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Mazzarino M, Camuto C, Comunità F, de la Torre X, Stacchini C, Botrè F. Application of liquid chromatography coupled to data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry for the metabolic profiling of N-ethyl heptedrone. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1185:122989. [PMID: 34678705 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
We have investigated the metabolic profile of N-ethyl heptedrone, a new designer synthetic stimulant drug, by using data independent acquisition mass spectrometry. Phase I and phase II metabolism was studied by in vitro models, followed by liquid-chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, to characterize and pre-select the most diagnostic markers of intake. N-ethyl heptedrone was incubated in the presence of pooled human liver microsomes. The contribution of individual enzymatic isoforms in the formation of the phase I and phase II metabolites was further investigated by using human recombinant cDNA-expressed cytochrome P450 enzymesand uridine 5'-diphospho glucuronosyltransferases. The analytical workflow consisted of liquid-liquid extraction with tert-butyl-methyl-ether at alkaline pH, performed before (to investigate the phase I metabolic profile) and after (to investigate the glucuronidation profile) enzymatic hydrolysis. The separation, identification, and determination of the compounds formed in the in vitro experiments were carried out by using liquid chromatography coupled to either high- or low-resolution mass spectrometry. Data independent acquisition method, namely sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment-ion spectra (SWATH®) and product ion scan were selected for high-resolution mass spectrometry, whereas multiple reaction monitoring was used for low-resolution mass spectrometry. Thirteen phase-I metabolites were isolated, formed from reactions being catalyzed mainly by CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP2D6 and, to a lesser degree, by CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. The phase I biotransformation pathways included hydroxylation in different positions, reduction of the ketone group, carbonylation, N-dealkylation, and combinations of the above. Most of the hydroxylated metabolites underwent conjugation reactions to form the corresponding glucurono-conjugated metabolites. Based on our in vitro observation, the metabolic products resulting from reduction of the keto group, N-dealkylation and hydroxylation of the aliphatic chain appear to be the most diagnostic target analytes to be selected as markers of exposure to N-ethyl heptedrone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Mazzarino
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Largo Giulio Onesti, 1, Rome 00197, Italy
| | - Cristian Camuto
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Largo Giulio Onesti, 1, Rome 00197, Italy
| | - Fabio Comunità
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Largo Giulio Onesti, 1, Rome 00197, Italy
| | - Xavier de la Torre
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Largo Giulio Onesti, 1, Rome 00197, Italy
| | - Carlotta Stacchini
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Largo Giulio Onesti, 1, Rome 00197, Italy; Dipartimento Chimica e Tecnologia del farmaco "Sapienza" Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00161, Italy
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Largo Giulio Onesti, 1, Rome 00197, Italy; REDs - Research and Expertise in anti-Doping Sciences, ISSUL - Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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de Albuquerque Cavalcanti G, Moreira Borges R, Reis Alves Carneiro G, Costa Padilha M, Gualberto Pereira HM. Variable Data Independent Acquisition and Data Mining Exploring Feature-Based Molecular Networking Analysis for Untargeted Screening of Synthetic Cannabinoids in Oral Fluid. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2021; 32:2417-2424. [PMID: 34399051 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.1c00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are constantly emerging in the drug market, and synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are included in this NPS family. Forensic laboratories often struggle with these continually emerging SCs, forcing them to develop an untargeted workflow to incorporate these psychoactive drugs in their procedures. Usually, forensic laboratories select analytical methods based on targeted mass spectrometry (MS) technologies for strictly tracking already known NPS. The appropriate way to tackle unknown substances is to develop pipelines for untargeted analysis that include LC-HRMS analytical methods and data analysis. Once established, this strategy would allow drug testing laboratories to be always one step ahead of the new trends concerning the "designer drugs" market. To address this challenge an untargeted workflow based on mass spectrometry data acquisition and data analysis was developed to detect SCs in oral fluid (OF) samples at a low concentration range. The samples were extracted by mixed-mode solid-phase extraction and analyzed by Liquid Chromatography - High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Tandem mass spectra (MS2) were recorded performing a variable isolation width across a mass range of all theoretical precursor ions (vDIA) after the chromatographic separation. After raw data processing with the MSDial software, the deconvoluted features were sent to GNPS for Feature-Based Molecular Networking (FBMN) construction for nontargeted data mining. The FBMN analysis created a unique integrated network for most of the SCs assessed in the OF at a low level (20 ng/mL). These results demonstrate the potential of an untargeted approach to detect different derivatives of SCs at trace levels for forensic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo de Albuquerque Cavalcanti
- Brazilian Doping Control Laboratory (LBCD), Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), 21941-598 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Moreira Borges
- Walter Mors Institute of Research on Natural Products (IPPN), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Reis Alves Carneiro
- Brazilian Doping Control Laboratory (LBCD), Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), 21941-598 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Monica Costa Padilha
- Brazilian Doping Control Laboratory (LBCD), Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), 21941-598 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Henrique Marcelo Gualberto Pereira
- Brazilian Doping Control Laboratory (LBCD), Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), 21941-598 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Chen YM, Hua ZD, Liu CM, Jia W, Wang Y, Liu S. [Determination of Salt Forms of New Psychoactive Substances by Ion Chromatography]. Fa Yi Xue Za Zhi 2021; 37:500-504. [PMID: 34726002 DOI: 10.12116/j.issn.1004-5619.2021.310402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Objective To establish an ion chromatography method for the salt form determination of new psychoactive substances (NPS). Methods The method of conducting qualitative and quantitative analysis of six types of organic acid ions (acetate ion, tartrate ion, maleate ion, oxalate ion, fumarate ion, citrate ion) and five types of inorganic anions (fluoride ion, chloride ion, nitrate ion, sulfate ion, phosphate ion) in NPS sample by ion chromatography was developed. The salt forms of 222 seized NPS samples (103 samples with synthetic cannabinoids, 81 samples with cathinones, 44 samples with phenylethylamines, 12 samples with tryptamines, 7 samples with phencyclidines, 6 samples with piperazines, 2 samples with aminoindenes, 26 samples with fentanyls and 43 samples with other types of NPS) were analyzed by this method. Results Each anion had good linearity in the corresponding linear range, the correlation coefficients (r) were greater than 0.999, the limits of detection were 0.01-0.05 mg/L, and the limits of quantitative were 0.1-0.5 mg/L. Except that 5F-BEPIRAPIM was hydrochloride, the salt forms of the other 102 synthetic cannabinoids were all base. The salt form of 81 cathinone samples, 44 phenylethylamine samples, 7 phencyclidine samples and 2 aminoindene samples were all hydrochloride. The salt forms of tryptamine samples included base, hydrochloride, fumarate and oxalate. The salt forms of piperazine samples included base and hydrochloride. The salt forms of fentanyl samples and samples of other types included base, hydrochloride and citrate. Conclusion Ion chromatography is a simple, accurate and efficient method for determining the salt form of NPS samples, which makes the qualitative and quantitative conclusions of NPS more scientific and rigorous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y M Chen
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Z D Hua
- Drug Control Detachment of Guiyang Public Security Bureau, Guiyang 550081, China
| | - C M Liu
- Drug Control Detachment of Guiyang Public Security Bureau, Guiyang 550081, China
| | - W Jia
- Drug Control Detachment of Guiyang Public Security Bureau, Guiyang 550081, China
| | - Y Wang
- Department of Investigation, Guizhou Police College, Guiyang 550005, China
| | - S Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing 100193, China
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Kolaczynska KE, Thomann J, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. The Pharmacological Profile of Second Generation Pyrovalerone Cathinones and Related Cathinone Derivative. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22158277. [PMID: 34361040 PMCID: PMC8348686 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyrovalerone cathinones are potent psychoactive substances that possess a pyrrolidine moiety. Pyrovalerone-type novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are continuously detected but their pharmacology and toxicology are largely unknown. We assessed several pyrovalerone and related cathinone derivatives at the human norepinephrine (NET), dopamine (DAT), and serotonin (SERT) uptake transporters using HEK293 cells overexpressing each respective transporter. We examined the transporter-mediated monoamine efflux in preloaded cells. The receptor binding and activation potency was also assessed at the 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT2C receptors. All pyrovalerone cathinones were potent DAT (IC50 = 0.02-8.7 μM) and NET inhibitors (IC50 = 0.03-4.6 μM), and exhibited no SERT activity at concentrations < 10 μM. None of the compounds induced monoamine efflux. NEH was a potent DAT/NET inhibitor (IC50 = 0.17-0.18 μM). 4F-PBP and NEH exhibited a high selectivity for the DAT (DAT/SERT ratio = 264-356). Extension of the alkyl chain enhanced NET and DAT inhibition potency, while presence of a 3,4-methylenedioxy moiety increased SERT inhibition potency. Most compounds did not exhibit any relevant activity at other monoamine receptors. In conclusion, 4F-PBP and NEH were selective DAT/NET inhibitors indicating that these substances likely produce strong psychostimulant effects and have a high abuse liability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina E. Kolaczynska
- Division of Psychopharmacology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (K.E.K.); (J.T.)
| | - Jan Thomann
- Division of Psychopharmacology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (K.E.K.); (J.T.)
| | - Marius C. Hoener
- Neuroscience Research, pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., 4070 Basel, Switzerland;
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Division of Psychopharmacology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (K.E.K.); (J.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: + 41-61-328-68-68
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Sogos V, Caria P, Porcedda C, Mostallino R, Piras F, Miliano C, De Luca MA, Castelli MP. Human Neuronal Cell Lines as An In Vitro Toxicological Tool for the Evaluation of Novel Psychoactive Substances. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22136785. [PMID: 34202634 PMCID: PMC8268582 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are synthetic substances belonging to diverse groups, designed to mimic the effects of scheduled drugs, resulting in altered toxicity and potency. Up to now, information available on the pharmacology and toxicology of these new substances is very limited, posing a considerable challenge for prevention and treatment. The present in vitro study investigated the possible mechanisms of toxicity of two emerging NPS (i) 4′-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinoexanophenone (3,4-MDPHP), a synthetic cathinone, and (ii) 2-chloro-4,5-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (2-Cl-4,5-MDMA), a phenethylamine. In addition, to apply our model to the class of synthetic opioids, we evaluated the toxicity of fentanyl, as a reference compound for this group of frequently abused substances. To this aim, the in vitro toxic effects of these three compounds were evaluated in dopaminergic-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Following 24 h of exposure, all compounds induced a loss of viability, and oxidative stress in a concentration-dependent manner. 2-Cl-4,5-MDMA activates apoptotic processes, while 3,4-MDPHP elicits cell death by necrosis. Fentanyl triggers cell death through both mechanisms. Increased expression levels of pro-apoptotic Bax and caspase 3 activity were observed following 2-Cl-4,5-MDMA and fentanyl, but not 3,4-MDPHP exposure, confirming the different modes of cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Sogos
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.S.); (P.C.); (C.P.); (R.M.); (F.P.); (M.A.D.L.)
| | - Paola Caria
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.S.); (P.C.); (C.P.); (R.M.); (F.P.); (M.A.D.L.)
| | - Clara Porcedda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.S.); (P.C.); (C.P.); (R.M.); (F.P.); (M.A.D.L.)
| | - Rafaela Mostallino
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.S.); (P.C.); (C.P.); (R.M.); (F.P.); (M.A.D.L.)
| | - Franca Piras
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.S.); (P.C.); (C.P.); (R.M.); (F.P.); (M.A.D.L.)
| | - Cristina Miliano
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA;
| | - Maria Antonietta De Luca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.S.); (P.C.); (C.P.); (R.M.); (F.P.); (M.A.D.L.)
| | - M. Paola Castelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.S.); (P.C.); (C.P.); (R.M.); (F.P.); (M.A.D.L.)
- Guy Everett Laboratory, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy
- Center of Excellence “Neurobiology of Addiction”, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-070-6754065
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Abstract
Psychoactive natural products play an integral role in the modern world. The tremendous structural complexity displayed by such molecules confers diverse biological activities of significant medicinal value and sociocultural impact. Accordingly, in the last two centuries, immense effort has been devoted towards establishing how plants, animals, and fungi synthesize complex natural products from simple metabolic precursors. The recent explosion of genomics data and molecular biology tools has enabled the identification of genes encoding proteins that catalyze individual biosynthetic steps. Once fully elucidated, the "biosynthetic pathways" are often comparable to organic syntheses in elegance and yield. Additionally, the discovery of biosynthetic enzymes provides powerful catalysts which may be repurposed for synthetic biology applications, or implemented with chemoenzymatic synthetic approaches. In this review, we discuss the progress that has been made toward biosynthetic pathway elucidation amongst four classes of psychoactive natural products: hallucinogens, stimulants, cannabinoids, and opioids. Compounds of diverse biosynthetic origin - terpene, amino acid, polyketide - are identified, and notable mechanisms of key scaffold transforming steps are highlighted. We also provide a description of subsequent applications of the biosynthetic machinery, with an emphasis placed on the synthetic biology and metabolic engineering strategies enabling heterologous production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cooper S Jamieson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Joshua Misa
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Yi Tang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - John M Billingsley
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. and Invizyne Technologies, Inc., Monrovia, CA, USA
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Kim NS, Lim NY, Choi HS, Lee JH, Kim H, Baek SY. Application of a simultaneous screening method for the detection of new psychoactive substances in various matrix samples using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 2021; 35:e9067. [PMID: 33656207 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recently, new psychoactive substances (NPS) have emerged as a public health risk. Particularly, their chemical structures are modified to avoid detection. Synthetic NPS with effects similar to those of illegal drugs have been recently detected and synthesized worldwide, including MDMB-FUBINACA and APINAC, making it essential to rapidly and accurately detect NPS. METHODS Fourteen NPS with similar structures were selected and their structures identified using 1 H and 13 C NMR spectroscopy. Additionally, we proposed the fragmentation pattern of each compound using liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/QTOF-MS). A simultaneous analytical method using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS/MS) was also developed and applied to real samples to detect the 14 NPS. The method was validated based on the specificity, linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), precision, accuracy, matrix effect, and stability according to international validation guidelines. RESULTS The established method was used to screen 65 different matrix samples using LC/ESI-MS/MS. By comparing the calculated product ion ratios with those of standards, 2C-B in one of the real samples and 5F-MDMB-PICA in 20 samples were identified. For re-confirmation of detected compounds, the fragmentation pattern of each compound was compared with that of each standard using LC/QTOF-MS. CONCLUSIONS In this study, LC/QTOF-MS data were used to elucidate the structures and fragmentation patterns of 14 NPS. A simultaneous method was developed using LC/ESI-MS/MS, which was applied to 65 real samples. The presented method and results can assist in ensuring the safety of public health from illegal adulteration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nam Sook Kim
- Center for Advanced Analysis, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Osong Health Technology Administration Complex, 187 Osongsaengmyeong2-ro, Osongeup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 363-700, Republic of Korea
| | - Na Young Lim
- Center for Advanced Analysis, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Osong Health Technology Administration Complex, 187 Osongsaengmyeong2-ro, Osongeup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 363-700, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwan Seong Choi
- Center for Advanced Analysis, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Osong Health Technology Administration Complex, 187 Osongsaengmyeong2-ro, Osongeup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 363-700, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hyun Lee
- Center for Advanced Analysis, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Osong Health Technology Administration Complex, 187 Osongsaengmyeong2-ro, Osongeup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 363-700, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyungil Kim
- Center for Advanced Analysis, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Osong Health Technology Administration Complex, 187 Osongsaengmyeong2-ro, Osongeup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 363-700, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Young Baek
- Center for Advanced Analysis, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Osong Health Technology Administration Complex, 187 Osongsaengmyeong2-ro, Osongeup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 363-700, Republic of Korea
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Jiménez-Holgado C, Sakkas V, Richard C. Phototransformation of Three Psychoactive Drugs in Presence of Sedimental Water Extractable Organic Matter. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26092466. [PMID: 33922609 PMCID: PMC8122907 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychoactive drugs are classified as contaminants of emerging concern but there is limited information on their fate in surface waters. Here, we studied the photodegradation of three psychoactive drugs (sertraline, clozapine, and citalopram) in the presence of organic matter (WEOM) extracted under mild conditions from sediment of Lake Pamvotis, Greece. Spectral characterization of WEOM confirmed its humic-like nature. Preliminary experiments using chemical probes showed that WEOM was able to produce oxidant triplet excited state (3WEOM*), singlet oxygen (1O2), and hydroxyl radicals under irradiation with simulated solar light. Then, WEOM at 5 mgC L-1 was irradiated in the presence of the three drugs. It enhanced their phototransformation by a factor of 2, 4.2, and 16 for sertraline, clozapine, and citalopram, respectively. The drastic inhibiting effect of 2-propanol (5 × 10-3 M) on the reactions demonstrated that hydroxyl radical was the key intermediate responsible for drugs photodegradation. A series of photoproducts were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS). The photodegradation of the three drugs proceeded through several pathways, in particular oxidations of the rings with or without O atom inclusion, N elimination, and substitution of the halogen by OH. The formation of halogenated aromatics was observed for sertraline. To conclude, sedimental natural organic matter can significantly phototransform the studied antidepressant drugs and these reactions need to be more investigated. Finally, ecotoxicity was estimated for the three target analytes and their photoproducts, using the Ecological Structure Activity Relationships (ECOSAR) computer program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Jiménez-Holgado
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece; (C.J.-H.); (V.S.)
- Institute of Chemistry of Clermont-Ferrand, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, SIGMA-Clermont, ICCF, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Vasilios Sakkas
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece; (C.J.-H.); (V.S.)
| | - Claire Richard
- Institute of Chemistry of Clermont-Ferrand, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, SIGMA-Clermont, ICCF, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Correspondence:
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9
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Castaing-Cordier T, Ladroue V, Besacier F, Bulete A, Jacquemin D, Giraudeau P, Farjon J. High-field and benchtop NMR spectroscopy for the characterization of new psychoactive substances. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 321:110718. [PMID: 33601154 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) have become a serious threat to public health in Europe due to their ability to be sold in the street or on the darknet. Regulating NPS is an urgent priority but comes with a number of analytical challenges since they are structurally similar to legal products. A number of analytical techniques can be used for identifying NPS, among which NMR spectroscopy is a gold standard. High field NMR is typically used for structural elucidation in combination with others techniques like GC-MS, Infrared spectroscopy, together with databases. In addition to their strong ability to elucidate molecular structures, high field NMR techniques are the gold standard for quantification without any physical isolation procedure and with a single internal standard. However, high field NMR remains expensive and emerging "benchtop" NMR apparatus which are cheaper and transportable can be considered as valuable alternatives to high field NMR. Indeed, benchtop NMR, which emerged about ten years ago, makes it possible to carry out structural elucidation and quantification of NPS despite the gap in resolution and sensitivity as compared to high field NMR. This review describes recent advances in the field of NMR applied to the characterization of NPS. High-field NMR methods are first described in view of their complementarity with other analytical methods, focusing on both structural and quantitative aspects. The second part of the review highlights how emerging benchtop NMR approaches could act as a game changer in the field of forensics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Virginie Ladroue
- Institut National de Police Scientifique (INPS), Laboratoire de Lyon (LPS69), Ecully 69134, France
| | - Fabrice Besacier
- Institut National de Police Scientifique (INPS), Laboratoire de Lyon (LPS69), Ecully 69134, France
| | - Audrey Bulete
- Institut National de Police Scientifique (INPS), Laboratoire de Lyon (LPS69), Ecully 69134, France
| | - Denis Jacquemin
- Université de Nantes, CNRS, CEISAM UMR 6230, Nantes F-44000, France
| | | | - Jonathan Farjon
- Université de Nantes, CNRS, CEISAM UMR 6230, Nantes F-44000, France.
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Malaca S, Lo Faro AF, Tamborra A, Pichini S, Busardò FP, Huestis MA. Toxicology and Analysis of Psychoactive Tryptamines. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E9279. [PMID: 33291798 PMCID: PMC7730282 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Our understanding of tryptamines is poor due to the lack of data globally. Tryptamines currently are not part of typical toxicology testing regimens and their contribution to drug overdoses may be underestimated. Although their prevalence was low, it is increasing. There are few published data on the many new compounds, their mechanisms of action, onset and duration of action, toxicity, signs and symptoms of intoxication and analytical methods to identify tryptamines and their metabolites. We review the published literature and worldwide databases to describe the newest tryptamines, their toxicology, chemical structures and reported overdose cases. Tryptamines are 5-HT2A receptor agonists that produce altered perceptions of reality. Currently, the most prevalent tryptamines are 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DiPT), 5-methoxy-N,N- diallyltryptamine (5-MeO-DALT) and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). From 2015 to 2020, 22 new analytical methods were developed to identify/quantify tryptamines and metabolites in biological samples, primarily by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The morbidity accompanying tryptamine intake is considerable and it is critical for clinicians and laboratorians to be informed of the latest data on this public health threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Malaca
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University “Politecnica delle Marche” of Ancona, Via Tronto 10, 60126 Ancona, Italy; (S.M.); (A.F.L.F.); (A.T.)
| | - Alfredo Fabrizio Lo Faro
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University “Politecnica delle Marche” of Ancona, Via Tronto 10, 60126 Ancona, Italy; (S.M.); (A.F.L.F.); (A.T.)
| | - Alice Tamborra
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University “Politecnica delle Marche” of Ancona, Via Tronto 10, 60126 Ancona, Italy; (S.M.); (A.F.L.F.); (A.T.)
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V.Le Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University “Politecnica delle Marche” of Ancona, Via Tronto 10, 60126 Ancona, Italy; (S.M.); (A.F.L.F.); (A.T.)
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Walnut St, Philadelphia, PA 19144, USA;
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Khasanov U, Iskhakova SS, Usmanov DT. Examination of the effect of air atmosphere on heterogeneous reactions under surface ionization of psychotropic drug molecules. Eur J Mass Spectrom (Chichester) 2020; 26:409-418. [PMID: 33295819 DOI: 10.1177/1469066720976016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The results of mass spectrometric studies of surface ionization of molecules of psychotropic drugs such as chlorpromazine, amitriptyline and medazepam in an air atmosphere have been presented. The channels of heterogeneous reactions occurring during the molecule adsorption on the hot surface of the thermoemitter from refractory metal oxides have been revealed, as well as the influence of air atmosphere on these reactions. A strong influence of the air atmosphere on the heterogeneous association reactions with the emission of [M + H]+ ions has been found. This ion line is the main in the mass spectra of all the substances under study instead of the characteristic main line in the surface ionization mass spectra obtained in vacuum. The effect of air on the reactions of dehydrogenation and dissociation of adsorbed molecules of organic compounds has been insignificant. In the surface ionization mass spectra of all the substances studied under atmospheric conditions the adduct cluster ions М⋅[М-R]+, М⋅[М-Н]+ and М⋅[М+Н]+ (where М is the molecule, R is the radical, H is the hydrogen atom) up to М⋅[М+Н]+⋅HCl. They are probably formed by adhesion of analyte molecules to the primary ions [М-R]+, [М-Н]+ and [М+Н]+. A comparative analysis has been also performed with the data obtained by chromato-mass spectrometry with electron ionization, as well as with the surface ionization data for these preparations obtained under high vacuum.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Khasanov
- Laboratory of Adsorption and Emission Phenomenon, Institute of Ion-Plasma and Laser Technologies, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
| | - S S Iskhakova
- Laboratory of Adsorption and Emission Phenomenon, Institute of Ion-Plasma and Laser Technologies, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
| | - D T Usmanov
- Laboratory of Adsorption and Emission Phenomenon, Institute of Ion-Plasma and Laser Technologies, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
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12
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Neu P. [Ayahuasca - religion, life-style or drug?]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 2020; 88:669-673. [PMID: 32544955 DOI: 10.1055/a-1149-9187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive drug which has been used by indigenous cultures in the amazonas basin for hundreds of years for medical and religious purpose. Backpackers who came in contact with ayahuasca exported its use in the western world and increased its popularity. By presenting a case report of a patient seeking medical help due to psychotic symptoms after having attended an ayahuasca ritual we give an short overview of pharmacology, legal status, use and side effects of the substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Neu
- Clinic of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Jüdisches Krankenhaus Berlin - Akademisches Lehrkrankenhaus der Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin
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13
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Hägele JS, Hubner E, Schmid MG. Determination of the chiral status of different novel psychoactive substance classes by capillary electrophoresis and β-cyclodextrin derivatives. Chirality 2020; 32:1191-1207. [PMID: 32671883 PMCID: PMC7496848 DOI: 10.1002/chir.23268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Besides the abuse of well‐known illicit drugs, consumers discovered new synthetic compounds with similar effects but minor alterations in their chemical structure. Originally, these so‐called novel psychoactive substances (NPS) have been created to circumvent law of prosecution because of illicit drug abuse. During the past decade, such compounds came up in generations, the most popular compound was a synthetic cathinone derivative named mephedrone. Cathinones are structurally related to amphetamines; to date, more than 120 completely new derivatives have been synthesized and are traded via the Internet. Cathinones possess a chiral center; however, only little is known about the pharmacology of their enantiomers. However, NPS comprise further chiral compound classes such as amphetamine derivatives, ketamines, 2‐(aminopropyl)benzofurans, and phenidines. In continuation of our project, a cheap and easy‐to‐perform chiral capillary zone electrophoresis method for enantioseparation of cathinones presented previously was extended to the aforementioned compound classes. Enantioresolution was achieved by simply adding native β‐cyclodextrin, acetyl‐β‐cyclodextrin, 2‐hydroxypropyl‐β‐cyclodextrin, or carboxymethyl‐β‐cyclodextrin as chiral selector additives to the background electrolyte. Fifty‐one chiral NPS served as analytes mainly purchased from online vendors via the Internet. Using 10 mM of the aforementioned β‐cyclodextrins in a 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 2.5), overall, 50 of 51 NPS were resolved. However, chiral separation ability of the selectors differed depending on the analyte. Additionally, simultaneous enantioseparations, the determination of enantiomeric migration orders of selected analytes, and a repeatability study were performed successfully. It was proven that all separated NPS were traded as racemic mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes S. Hägele
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
| | - Eva‐Maria Hubner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
| | - Martin G. Schmid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
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Chambers MI, Osborne AM, Musah RA. Rapid detection and validated quantification of psychoactive compounds in complex plant matrices by direct analysis in real time-high resolution mass spectrometry - Application to "Kava" psychoactive pepper products. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 2019; 33:1915-1925. [PMID: 31323704 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Classified by the UNODC as a top 20 plant of concern, Piper methysticum (also known as Kava) is being increasingly abused recreationally for its mind-altering effects. It is of significant forensic relevance to establish methods to rapidly identifyand quantify psychoactive compounds, especially those yet to be scheduled ascontrolled substances and which have exhibited various noteworthy health concerns. METHODS Direct analysis in real time high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) demonstrated the ability to detect a range of kavalactones in Pipermethysticum derived products and plant material with no sample preparation. Inaddition, a validated method using calibration curves developed with a deuteratedinternal standard was used for the quantification of the psychoactive moleculeyangonin in various products. RESULTS DART-HRMS detected the protonated masses of six major kavalactonesand three flavokavains in 18 commercial Kava products. A method consistent withFDA validation guidelines was established for the quantification of yangonin in thevarious complex matrices. Implementation of this method, with an LLOQ of 5 mg/mL, enabled successful quantification of yangonin in 16 Kava products.Concentrations for solid products ranged from 2.71 to 8.99 mg/g, while that forliquid products ranged from 1.03 to 4.59 mg/mL. CONCLUSIONS Rapid identification and quantification of psychoactive smallmolecules in plant material can be accomplished using a validated DART-HRMSprotocol. This work illustrates an approach to qualitative and quantitative analysesof a wide variety of complex matrices derived from plants, and demonstrates thatthe commercially available products analyzed are P. methysticum derived and docontain psychoactive yangonin at quantifiable levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan I Chambers
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY), 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY, 12222, USA
| | - Amy M Osborne
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY), 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY, 12222, USA
| | - Rabi A Musah
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY), 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY, 12222, USA
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15
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Makolo F, Viljoen A, Veale CGL. Mesembrine: The archetypal psycho-active Sceletium alkaloid. Phytochemistry 2019; 166:112061. [PMID: 31299396 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2019.112061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
(-)-Mesembrine is a chiral alkaloid that features an aryloctahydroindole skeleton and is most commonly found in species of the succulent genus Sceletium. Several Sceletium species are used by various ethnic groups in South Africa to manage disorders of the central nervous system. Binding assays have revealed that mesembrine is a more potent inhibitor of the serotonin transporter (SERT) than fluoxetine (Prozac) which has prompted the commercialization of mesembrine-containing consumer products. The congested all carbon quaternary stereocenter present at the bridgehead of mesembrine has rendered it a compound of interest for research in synthetic chemistry, which has assisted in the absolute configuration of the naturally occurring isomer to be assigned. Accordingly, this review will cover the recent literature pertaining to the distribution, structural elucidation, chemotaxonomy, biosynthesis, organic synthesis, as well as the biological activities of (-)-mesembrine. Recent synthetic procedures of the non-natural enantiomer as well as the racemate are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Makolo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - Alvaro Viljoen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; SAMRC Herbal Drugs Research Unit, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - Clinton G L Veale
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Pietermaritzburg Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa.
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16
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Miller MJ, Albarracin-Jordan J, Moore C, Capriles JM. Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:11207-11212. [PMID: 31061128 PMCID: PMC6561276 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1902174116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Over several millennia, various native plant species in South America have been used for their healing and psychoactive properties. Chemical analysis of archaeological artifacts provides an opportunity to study the use of psychoactive plants in the past and to better understand ancient botanical knowledge systems. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to analyze organic residues from a ritual bundle, radiocarbon dated to approximately 1,000 C.E., recovered from archaeological excavations in a rock shelter located in the Lípez Altiplano of southwestern Bolivia. The site is located at an elevation of ∼3,900 m above sea level and contains evidence of intermittent human occupations during the last 4,000 years. Chemical traces of bufotenine, dimethyltryptamine, harmine, and cocaine, including its degradation product benzoylecgonine, were identified, suggesting that at least three plants containing these compounds were part of the shamanic paraphernalia dating back 1,000 years ago, the largest number of compounds recovered from a single artifact from this area of the world, to date. This is also a documented case of a ritual bundle containing both harmine and dimethyltryptamine, the two primary ingredients of ayahuasca. The presence of multiple plants that come from disparate and distant ecological areas in South America suggests that hallucinogenic plants moved across significant distances and that an intricate botanical knowledge was intrinsic to pre-Columbian ritual practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie J Miller
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand;
- Archaeological Research Facility, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Juan Albarracin-Jordan
- Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas y Arqueológicas, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia
| | | | - José M Capriles
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
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17
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Trawiński J, Skibiński R. Multivariate comparison of photocatalytic properties of thirteen nanostructured metal oxides for water purification. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 2019; 54:851-864. [PMID: 30947616 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2019.1598169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Although the environmental photocatalysis is being developed for many years, the relationships between simple metal oxides have not been explored so far. In this study a multivariate comparison of thirteen nanostructured metal oxides (Bi2O3, CeO2, Co3O4, Fe2O3, NiO, Pr6O11, SnO2, SrTiO3, TiO2, WO3, ZnFe2O4, ZnO and ZrO2) was performed. The solution containing twenty-six psychotropic pharmaceuticals was used as a model mixture. In order to ensure the influence of the dissolved organic matter on the process, all the experiments were conducted in the river water. Simulated solar radiation was applied as the most environmentally relevant. The high-resolution LC-MS profiles, obtained for the photocatalytic samples after 1 h of irradiation, were then submitted to the multivariate chemometric analysis. Graphical representations of principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis enabled visualization of the relationships between the studied oxides. The registered degradation profiles were compared qualitatively and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Trawiński
- a Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy , Medical University of Lublin , Lublin , Poland
| | - Robert Skibiński
- a Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy , Medical University of Lublin , Lublin , Poland
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18
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Steele TWE, Eltit JM. Using Ca 2+-channel biosensors to profile amphetamines and cathinones at monoamine transporters: electro-engineering cells to detect potential new psychoactive substances. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:973-988. [PMID: 30448989 PMCID: PMC6525079 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5103-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The appearance of stimulant-class new psychoactive substances (NPS) is a frequent and significant problem in our society. Cathinone variants are often sold illegally as 3,4-methylenedioxy methamphetamine ("ecstasy") or disguised for legal sale using misleading names such as "bath salts" and carry the risk of promoting disruptive mental states, addiction, and fatal overdose. The principal targets of these recreational drugs are monoamine transporters expressed in catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons. Some transporter ligands can be transported into cells, where they can promote a massive release of neurotransmitters through reverse transport, and others can block uptake. A ligand's dopamine vs. serotonin transporter selectivity, potency, and activity as a substrate or blocker can help elucidate the abuse liability and subjective effects of a drug. OBJECTIVES Here, we describe the discovery, development, and validation of an emerging methodology for compound activity assessment at monoamine transporters. KEY FINDINGS Substrates generate inward electrical currents through transporters and can depolarize the plasma membrane, whereas blockers work as a "cork in a bottle" and function as antagonists. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels were co-expressed with monoamine transporters in cultured cells and used to measure fluctuations of the membrane electrical potential. In this system, substrates of monoamine transporters produce reliable dose-dependent Ca2+ signals, while blockers hinder them. DISCUSSION This system constitutes a novel use of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels as biosensors for the purpose of characterizing ligand activity at monoamine transporters using fluorimetry. This approach in combination with in vivo evaluations of drugs' abuse-related effects is a powerful strategy for anticipating potential stimulant-class NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler W E Steele
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1101 E Marshall St. Rm# 3-038H, Richmond, VA, 23298, USA
| | - Jose M Eltit
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1101 E Marshall St. Rm# 3-038H, Richmond, VA, 23298, USA.
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19
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Kuthiah N, Er C. "High" on Muscle Spray - Ethyl Chloride Abuse. Ann Acad Med Singap 2019; 48:67-68. [PMID: 30926979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Navin Kuthiah
- Department of Internal Medicine, Woodlands Health Campus, Singapore
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Abstract
Since 2008 there has been an onslaught of new drugs in the illicit marketplace. Often referred to as "research chemicals," "designer drugs," or "novel psychoactive substances" (NPS), these substances are used for their pharmacological effects which are often similar to more widely known drugs such as ecstasy or heroin. In some cases users specifically seek out these new chemicals, in other cases they are simply purchasing what they believe to be their normal drug of choice from a dealer, but the product is not what it is purported to be. Implementation of national and international systems to monitor the appearance of new compounds enables laboratories to be prepared with validated tests to detect them in biological specimens. The most common classes of NPS are synthetic cannabinoids, novel opioids, novel benzodiazepines, stimulants, and hallucinogens. Within these groups the compounds may be drugs that were originally synthesized for research purposes during the pursuit of new therapeutic agents such as the synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and the designer opioid U47700. Others like etizolam are compounds used in other countries but not commonly seen in the USA. Some are drugs synthesized specifically to circumvent legal controls. In all cases, these compounds present a unique challenge to forensic toxicology laboratories which must quickly develop and validate analytical methods for the identification and quantification in biological matrices.This chapter is a condensed and updated version of an article originally published in Clinical and Forensic Toxicology News.
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Eshleman AJ, Wolfrum KM, Reed JF, Kim SO, Johnson RA, Janowsky A. Neurochemical pharmacology of psychoactive substituted N-benzylphenethylamines: High potency agonists at 5-HT 2A receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 158:27-34. [PMID: 30261175 PMCID: PMC6298744 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The use of new psychoactive substituted 2,5-dimethoxy-N-benzylphenethylamines is associated with abuse and toxicity in the United States and elsewhere and their pharmacology is not well known. This study compares the mechanisms of action of 2-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25D-NBOMe), 2-(4-ethyl-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25E-NBOMe), 2-(2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25H-NBOMe), 2-(((4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethyl)amino)methyl)phenol (25I-NBOH); and 2-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-nitrophenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine) (25N-NBOMe) with hallucinogens and stimulants. Mammalian cells heterologously expressing 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B or 5-HT2C receptors, or dopamine, serotonin or norepinephrine transporters (DAT, SERT and NET, respectively) were used to assess drug affinities at radioligand binding sites. Potencies and efficacies were determined using [35S]GTPγS binding assays (5-HT1A), inositol-phosphate accumulation assays (5-HT2A, 5-HT2B and 5-HT2C), and uptake and release assays (transporters). The substituted phenethylamines were very low potency and low efficacy agonists at the 5-HT1A receptor. 25D-NBOMe, 25E-NBOMe, 25H-NBOMe, 25I-NBOH and 25N-NBOMe had very high affinity for, and full efficacy at, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors. In the 5-HT2A receptor functional assay, 25D-NBOMe, 25E-NBOMe, 25I-NBOH and 25N-NBOMe had subnanomolar to low nanomolar potencies similar to (+)lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) while 25H-NBOMe had lower potency, similar to serotonin. At the 5-HT2C receptor, four had very high potencies, similar to LSD and serotonin, while 25H-NBOMe had lower potency. At the 5-HT2B receptor, the compounds had lower affinity, potency and efficacy compared to 5-HT2A or 5-HT2C. The phenethylamines had low to mid micromolar affinities and potencies at the transporters. These results demonstrate that these -NBOMe and -NBOH substituted phenethylamines have a biochemical pharmacology consistent with hallucinogenic activity, with little psychostimulant activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy J Eshleman
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR 97239, United States; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States.
| | - Katherine M Wolfrum
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - John F Reed
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Sunyoung O Kim
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Robert A Johnson
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Aaron Janowsky
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR 97239, United States; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States; The Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
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Abstract
Humankind has used and abused psychoactive drugs for millennia. Formally, a psychoactive drug is any agent that alters cognition and mood. The term "psychotropic drug" is neutral and describes the entire class of substrates, licit and illicit, of interest to governmental drug policy. While these drugs are prescribed for issues ranging from pain management to anxiety, they are also used recreationally. In fact, the current opioid epidemic is the deadliest drug crisis in American history. While the topic is highly politicized with racial, gender, and socioeconomic elements, there is no denying the toll drug mis- and overuse is taking on this country. Overdose, fueled by opioids, is the leading cause of death for Americans under 50 years of age, killing ca. 64,000 people in 2016. From a chemistry standpoint, the question is in what ways, if any, did organic chemists contribute to this problem? In this targeted review, we provide brief historical accounts of the main classes of psychoactive drugs and discuss several foundational total syntheses that ultimately provide the groundwork for producing these molecules in academic, industrial, and clandestine settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Schuyler A. Chambers
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Jenna M. DeSousa
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Eric D. Huseman
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Steven D. Townsend
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, 896 Preston Research Building, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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Periyasamy S, Muthuchamy M. Electrochemical degradation of psychoactive drug caffeine in aqueous solution using graphite electrode. Environ Technol 2018; 39:2373-2381. [PMID: 28705089 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2017.1355932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the electrochemical degradation of caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) in aqueous solution by a graphite electrode was investigated. Electrochemical degradation was tested by the cyclic voltametry technique performed in the potential range of -1.0 to +1.0 V versus Ag/AgCl, which confirmed the electro-activity of the selected caffeine. The effects of the treatment process variables, such as initial pH, current density, electrolyte concentration and electrolysis time on the degradation of caffeine, were explored. During the various stages of electrolysis, parameters such as chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC) were analysed. The maximum COD and TOC removal efficiencies of 85% and 77% were achieved at neutral pH 7, operated at a current density of 5.1 mA/cm2, electrolyte (Na2SO4) concentration of 0.1 M and at 240 min electrolysis time. From this study, it can be concluded that the electrochemical treatment process could effectively reduce the COD and TOC from the caffeine in aqueous medium. The degradation of the caffeine was confirmed by UV spectra, IR spectra and HPLC analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selvendiran Periyasamy
- a Environmental Engineering and Technology Laboratory, Department of Environmental Sciences , Bharathiar University , Coimbatore , India
| | - Muthukumar Muthuchamy
- a Environmental Engineering and Technology Laboratory, Department of Environmental Sciences , Bharathiar University , Coimbatore , India
- b Department of Environmental Science , Central University of Kerala , Kasaragod , India
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Kameni Poumeni M, Bilanda DC, Dzeufiet Djomeni PD, Mengue Ngadena YS, Mballa MF, Ngoungoure MC, Ouafo AC, Dimo T, Kamtchouing P. Safety assessment of the aqueous extract of the flowers of Nymphaea lotus Linn (Nymphaeaceae): Acute, neuro- and subchronic oral toxicity studies in albinos Wistar rats. J Complement Integr Med 2018; 14:/j/jcim.ahead-of-print/jcim-2016-0046/jcim-2016-0046.xml. [PMID: 28291734 DOI: 10.1515/jcim-2016-0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Background Nymphaea lotus Linn (N. lotus) is a medicinal plant widely used in Cameroon popular medicine, to treat neuropsychiatric conditions, male sexual disorders or as food supplement. However, scientific data on the pharmacotoxic profile of this plant are not available. The safety of N. lotus was assessed in acute, neuro- and subchronic toxicity studies by following the OECD guidelines. Effectively, no data have been published until now in regard to its safety on the nervous system. Methods Aqueous extract of N. lotus at doses of 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg body weight (BW) was evaluated for nitrites contents and orally administered to rats daily for 28 days (5 male, 5 female per group). The control group received distilled water (10 mL/kg) and a satellite group was used to observe reversal effects. Neurotoxicity of the plant was determined using open field test for motor coordination, ataxia and gait analysis. Clinical signs and state of livelihood were recorded during the 24 h, then for 28 days of treatments. At the end of 28-day period, animals were anesthetized and decapitated. The whole brain was homogenized for neurobiochemical analysis. Blood samples were collected with or without anticoagulant for hematological examinations and serum analysis. Specimens of liver, kidney, testis, ovaries, and brain were fixed in 10 % formalin and processed for histopathological examinations. Results Our findings indicate dose-dependent elevation of nitrites contents in the flowers aqueous extract of N. lotus. Acute toxicity study revealed no signs of toxicity neither at the dose 2,000 mg/kg nor at 5,000 mg/kg. Thus the LD50 value of aqueous extract of N. lotus flowers is superior to 5,000 mg/kg. The repeated administration of N. lotus during 28 days, induced no signs of neurobehavioral changes in male, but female rats exhibited dose-dependent response in the open field test, suggesting sex and dose-relative psychotropic effects of N. lotus. The evaluation of neurobiochemistry revealed consistent rise of brain cholesterol by 44.05 %; 158.10 % and 147.62 % respectively in male rats treated with the doses of 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg. In female rats, these levels were significantly increased (p<0.001) only at the dose of 600 mg/kg compared to control. This trend persisted after 14 days withdrawal. Brain potassium and calcium concentrations were increased in all rats compared to their respective control receiving distilled water, suggesting transmembrane current stabilizing properties of brain cells by our extract. Further, serum biochemical analysis demonstrated that 28-day administration of N. lotus flowers increased depending on the dose and sex, the levels of serum urea, proteins, creatinine and bilirubin and reduced γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities. These results suggest liver alterations that are endowed by lower liver relative weight and histology damages observed in female rats treated with the dose of 600 mg/kg of our extract. We also observed a rise in the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) fraction and AI of male rats undergoing N. lotus treatment. In female rats, the latter remains unaltered, confirming the dose- and sex-dependent response of our extract. The levels of white blood cells (WBC) and granulocytes were higher in male irrespective to their control, revealing stimulatory properties of the male hematopoietic system. Such variations (sex- and dose-dependent) are without biological relevance for the majority of the biochemical parameters evaluated, indicating a wide margin of safety for the traditional use of N. lotus. The alkaloids, nitrites and phytosterols contained in N. lotus flowers extract may probably account for its neuroprotective, anti-oxidant, and immunoboosting properties. Conclusions N. lotus do not possesses neurotoxicity but is able to induce behavioral changes in rats. Therefore, the application of this plant as either drug or supplementary food should be carefully considered.
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Schiavone S, Trabace L. Small Molecules: Therapeutic Application in Neuropsychiatric and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23020411. [PMID: 29438357 PMCID: PMC6017408 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23020411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, an increasing number of studies have been published, focusing on the potential therapeutic use of small catalytic agents with strong biological properties. So far, most of these works have only regarded specific clinical fields, such as oncology, infectivology and general pathology, in particular with respect to the treatment of significant inflammatory processes. However, interesting data on possible therapeutic applications of small molecules for the treatment of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative illnesses are emerging, especially with respect to the possibility to modulate the cellular redox state. Indeed, a crucial role of redox dysregulation in the pathogenesis of these disorders has been widely demonstrated by both pre-clinical and clinical studies, being the reduction of the total amount of free radicals a promising novel therapeutic approach for these diseases. In this review, we focused our interest on studies published during the last ten years reporting therapeutic potential of small molecules for the treatment of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, also based on the biological efficiency of these compounds in detecting intracellular disturbances induced by increased production of reactive oxygen species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Schiavone
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 20, 71122 Foggia, Italy.
| | - Luigia Trabace
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 20, 71122 Foggia, Italy.
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Guillou C, Reniero F, Vicente JL, Holland M, Kolar K, Chassaigne H, Tirendi S, Schepers H. Collaboration of the Joint Research Centre and European Customs Laboratories for the Identification of New Psychoactive Substances. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2018; 19:91-98. [PMID: 29792142 PMCID: PMC6110040 DOI: 10.2174/1389201019666180523122717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The emergence of psychoactive designer drugs has significantly increased over the last few years. Customs officials are responsible for the control of products entering the European Union (EU) market. This control applies to chemicals in general, pharmaceutical products and medicines. Numerous products imported from non-EU countries, often declared as 'bath salts' or 'fertilizers', contain new psychoactive substance (NPS). REVIEW These are not necessarily controlled under international law, but may be subject to monitoring in agreement with EU legislation. This situation imposes substantial challenges, for example, for the maintenance of spectral libraries used for their detection by designated laboratories. The chemical identification of new substances, with the use of powerful instrumentation, and the time needed for detailed analysis and interpretation of the results, demands considerable commitment. The EU Joint Research Centre endeavors to provide scientific support to EU Customs laboratories to facilitate rapid identification and characterisation of seized samples. In addition to analysing known NPS, several new chemical entities have also been identified. Frequently, these belong to NPS classes already notified to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) by the European Early- Warning System (EWS). CONCLUSION The aim of this paper is to discuss the implementation of workflow mechanisms that are in place in order to facilitate the monitoring, communication and management of analytical data. The rapid dissemination of this information between control authorities strives to help protect EU citizens against the health risks posed by harmful substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claude Guillou
- Address correspondence to this author at the European Commission, Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Directorate F - Health, Consumers and Reference Materials via E. Fermi, 2749, I-21020 Ispra (VA) - Italy; Tel: +39 0332 785678; E-mail:
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Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) are the largest and most structurally diverse class of new psychoactive substances (NPS). Although the earliest SCRA NPS were simply repurposed from historical academic manuscripts or pharmaceutical patents describing cannabinoid ligands, recent examples bear hallmarks of rational design. SCRA NPS manufacturers have applied traditional medicinal chemistry strategies (such as molecular hybridization, bioisosteric replacement, and scaffold hopping) to existing cannabinoid templates in order to generate new molecules that circumvent structure-based legislation. Most SCRAs potently activate cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 receptors (CB1 and CB2, respectively), with the former contributing to the psychoactivity of these substances. SCRAs are generally more toxic than the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) found in cannabis, and this may be due to ligand bias, metabolism, or off-target activity. This chapter will chart the evolution of recently identified SCRA NPS chemotypes, as well as their putative manufacturing by-products and thermolytic degradants, and describe structure-activity relationships within each class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D Banister
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) have proliferated as new psychoactive substances (NPS) over the past decade. Relative to other classes of NPS, SCRAs are structurally heterogeneous; however, most SCRAs act as potent, high-efficacy agonists of cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 receptors (CB1 and CB2, respectively). Characterization of the pharmacology and toxicology of these substances is hindered by the dynamic nature of the SCRA marketplace. Beyond basic pharmacological profiling at CB1 and CB2 receptors, very little is known about the acute or chronic effects of SCRAs. Many of the effects of SCRAs are qualitatively similar to those of the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) found in cannabis. However, unlike Δ9-THC, SCRAs are frequently associated with serious adverse effects, including cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and death. This chapter will provide an overview of the structure and function of the primary target for SCRAs, the CB1 receptor, and survey the structure-activity relationships of the historical SCRAs that served as templates for the earliest generations of NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D Banister
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Angeli A, Vaiano F, Mari F, Bertol E, Supuran CT. Psychoactive substances belonging to the amphetamine class potently activate brain carbonic anhydrase isoforms VA, VB, VII, and XII. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2017; 32:1253-1259. [PMID: 28936885 PMCID: PMC6009978 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2017.1375485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying possible new biological activities of psychoactive substances belonging to various chemical classes may lead to a better understanding of their mode of action and side effects. We report here that amines structurally related to amphetamine, a widely used psychoactive substance, such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, phentermine, mephentermine, and chlorphenteramine, potently activate several carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) isoforms involved in important physiological functions. Of the 11 investigated human (h) isoforms, the widespread hCA I and II, the secreted hCA VI, as well as the cytosolic hCA XIII, and membrane-bound hCA IX and XIV were poorly activated by these amines, whereas the extracellular hCA IV, the mitochondrial enzymes hCA VA/VB, the cytosolic hCA VII, and the transmembrane isoform hCA XII were potently activated. Some of these enzymes are abundant in the brain, raising the possibility that some of the cognitive effects of such psychoactive substances might be related to their activation of these enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Angeli
- Dipartimento Neurofarba, Sezione di Scienze Farmaceutiche e Nutraceutiche, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Florence, Italy
| | - Fabio Vaiano
- Forensic Toxicology Division, Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Francesco Mari
- Forensic Toxicology Division, Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Bertol
- Forensic Toxicology Division, Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Claudiu T. Supuran
- Dipartimento Neurofarba, Sezione di Scienze Farmaceutiche e Nutraceutiche, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Florence, Italy
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de Morais DR, Barbosa IL, Cunha KF, Tripodi GL, Angolini CFF, Franco MF, de Aquino EM, Eberlin MN, Costa JL. EASI-IMS an expedite and secure technique to screen for 25I-NBOH in blotter papers. J Mass Spectrom 2017; 52:701-706. [PMID: 28746793 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The increasing number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and their quick worldwide spreading, often only slightly modified in the form of new derivatives and analogues, have brought the need for fast, wide-ranging, and unequivocal identification methods in clinical and forensic investigations. Because it usually provides secure results, gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been routinely employed as the standard technique for the detection of NPS in blotter papers. For 25I-NBOH (N-(2-hydroxybenzyl)-2-(4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethan-1-aminium), however, GC-MS analysis of an blotter paper extract leads to incorrect results. In this work, we investigated whether easy ambient sonic-spray mass spectrometry imaging (EASI-IMS), and ambient ionization MS method can be applied directly to the surface of the sample requiring therefore no extraction or sample preparations, would serve as an efficient, sensitive, and secure alternative for 25I-NBOH screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damila Rodrigues de Morais
- ThoMSon Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, University of Campinas, Institute of Chemistry, Campinas, São Paulo, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Ingrid Lopes Barbosa
- ThoMSon Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, University of Campinas, Institute of Chemistry, Campinas, São Paulo, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Kelly Francisco Cunha
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13083-859, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Lucas Tripodi
- ThoMSon Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, University of Campinas, Institute of Chemistry, Campinas, São Paulo, 13083-970, Brazil
| | | | - Marcos Fernando Franco
- Technical-Scientific Police Superintendency, SPTC, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05507-060, Brazil
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13084-971, Brazil
| | | | - Marcos Nogueira Eberlin
- ThoMSon Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, University of Campinas, Institute of Chemistry, Campinas, São Paulo, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Jose Luiz Costa
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, 13083-859, Brazil
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Petruczynik A, Waksmundzka-Hajnos M. ANALYSIS OF BASIC PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS IN BIOLOGICAL FLUIDS AND TISSUES BY REVERSED-PHASE HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY. Acta Pol Pharm 2017; 74:331-346. [PMID: 29624238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The review of the RP HPLC analysis of basic psychotropic drugs is presented. It contains sample preparation methods with centrifugation, protein precipitation, liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME), solid-phase extraction (SPE), solid-phase microextraction (SPME), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and RP-HPLC analysis. Chromatographic behavior of basic drugs in aqueous media - eluents used in reversed phase systems is discussed. Methods of blocking of residue surface silanols' interaction are mentioned. Analytical methods used for the analysis are divided into parts according with the above methods: the use of low-pH eluents, the use of high-pH eluents, the use of silanol blockers, special stationary phases for basic analytes. Literature connected with the sample preparation methods and analytical systems for the drug analysis are cited in details and presented also in Table 1.
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Gamo NJ, Birknow MR, Sullivan D, Kondo MA, Horiuchi Y, Sakurai T, Slusher BS, Sawa A. Valley of death: A proposal to build a "translational bridge" for the next generation. Neurosci Res 2017; 115:1-4. [PMID: 27876581 PMCID: PMC5477974 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2016.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
There is a great need for novel drug discovery for major mental illnesses, but multiple levels of challenges exist in both academia and industry, spanning from scientific understanding and institutional infrastructure to business risk and feasibility. The "valley of death," the large gap between basic scientific research and translation to novel therapeutics, underscores the need to restructure education and academic research to cultivate the fertile interface between academia and industry. In this opinion piece, we propose strategies to educate young trainees in the process of drug discovery and development, and prepare them for careers across this spectrum. In addition, we describe a research framework that considers the disease trajectory and underlying biology of mental disorders, which will help to address the core pathophysiology in novel treatments, and may even allow early detection and intervention. We hope that these changes will increase understanding among academia, industry, and government, which will ultimately improve the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nao J Gamo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
| | | | - Danielle Sullivan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
| | - Mari A Kondo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
| | - Yasue Horiuchi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
| | - Takeshi Sakurai
- Department of Drug Discovery Medicine, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Barbara S Slusher
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins Drug Discovery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Akira Sawa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States.
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Zhang JG, Geng CA, Huang XY, Chen XL, Ma YB, Zhang XM, Chen JJ. Chemical and biological comparison of different sections of Uncaria rhynchophylla (Gou-Teng). Eur J Mass Spectrom (Chichester) 2017; 23:11-21. [PMID: 28657449 DOI: 10.1177/1469066717694044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Uncaria rhynchophylla (Gou-Teng in Chinese) is officially documented in Chinese pharmacopoeia as one of the authentic sources for the crude drug of Gou-Teng which has long been used for mental and cardiovascular diseases. Indole alkaloids are the characteristic constituents responsible for the desired hypotensive effect; however, the psychiatric active constituents of Gou-Teng are still unclear. According to traditional Chinese medicine theory, only the hook-bearing stems of U. rhynchophylla are used as the crude materials for Gou-Teng, while its leaves and fruits are scarcely used. The present study aimed to compare the metabolic fingerprints of different parts (hooks, stems, leaves and fruits) of U. rhynchophylla by LC-DAD-MS/MS analysis and further evaluate their psychiatric activities on HEK293 cell line in vitro. A total of 38 constituents including 26 alkaloids, six flavonoids, two triterpenoids, two chlorogenic acid analogs and two other compounds were characterized. The different parts of U. rhynchophylla can be well differentiated from their chemical profiles. Leaves displayed the most potent activity on both MT1 and MT2 receptors, with agonistic rates of 39.7% and 97.6%. For 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors, hooks showed the strongest activity with agonistic rates of 92.6% and 83.1%, respectively. This investigation provided valuable information for understanding the chemical divergence between different parts of U. rhynchophylla, and their substantial bases for psychiatric purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Gang Zhang
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
- 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
| | - Chang-An Geng
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Xiao-Yan Huang
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Xing-Long Chen
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
- 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
| | - Yun-Bao Ma
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Xue-Mei Zhang
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Ji-Jun Chen
- 1 State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
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Orsolini L, St John-Smith P, McQueen D, Papanti D, Corkery J, Schifano F. Evolutionary Considerations on the Emerging Subculture of the E-psychonauts and the Novel Psychoactive Substances: A Comeback to the Shamanism? Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15:731-737. [PMID: 27834144 PMCID: PMC5771049 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666161111114838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evolutionary research on drug abuse has hitherto been restricted to proximate studies, considering aetiology, mechanism, and ontogeny. However, in order to explain the recent emergency of a new behavioral pattern (e.g. 'the e-psychonaut style') of novel psychoactive substances' (NPS) intake, a complementary evolutionary model may be needed. OBJECTIVE A range of evolutionary interpretations on the 'psychonaut style' and the recent emergency of NPS were here considered. METHOD The PubMed database was searched in order to elicit evolutionary theory-based documents commenting on NPS/NPS users/e-psychonauts. RESULTS The traditional 'shamanic style' use of entheogens/plant-derived compounds may present with a range of similarities with the 'e-psychonauts' use of mostly of hallucinogen/psychedelic NPS. These users consider themselves as 'new/technological' shamans. CONCLUSION Indeed, a range of evolutionary mechanisms, such as: optimal foraging, costly signaling, and reproduction at the expense of health may all cooperate to explain the recent spread and diffusion of the NPS market, and this may represent a reason of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Orsolini
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB
- Villa San Giuseppe Hospital, Hermanas Hospitalarias, Ascoli Piceno, Italy
- Polyedra Research, Polyedra, Teramo, Italy
| | - Paul St John-Smith
- Hertfordshire Partnership University NHS Foundation Trust, Civic Offices, Elstree Way, Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, WD6 1WA
| | - Daniel McQueen
- Child and Family Department, The Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust, Child and Family Department – 120 Belsize Lane, London, NW3 5BA & Eating Disorder Unit, Cygnet Hospital Ealing, 22 Corfton Road, Ealing, W5 2HT, UK
| | - Duccio Papanti
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB
| | - John Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB
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Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Westphal F, Elliott SP, Wallach J, Colestock T, Burrow TE, Chapman SJ, Stratford A, Nichols DE, Halberstadt AL. Return of the lysergamides. Part II: Analytical and behavioural characterization of N 6 -allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and (2'S,4'S)-lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ). Drug Test Anal 2017; 9:38-50. [PMID: 27265891 PMCID: PMC5411264 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Lysergic acid N,N-diethylamide (LSD) is perhaps one of the most intriguing psychoactive substances known and numerous analogs have been explored to varying extents in previous decades. In 2013, N6 -allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and (2'S,4'S)-lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ) appeared on the 'research chemicals'/new psychoactive substances (NPS) market in both powdered and blotter form. This study reports the analytical characterization of powdered AL-LAD and LSZ tartrate samples and their semi-quantitative determination on blotter paper. Included in this study was the use of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), low and high mass accuracy electrospray MS(/MS), high performance liquid chromatography diode array detection and GC solid-state infrared analysis. One feature shared by serotonergic psychedelics, such as LSD, is the ability to mediate behavioural responses via activation of 5-HT2A receptors. Both AL-LAD and LSZ displayed LSD-like responses in male C57BL/6 J mice when employing the head-twitch response (HTR) assay. AL-LAD and LSZ produced nearly identical inverted-U-shaped dose-dependent effects, with the maximal responses occurring at 200 µg/kg. Analysis of the dose responses by nonlinear regression confirmed that LSZ (ED50 = 114.2 nmol/kg) was equipotent to LSD (ED50 = 132.8 nmol/kg) in mice, whereas AL-LAD was slightly less potent (ED50 = 174.9 nmol/kg). The extent to which a comparison in potency can be translated directly to humans requires further investigation. Chemical and pharmacological data obtained from NPS may assist research communities that are interested in various aspects related to substance use and forensic identification. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
| | - Pierce V. Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Folker Westphal
- State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Section Narcotics/Toxicology, Mühlenweg 166, D-24116 Kiel, Germany
| | - Simon P. Elliott
- ROAR Forensics, Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, WR14 3SZ, UK
| | - Jason Wallach
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Tristan Colestock
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of the Sciences, 600 South 43rd Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Timothy E. Burrow
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
| | | | | | - David E. Nichols
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Genetic Medicine Building, 120 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Adam L. Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804, USA
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Negus SS, Banks ML. Decoding the Structure of Abuse Potential for New Psychoactive Substances: Structure-Activity Relationships for Abuse-Related Effects of 4-Substituted Methcathinone Analogs. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:119-131. [PMID: 27696217 PMCID: PMC5425248 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Many cathinone analogs act as substrates or inhibitors at dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin transporters (DAT, NET, SERT, respectively). Drug selectivity at DAT vs. SERT is a key determinant of abuse potential for monoamine transporter substrates and inhibitors, such that potency at DAT > SERT is associated with high abuse potential, whereas potency at DAT < SERT is associated with low abuse potential. Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) studies with a series of 4-substituted methcathinone analogs identified volume of the 4-position substituent on the methcathinone phenyl ring as one structural determinant of both DAT vs. SERT selectivity and abuse-related behavioral effects in an intracranial self-stimulation procedure in rats. Subsequent modeling studies implicated specific amino acids in DAT and SERT that might interact with 4-substituent volume to determine effects produced by this series of cathinone analogs. These studies illustrate use of QSAR analysis to investigate pharmacology of cathinones and function of monoamine transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Stevens Negus
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.
| | - Matthew L Banks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
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Graziano S, Orsolini L, Rotolo MC, Tittarelli R, Schifano F, Pichini S. Herbal Highs: Review on Psychoactive Effects and Neuropharmacology. Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15:750-761. [PMID: 27799032 PMCID: PMC5771051 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x14666161031144427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A new trend among users of new psychoactive substances' the consumption of "herbal highs": plant parts containing psychoactive substances. Most of the substances extracted from herbs, in old centuries were at the centre of religious ceremonies of ancient civilizations. Currently, these herbal products are mainly sold by internet web sites and easily obtained since some of them have no legal restriction. OBJECTIVE We reviewed psychoactive effects and neuropharmacology of the most used "herbal highs" with characterized active principles, with studies reporting mechanisms of action, pharmacological and subjective effects, eventual secondary effects including intoxications and/or fatalities Method: The PubMed database was searched using the following key.words: herbal highs, Argyreia nervosa, Ipomoea violacea and Rivea corymbosa; Catha edulis; Datura stramonium; Piper methysticum; Mitragyna speciosa. RESULTS Psychoactive plants here reviewed have been known and used from ancient times, even if for some of them limited information still exist regarding subjective and neuropharmacological effects and consequent eventual toxicity when plants are used alone or in combination with "classical" drugs of abuse. CONCLUSION Some "herbal highs" should be classified as harmful drugs since chronic administration has been linked with addiction and cognitive impairment; for some others taking into consideration only the recent trends of abuse, studies investigating these aspects are lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Graziano
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Orsolini
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB, UK
- Villa San Giuseppe Hospital, Hermanas Hospitalarias, Ascoli Piceno, Italy
- Polyedra Research, Polyedra, Teramo, Italy
| | - Maria Concetta Rotolo
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Tittarelli
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Simona Pichini
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
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Abstract
Products containing psychoactive synthetic cathinones, such as mephedrone and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) are prevalent in our society. Synthetic cathinones are structurally similar to methamphetamine, and numerous synthetics have biological activity at dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transporters. Importantly, monoamine transporters co-transport sodium ions along with their substrate, and movement of substrates and ions through the transporter can generate measurable ionic currents. Here we review how electrophysiological information has enabled us to determine how synthetic cathinones affect transporter-mediated currents in cells that express these transporters. Specifically, drugs that act as transporter substrates induce inward depolarizing currents when cells are held near their resting membrane potential, whereas drugs that act as transporter blockers induce apparent outward currents by blocking an inherent inward leak current. We have employed the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique in Xenopus laevis oocytes overexpressing monoamine transporters to determine whether synthetic cathinones found in the so-called bath salts products behave as blockers or substrates. We also examined the structure-activity relationships for synthetic cathinone analogs related to the widely abused compound MDPV, a common constituent in "bath salts" possessing potent actions at the dopamine transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Solis
- In Vivo Electrophysiology Unit, Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse - Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Triad Technology Center, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 2200, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA.
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Trawiński J, Skibiński R. Studies on photodegradation process of psychotropic drugs: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2017; 24:1152-1199. [PMID: 27696160 PMCID: PMC5306312 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7727-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of psychotropic drugs is still increasing, especially in high-income countries. One of the most crucial consequences of this fact is significant release of them to the environment. Considerable amounts of atypical antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and their metabolites were detected in river, lake, and sea water, as well as in tissues of aquatic organisms. Their ecotoxicity was proved by numerous studies. It should be noticed that interaction between psychotropic pharmaceuticals and radiation may lead to formation of potentially more toxic intermediates. On the other hand, photo-assisted wastewater treatment methods can be used as an efficient way to eliminate them from the environment. Many methods based on photolysis and photocatalysis were proposed and developed recently; nevertheless, the problem is still unsolved. However, according to recent studies, photocatalysis could be considered as the most promising and far more effective than regular photolysis. An overview on photolytic as well as homogenous and heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation methods with the use of various catalysts is presented. The photostability and phototoxicity of pharmaceuticals were also discussed. Various analytical methods were used for the photodegradation research, and this issue was also compared and summarized. Use of high-resolution multistage mass spectrometry (Q-TOF, ion trap, Orbitrap) was suggested. The combined techniques such as LC-MS, GC-MS, and LC-NMR, which enable qualitative and quantitative analyses in one run, proved to be the most valuable in this case. Assembling of MS/MS spectra libraries of drug molecules and their phototransformation products was identified as the future challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Trawiński
- Department of Medicinal, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Robert Skibiński
- Department of Medicinal, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090, Lublin, Poland
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Maloney WJ. Dab Alert. N Y State Dent J 2016; 82:8. [PMID: 27209710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
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Lemini C, García-Albor E, Cruz-López B, Matamoros-Trejo G, Martínez-Mota L. Differential effect of the 17β-aminoestrogens prolame, butolame and pentolame in anxiety and depression models in rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2016; 64:102-8. [PMID: 26239795 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Revised: 07/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens of clinical use produce consistent antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like effects in animal models of menopause. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) or stress axis, has been proposed as a pathway through which estrogens improve affective-like behaviors. Anticoagulant 17β-aminoestrogens (17β-AEs) butolame and pentolame mimic some effects of estradiol (E2), i.e., on female rodent sexual behavior, with opposite actions on coagulation. However, their psychoactive actions have not been explored. On the basis of similitude with E2's effects, we hypothesized that these 17β-AEs would induce anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects, which would be reflected in a reduction of activity in the HPA axis. In ovariectomized female rats, chronic treatment with prolame (60 μg/kg), butolame (65 μg/kg) and pentolame (70 μg/kg) reduced anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze (evidenced by an increase in time in open arms, E2 (40 μg/kg) +176%; prolame +201%; butolame, +237%; and pentolame +295%, in comparison to the control vehicle group 100%). Pentolame also decreased significantly anxiety-like behavior in the burying behavior test. Prolame and E2 produced a significantly antidepressant-like action, which was not induced by butolame and pentolame. Behavioral effects of 17β-AEs (and E2) on anxiety and depression did not follow the same pattern than corticosterone or E2 levels; they also were associated to changes in locomotor activity, evaluated by the open field test. These results constitute the first evidence of specific and selective actions of butolame and pentolame as anxiolytics for females with a hypoestrogenic condition. Results also confirm the potential of prolame as an antidepressant steroid with equivalent actions to E2. Psychoactive properties of 17β-AEs in combinations with reduced adverse effects on coagulation, suggest that 17β-AEs may be a good alternative replacement therapy for women with symptoms associated with menopause.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lemini
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad No. 3000, Ciudad Universitaria, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04510 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - E García-Albor
- Laboratorio de Farmacología Conductual, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Calz. México-Xochimilco 101, Col. San Lorenzo Huipulco, Delegación Tlalpan, C.P. 14370 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - B Cruz-López
- Laboratorio de Farmacología Conductual, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Calz. México-Xochimilco 101, Col. San Lorenzo Huipulco, Delegación Tlalpan, C.P. 14370 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - G Matamoros-Trejo
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología Molecular, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Calz. México-Xochimilco 101, Col. San Lorenzo Huipulco, Delegación Tlalpan, C.P. 14370 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - L Martínez-Mota
- Laboratorio de Farmacología Conductual, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Calz. México-Xochimilco 101, Col. San Lorenzo Huipulco, Delegación Tlalpan, C.P. 14370 México, D.F., Mexico.
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Wu M, Xiang J, Que C, Chen F, Xu G. Occurrence and fate of psychiatric pharmaceuticals in the urban water system of Shanghai, China. Chemosphere 2015; 138:486-93. [PMID: 26188705 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Psychiatric pharmaceuticals are the most prescribed active substances throughout the world and their presence in the environment raised concerns. The occurrence and fate of 15 selected psychiatric pharmaceuticals, including eight benzodiazepines, four antidepressants, one antiepileptic and two metabolites of benzodiazepines were investigated in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influents and effluents, surface water, and final drinking water in Shanghai. Psychiatric pharmaceuticals were in WWTPs influents ranging from low ng L(-1) to 68.2 ng L(-1), dominated by carbamazepine, doxepin, diazepam and lorazepam. Target analytes were still detected in effluents from low ng L(-1) range to 47.3 ng L(-1), with carbamazepine, diazepam, and oxazepam as most prevalent. WWTPs were low effective (<50%) in removing most of them, excluding amitriptyline (mean 60%), doxepin (mean 70%), temazepam (mean 78%) and lorazepam (mean 93%). In addition, carbamazepine, diazepam, oxazepam and lorazepam were detected in low ng L(-1) to 75.5 ng L(-1) in the surface water of Huang Pu Rive. The pattern of contaminants in surface water is similar to the effluent wastewater, which suggested the main source of organic trace pollutants might be WWTPs. Furthermore, carbamazepine (0.8-2.5 ng L(-1)), diazepam (0.5-3.2 ng L(-1)) and alprazolam (2.3 ng L(-1)) were also detected in drinking water and the concentrations were below the health based precautionary value. The investigation was within the range of those results reported in other countries. Our results indicate ubiquity of the investigated compounds in the aquatic system. These pollutants may potentially reach drinking water via WWTP effluents and/or surface waters and require constant attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghong Wu
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China; Shanghai Applied Radiation Institute, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China.
| | - Jiajia Xiang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China.
| | - Chenjing Que
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China.
| | - Fenfen Chen
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Gang Xu
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China.
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Abstract
The analysis of substances of abuse remains one of the most matured areas in forensic science with a strong scientific basis, namely analytical chemistry. The current evolving drug markets, characterized by the global emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and the need for forensic scientists to identify an unprecedented and ever-increasing number of NPS, presents a unique challenge to this discipline. This article looks at the current situation with NPS at the global level, and the challenges posed to the otherwise technically robust forensic science discipline of analysis of substances of abuse. It discusses the preparedness of forensic science to deal with the current situation and identifies the need for a shift in forensic science practice, especially one which embraces research and looks beyond normal casework in order to provide the much needed data for developing effective policy responses to the NPS problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justice Tettey
- Laboratory and Scientific Section, Research and Analysis Branch, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna, Austria
| | - Conor Crean
- Laboratory and Scientific Section, Research and Analysis Branch, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna, Austria
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Sakloth F, Kolanos R, Mosier PD, Bonano JS, Banks ML, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Negus SS, Glennon RA. Steric parameters, molecular modeling and hydropathic interaction analysis of the pharmacology of para-substituted methcathinone analogues. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 172:2210-8. [PMID: 25522019 PMCID: PMC4403088 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE There is growing concern over the abuse of certain psychostimulant methcathinone (MCAT) analogues. This study extends an initial quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) investigation that demonstrated important steric considerations of seven 4- (or para-)substituted analogues of MCAT. Specifically, the steric character (Taft's steric ES ) of the 4-position substituent affected in vitro potency to induce monoamine release via dopamine and 5-HT transporters (DAT and SERT) and in vivo modulation of intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS). Here, we have assessed the effects of other steric properties of the 4-position substituents. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Definitive steric parameters that more explicitly focus on the volume, width and length of the MCAT 4-position substituents were assessed. In addition, homology models of human DAT and human SERT based upon the crystallized Drosophila DAT were constructed and docking studies were performed, followed by hydropathic interaction (HINT) analysis of the docking results. KEY RESULTS The potency of seven MCAT analogues at DAT was negatively correlated with the volume and maximal width of their 4-position substituents, whereas potency at SERT increased as substituent volume and length increased. SERT/DAT selectivity, as well as abuse-related drug effects in the ICSS procedure, also correlated with the same parameters. Docking solutions offered a means of visualizing these findings. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These results suggest that steric aspects of the 4-position substituents of MCAT analogues are key determinants of their action and selectivity, and that the hydrophobic nature of these substituents is involved in their potency at SERT.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Sakloth
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA, USA
| | - R Kolanos
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA, USA
| | - P D Mosier
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA, USA
| | - J S Bonano
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA, USA
| | - M L Banks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA, USA
| | - J S Partilla
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of HealthBaltimore, MD, USA
| | - M H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of HealthBaltimore, MD, USA
| | - S S Negus
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA, USA
| | - R A Glennon
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA, USA
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Irie T, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Usami M, Uchiyama N, Goda Y, Sekino Y. MAM-2201, a synthetic cannabinoid drug of abuse, suppresses the synaptic input to cerebellar Purkinje cells via activation of presynaptic CB1 receptors. Neuropharmacology 2015; 95:479-91. [PMID: 25747605 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Revised: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Herbal products containing synthetic cannabinoids-initially sold as legal alternatives to marijuana-have become major drugs of abuse. Among the synthetic cannabinoids, [1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl](4-methyl-1-naphthalenyl)-methanone (MAM-2201) has been recently detected in herbal products and has psychoactive and intoxicating effects in humans, suggesting that MAM-2201 alters brain function. Nevertheless, the pharmacological actions of MAM-2201 on cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) and neuronal functions have not been elucidated. We found that MAM-2201 acted as an agonist of human CB1Rs expressed in AtT-20 cells. In whole-cell patch-clamp recordings made from Purkinje cells (PCs) in slice preparations of the mouse cerebellum, we also found that MAM-2201 inhibited glutamate release at parallel fiber-PC synapses via activation of presynaptic CB1Rs. MAM-2201 inhibited neurotransmitter release with an inhibitory concentration 50% of 0.36 μM. MAM-2201 caused greater inhibition of neurotransmitter release than Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol within the range of 0.1-30 μM and JWH-018, one of the most popular and potent synthetic cannabinoids detected in the herbal products, within the range of 0.03-3 μM. MAM-2201 caused a concentration-dependent suppression of GABA release onto PCs. Furthermore, MAM-2201 induced suppression of glutamate release at climbing fiber-PC synapses, leading to reduced dendritic Ca(2+) transients in PCs. These results suggest that MAM-2201 is likely to suppress neurotransmitter release at CB1R-expressing synapses in humans. The reduction of neurotransmitter release from CB1R-containing synapses could contribute to some of the symptoms of synthetic cannabinoid intoxication including impairments in cerebellum-dependent motor coordination and motor learning.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Calcium/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Dronabinol/pharmacology
- Glutamic Acid/metabolism
- Humans
- Illicit Drugs/chemistry
- Illicit Drugs/pharmacology
- Indoles/chemistry
- Indoles/pharmacology
- Interneurons/drug effects
- Interneurons/physiology
- Membrane Potentials/drug effects
- Membrane Potentials/physiology
- Mice
- Naphthalenes/chemistry
- Naphthalenes/pharmacology
- Patch-Clamp Techniques
- Psychotropic Drugs/chemistry
- Psychotropic Drugs/pharmacology
- Purkinje Cells/drug effects
- Purkinje Cells/physiology
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/agonists
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/metabolism
- Receptors, Presynaptic/agonists
- Receptors, Presynaptic/genetics
- Receptors, Presynaptic/metabolism
- Synaptic Transmission/drug effects
- Synaptic Transmission/physiology
- Tissue Culture Techniques
- gamma-Aminobutyric Acid/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiko Irie
- Division of Pharmacology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Ruri Kikura-Hanajiri
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, and Narcotics, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Usami
- Division of Pharmacology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nahoko Uchiyama
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, and Narcotics, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Goda
- Division of Drugs, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuko Sekino
- Division of Pharmacology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan.
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Lanza M, Acton WJ, Sulzer P, Breiev K, Jürschik S, Jordan A, Hartungen E, Hanel G, Märk L, Märk TD, Mayhew CA. Selective reagent ionisation-time of flight-mass spectrometry: a rapid technology for the novel analysis of blends of new psychoactive substances. J Mass Spectrom 2015; 50:427-31. [PMID: 25800025 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In this study we demonstrate the potential of selective reagent ionisation-time of flight-mass spectrometry for the rapid and selective identification of a popular new psychoactive substance blend called 'synthacaine', a mixture that is supposed to imitate the sensory and intoxicating effects of cocaine. Reactions with H3O(+) result in protonated parent molecules which can be tentatively assigned to benzocaine and methiopropamine. However, by comparing the product ion branching ratios obtained at two reduced electric field values (90 and 170 Td) for two reagent ions (H3O(+) and NO(+)) to those of the pure chemicals, we show that identification is possible with a much higher level of confidence then when relying solely on the m/z of protonated parent molecules. A rapid and highly selective analytical identification of the constituents of a recreational drug is particularly crucial to medical personnel for the prompt medical treatment of overdoses, toxic effects or allergic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Lanza
- IONICON Analytik GmbH., Eduard-Bodem-Gasse 3, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria; Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik, Leopold-Franzens Universität Innsbruck, Technikerstr. 25, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
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Petruczynik A, Wróblewski K, Waksmundzka-Hajnos M. Effect of chromatographic conditions on retention behavior and system efficiency for HPTLC of selected psychotropic drugs on chemically bonded stationary phases. Acta Pol Pharm 2015; 72:39-47. [PMID: 25850199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Selected psychotropic drug standards have been chromatographed on RP18, CN and diol layers with a variety of aqueous and nonaqueous mobile phases. The effect of buffers at acidic or basic pH, acetic acid, ammonia and diethylamine (DEA) in aqueous mobile phases on retention, efficiency and peak symmetry was examined. Improved peak symmetry and separation selectivity for investigated compounds were observed when ammonia or DEA were used as mobile phase additives. The effect of diethylamine concentration in aqueous eluents on retention, peak symmetry and theoretical plate number obtained on CN plates was also investigated. Because of the strong retention of these basic drugs on stationary phases bonded on silica matrix, nonaqueous eluents containing medium polar diluents, strongly polar modifiers and silanol blockers (ammonia or diethylamine) were applied. Aqueous and nonaqueous eluent systems with the best selectivity and efficiency were used for separate psychotropic drug standards' mixture on CN layer by 2D TLC.
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Taschwer M, Weiß JA, Kunert O, Schmid MG. Analysis and characterization of the novel psychoactive drug 4-chloromethcathinone (clephedrone). Forensic Sci Int 2014; 244:e56-9. [PMID: 25280452 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Revised: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Novel psychoactive drugs, such as amphetamine-, cathinone-, benzofury- and tryptamine derivatives, gained high popularity on the global drug market in the last years. These drugs are sold via the Internet as for example "research chemicals", "room odorizers" or "lawn fertilizers" by different online suppliers. They are also known as "Legal Highs", among them, cathinone derivatives play an important role. Well known substituted cathinone derivatives are mephedrone, brephedrone and flephedrone. Since a couple of weeks, a chlorine substituted methcathinone derivative, namely clephedrone (4-chloromethcathinone), is commercially available via the Internet from www.deboralabs.com. The goal of this study was to confirm identity of this substance, which was done successfully by GC-MS and NMR. Since all cathinone derivatives are chiral, it was found out, whether the purchased sample was present as a racemic mixture. For this purpose, methods for enantioseparation by GC and CE were developed and applied successfully. In case of CE a chiral selector was added, whereas chiral separation with GC-MS was done indirectly, after derivatization of clephedrone with trifluoroacetyl-l-prolyl chloride.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Taschwer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Universitätsplatz 1, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Jennifer A Weiß
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Universitätsplatz 1, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Olaf Kunert
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Universitätsplatz 1, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Martin G Schmid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Universitätsplatz 1, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
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Abstract
Psychoactive bath salts (PABS) comprise a group of highly dangerous designer drugs showing a sharp escalation in reported U.S. exposures from 2010 through 2012, following rapid spread of the drug in Europe. Since a federal ban on the major ingredients in October 2011, numbers have declined. However, evidence from the United Kingdom shows an initial decline after the UK ban in 2010 with a 400 percent increase in reports by 2012. Actual information about the effect of PABS use on pregnant women and fetuses is almost nonexistent. Clinicians should be aware of the potential maternal, fetal and neonatal effects of PABS.
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