclerosis (MS). In addition, the underlying pathophysiological basis of the reciprocal interaction among neuroinflammation, demyelination, and epilepsy remains unclear. Therefore, a better understanding of cellular and network mechanisms linking these pathologies is needed. Cuprizone-induced general demyelination in rodents is a valuable model for studying MS pathologies. Here, we studied the relationship among epileptic activity, loss of myelin, and pro-inflammatory cytokines by inducing acute, generalized demyelination in a genetic mouse model of human absence epilepsy, C3H/HeJ mice. Both cellular and network mechanisms were studied using in vivo and in vitro electrophysiological techniques. We found that acute, generalized demyelination in C3H/HeJ mice resulted in a lower number of spike–wave discharges, increased cortical theta oscillations, and reduction of slow rhythmic intrathalamic burst activity. In addition, generalized demyelination resulted in a significant reduction in the amplitude of the hyperpolarization-activated inward current (I_h) in thalamic relay cells, which was accompanied by lower surface expression of hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated channels, and the phosphorylated form of TRIP8b (pS237-TRIP8b). We suggest that demyelination-related changes in thalamic I_h may be one of the factors defining the prevalence of seizures in MS.

Dexmedetomidine Exerts a Negative Chronotropic Action on Sinoatrial Node Cells Through the Activation of Imidazoline Receptors

ABSTRACT

Dexmedetomidine (DEX), an α2-adrenoreceptor (α2-AR) and imidazoline receptor agonist, is most often used for the sedation of patients in the intensive care unit. Its administration is associated with an increased incidence of bradycardia; however, the precise mechanism of DEX-induced bradycardia has yet to be fully elucidated. This study was undertaken to examine whether DEX modifies pacemaker activity and the underlying ionic channel function through α2-AR and imidazoline receptors. The whole-cell patch-clamp techniques were used to record action potentials and related ionic currents of sinoatrial node cells in guinea pigs. DEX (≥10 nM) reduced sinoatrial node automaticity and the diastolic depolarization rate. DEX reduced the amplitude of hyperpolarization-activated cation current (If or Ih) the pacemaker current, even within the physiological pacemaker potential range. DEX slowed the If current activation kinetics and caused a significant shift in the voltage dependence of channel activation to negative potentials. In addition, efaroxan, an α2-AR and imidazoline I1 receptor antagonist, attenuated the inhibitory effects of DEX on sinoatrial node automaticity and If current activity, whereas yohimbine, an α2-AR-selective antagonist, did not. DEX did not affect the current activities of other channels, including rapidly and slowly activating delayed rectifier K+ currents (IKr and IKs), L-type Ca2+ current (ICa,L), Na+/Ca2+ exchange current (INCX), and muscarinic K+ current (IK,ACh). Our results indicate that DEX, at clinically relevant concentrations, induced a negative chronotropic effect on the sinoatrial node function through the downregulation of If current through an imidazoline I1 receptor other than the α2-AR in the clinical setting.

Decreased dopaminergic inhibition of pyramidal neurons in anterior cingulate cortex maintains chronic neuropathic pain

Pyramidal neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a prefrontal region involved in processing the affective components of pain, display hyperexcitability in chronic neuropathic pain conditions, and their silencing abolishes hyperalgesia. We show that dopamine, through D1 receptor (D1R) signaling, inhibits pyramidal neurons of mouse ACC by modulation of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels. Activation of Gs-coupled D1R by dopamine induces the opening of HCN channels at physiological membrane potentials, driving a significant decrease in input resistance and excitability. Systemic L-DOPA in chronic neuropathic mice rescues HCN channel activity, normalizes pyramidal excitability in ACC, and blocks mechanical and thermal allodynia. Moreover, microinjection of a selective D1R agonist in the ACC relieves the aversiveness of ongoing neuropathic pain, while an ACC D1R antagonist blocks gabapentin- and lidocaine-evoked antinociception. We conclude that dopaminergic inhibition via D1R in ACC plays an analgesic role in physiological conditions and is decreased in chronic pain.

Yohimbine Directly Induces Cardiotoxicity on Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes

Yohimbine is a highly selective and potent α₂-adrenoceptor antagonist, which is usually treated as an adjunction for impotence, as well for weight loss and natural bodybuilding aids. However, it was recently reported that Yohimbine causes myocardial injury and controversial results were reported in the setting of cardiac diseases. Here, we used human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) as a model system to explore electrophysiologic characterization after exposure to Yohimbine. HiPSC-CMs were differentiated by employment of inhibitory Wnt compounds. For analysis of electrophysiological properties, conventional whole-cell patch-clamp recording was used. Specifically, spontaneous action potentials, pacemaker currents (I_f), sodium (Na⁺) channel (I_Na), and calcium (Ca⁺⁺) channel currents (I_Ca) were assessed in hiPSC-CMs after exposure to Yohimbine. HiPSC-CMs expressed sarcomeric-α-actinin and MLC2V proteins, as well as exhibited ventricular-like spontaneous action potential waveform. Yohimbine inhibited frequency of hiPSC-CMs spontaneous action potentials and significantly prolonged action potential duration in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, rest potential, threshold potential, amplitude, and maximal diastolic potential were decreased, whereas APD₅₀/APD₉₀ was prolonged. Yohimbine inhibited the amplitude of I_Na in low doses (IC₅₀ = 14.2 μM, n = 5) and inhibited I_Ca in high doses (IC₅₀ = 139.7 μM, n = 5). Whereas Yohimbine did not affect the activation curves, treatment resulted in left shifts in inactivation curves of both Na⁺ and Ca⁺⁺ channels. Here, we show that Yohimbine induces direct cardiotoxic effects on spontaneous action potentials of I_Na and I_Ca in hiPSC-CMs. Importantly, these effects were not mediated by α₂-adrenoceptor signaling. Our results strongly suggest that Yohimbine directly and negatively affects electrophysiological properties of human cardiomyocytes. These findings are highly relevant for potential application of Yohimbine in patients with atrioventricular conduction disorder.

Repurposing hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels as a novel therapy for breast cancer

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are members of the voltage-gated cation channel family known to be expressed in the heart and central nervous system. Ivabradine, a small molecule HCN channel-blocker, is FDA-approved for clinical use as a heart rate-reducing agent. We found that HCN2 and HCN3 are overexpressed in breast cancer cells compared with normal breast epithelia, and the high expression of HCN2 and HCN3 is associated with poorer survival in breast cancer patients. Inhibition of HCN by Ivabradine or by RNAi, aborted breast cancer cell proliferation in vitro and suppressed tumour growth in patient-derived tumour xenograft models established from triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) tissues, with no evident side-effects on the mice. Transcriptome-wide analysis showed enrichment for cholesterol metabolism and biosynthesis as well as lipid metabolism pathways associated with ER-stress following Ivabradine treatment. Mechanistic studies confirmed that HCN inhibition leads to ER-stress, in part due to disturbed Ca2+ homeostasis, which subsequently triggered the apoptosis cascade. More importantly, we investigated the synergistic effect of Ivabradine and paclitaxel on TNBC and confirmed that both drugs acted synergistically in vitro through ER-stress to amplify signals for caspase activation. Combination therapy could suppress tumour growth of xenografts at much lower doses for both drugs. In summary, our study identified a new molecular target with potential for being developed into targeted therapy, providing scientific grounds for initiating clinical trials for a new treatment regimen of combining HCN inhibition with chemotherapy.

Mutants of the Zebrafish K+ Channel Hcn2b Exhibit Epileptic-like Behaviors

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder that affects 50 million people worldwide. The most common form of epilepsy is idiopathic, where most of the genetic defects of this type of epilepsy occur in ion channels. Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are activated by membrane hyperpolarization, and are mainly expressed in the heart and central and peripheral nervous systems. In humans, four HCN genes have been described, and emergent clinical data shows that dysfunctional HCN channels are involved in epilepsy. Danio rerio has become a versatile organism to model a wide variety of diseases. In this work, we used CRISPR/Cas9 to generate hcn2b mutants in zebrafish, and characterized them molecularly and behaviorally. We obtained an hcn2b mutant allele with an 89 bp deletion that produced a premature stop codon. The mutant exhibited a high mortality rate in its life span, probably due to its sudden death. We did not detect heart malformations or important heart rate alterations. Absence seizures and moderate seizures were observed in response to light. These seizures rarely caused instant death. The results show that mutations in the Hcn2b channel are involved in epilepsy and provide evidence of the advantages of zebrafish to further our understanding of the pathogenesis of epilepsy.

Oligodendrocyte HCN2 Channels Regulate Myelin Sheath Length

Oligodendrocytes generate myelin sheaths vital for the formation, health, and function of the CNS. Myelin sheath length is a key property that determines axonal conduction velocity and is known to be variable across the CNS. Myelin sheath length can be modified by neuronal activity, suggesting that dynamic regulation of sheath length might contribute to the functional plasticity of neural circuits. Although the mechanisms that establish and refine myelin sheath length are important determinants of brain function, our understanding of these remains limited. In recent years, the membranes of myelin sheaths have been increasingly recognized to contain ion channels and transporters that are associated with specific important oligodendrocyte functions, including metabolic support of axons and the regulation of ion homeostasis, but none have been shown to influence sheath architecture. In this study, we determined that hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) ion channels, typically associated with neuronal and cardiac excitability, regulate myelin sheath length. Using both in vivo and in vitro approaches, we show that oligodendrocytes abundantly express functional, predominantly HCN2 subunit-containing ion channels. These HCN ion channels retain key pharmacological and biophysical features and regulate the resting membrane potential of myelinating oligodendrocytes. Further, reduction of their function via pharmacological blockade or generation of transgenic mice with two independent oligodendrocyte-specific HCN2 knock-out strategies reduced myelin sheath length. We conclude that HCN2 ion channels are key determinants of myelin sheath length in the CNS.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Myelin sheath length is a critical determinant of axonal conduction velocity, but the signaling mechanisms responsible for determining sheath length are poorly understood. Here we find that oligodendrocytes express functional hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated 2 (HCN2) ion channels that regulate the length of myelin sheaths formed by oligodendrocytes in myelinating cultures and in the mouse brain and spinal cord. These results suggest that the regulation of HCN2 channel activity is well placed to refine sheath length and conduction along myelinated axons, providing a potential mechanism for alterations in conduction velocity and circuit function in response to axonal signals such as those generated by increased activity.

Maternal Thyroid Hormone Programs Cardiovascular Functions in the Offspring

Background: Maternal thyroid hormone (TH) plays an essential role for fetal development, especially for the cardiovascular system and its central control. However, the precise consequences of altered TH action during the different periods in pregnancy remain poorly understood. Methods: To address this question, we used mice heterozygous for a mutant thyroid hormone receptor α1 (TRα1) and wild-type controls that were born to wild-type mothers treated with 3,3',5-triiodothyronine (T3) during the first or the second half of pregnancy. We then phenotyped the offspring animals as adults by in vivo measurements and postmortem tissue analyses. Results: Maternal T3 treatment in either half of the pregnancy did not affect postnatal growth development. Serum thyroxine and hypophyseal thyrotropin subunit beta or deiodinase type II expression was also not affected in any group, only TRα1 mutant males exhibited a reduction in serum T3 levels after the treatment. Likewise, hepatic deiodinase type I was not altered, but serum selenium levels were reduced by the maternal treatment in wild-type offspring of both genders. Most interestingly, a significant increase in heart weight was found in adult wild-types born to mothers that received T3 during the first or second half of pregnancy, while TRα1 mutant males were protected from this effect. Moreover, we detected a significant increase in heart rate selectively in male mice that were exposed to elevated maternal T3 in the second half of the pregnancy. Conclusion: Taken together, our findings demonstrate that maternal TH is of particular relevance during the second half of pregnancy for establishing cardiac properties, with specific effects depending on TRα1 or gender. The data advocate routinely monitoring TH levels during pregnancy to avoid adverse cardiac effects in the offspring.

Cation leak underlies neuronal excitability in an HCN1 developmental and epileptic encephalopathy

Pathogenic variants in HCN1 are associated with developmental and epileptic encephalopathies. The recurrent de novo HCN1 M305L pathogenic variant is associated with severe developmental impairment and drug-resistant epilepsy. We engineered the homologue Hcn1 M294L heterozygous knock-in (Hcn1M294L) mouse to explore the disease mechanism underlying an HCN1 developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. The Hcn1M294L mouse recapitulated the phenotypic features of patients with the HCN1 M305L variant, including spontaneous seizures and a learning deficit. Active epileptiform spiking on the electrocorticogram and morphological markers typical of rodent seizure models were observed in the Hcn1M294L mouse. Lamotrigine exacerbated seizures and increased spiking, whereas sodium valproate reduced spiking, mirroring drug responses reported in a patient with this variant. Functional analysis in Xenopus laevis oocytes and layer V somatosensory cortical pyramidal neurons in ex vivo tissue revealed a loss of voltage dependence for the disease variant resulting in a constitutively open channel that allowed for cation 'leak' at depolarized membrane potentials. Consequently, Hcn1M294L layer V somatosensory cortical pyramidal neurons were significantly depolarized at rest. These neurons adapted through a depolarizing shift in action potential threshold. Despite this compensation, layer V somatosensory cortical pyramidal neurons fired action potentials more readily from rest. A similar depolarized resting potential and left-shift in rheobase was observed for CA1 hippocampal pyramidal neurons. The Hcn1M294L mouse provides insight into the pathological mechanisms underlying hyperexcitability in HCN1 developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, as well as being a preclinical model with strong construct and face validity, on which potential treatments can be tested.

Gating movements and ion permeation in HCN4 pacemaker channels

The HCN1-4 channel family is responsible for the hyperpolarization-activated cation current If/Ih that controls automaticity in cardiac and neuronal pacemaker cells. We present cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of HCN4 in the presence or absence of bound cAMP, displaying the pore domain in closed and open conformations. Analysis of cAMP-bound and -unbound structures sheds light on how ligand-induced transitions in the channel cytosolic portion mediate the effect of cAMP on channel gating and highlights the regulatory role of a Mg2+ coordination site formed between the C-linker and the S4-S5 linker. Comparison of open/closed pore states shows that the cytosolic gate opens through concerted movements of the S5 and S6 transmembrane helices. Furthermore, in combination with molecular dynamics analyses, the open pore structures provide insights into the mechanisms of K+/Na+ permeation. Our results contribute mechanistic understanding on HCN channel gating, cyclic nucleotide-dependent modulation, and ion permeation.