VEGF may contribute to macrophage recruitment and M2 polarization in the decidua

Placental Therapeutic Targets and Nanodelivery Systems

Pregnancy complications affect millions of women each year. Some of these diseases have high morbidity and mortality such as preeclampsia. At present, there is no safe and effective treatment for pregnancy complications, so it is still a difficult clinical problem. As many pregnancy complications are closely related to placental dysplasia, placenta-specific therapy, as an important method, is expected to be a safe, effective, and specific therapeutic strategy. This review explains in detail the placenta physiological structure, characteristics, and action mechanism of some biomolecules and signaling pathways that play roles in normal development and disorders of the development of the placenta, and how to use these biomolecules as therapeutic targets when the placenta disorder causes disease, combining the latest progress in the field of nanodelivery systems, so as to lay a foundation for the development of placenta-specific therapy of pregnancy complications.

An inflammatory Signature of Glucose Impairment in Cystic Fibrosis

Objective and Design

Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes (CFRD) is a severe complication associated with increased morbidity and mortality in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Extensive inflammatory state in CF leads to pancreas damage and insulin resistance with consequent altered glucose tolerance and CFRD development. The aim of the present study was to identify circulating levels of inflammatory markers specifically associated with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and overt CFRD in a sample of young adults with CF.

Materials and Methods

Sixty-four CF outpatients, without evident active pulmonary exacerbation, infectious and autoimmune diseases, were enrolled in the study and the levels of 45 inflammatory serum mediators were measured through x magnetic bead panel multiplex technology.

Results

Serum levels of PDGF-AA, CCL20/MIP3α, IFNα, CCL11/eotaxin, CXCL1/GROα, GMCSF, B7H1/PDL1, IL13, IL7, VEGF, and TGFα were all significantly (p<0.05) elevated in patients according to glycemic status and directly correlated with glycated hemoglobin and C-reactive protein levels.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that increased levels of specific circulating inflammatory mediators are directly associated with impaired glucose tolerance in CF patients, thus, potentially implicating them in CFRD pathogenesis and warranting larger longitudinal studies to validate their monitoring as predictor of CFRD onset.

The effects of radiation therapy on the macrophage response in cancer

The efficacy of radiotherapy, a mainstay of cancer treatment, is strongly influenced by both cellular and non-cellular features of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are a heterogeneous population within the TME and their prevalence significantly correlates with patient prognosis in a range of cancers. Macrophages display intrinsic radio-resistance and radiotherapy can influence TAM recruitment and phenotype. However, whether radiotherapy alone can effectively "reprogram" TAMs to display anti-tumor phenotypes appears conflicting. Here, we discuss the effect of radiation on macrophage recruitment and plasticity in cancer, while emphasizing the role of specific TME components which may compromise the tumor response to radiation and influence macrophage function. In particular, this review will focus on soluble factors (cytokines, chemokines and components of the complement system) as well as physical changes to the TME. Since the macrophage response has the potential to influence radiotherapy outcomes this population may represent a drug target for improving treatment. An enhanced understanding of components of the TME impacting radiation-induced TAM recruitment and function may help consider the scope for future therapeutic avenues to target this plastic and pervasive population.

Porphyromonas gingivalis-mediated disruption in spiral artery remodeling is associated with altered uterine NK cell populations and dysregulated IL-18 and Htra1

Impaired spiral artery remodeling (IRSA) underpins the great obstetrical syndromes. We previously demonstrated that intrauterine infection with the periodontal pathogen, Porphyromonas gingivalis, induces IRSA in rats. Since our previous studies only examined the end stage of arterial remodeling, the aim of this study was to identify the impact of P. gingivalis infection on the earlier stages of remodeling. Gestation day (GD) 11 specimens, a transition point between trophoblast-independent remodeling and the start of extravillous trophoblast invasion, were compared to late stage GD18 tissues. P. gingivalis was found in decidual stroma of GD11 specimens that already had reduced spiral artery remodeling defined as smaller arterial lumen size, increased retention of vascular smooth muscle, and decreased invasion by extravillous trophoblasts. At GD11, P. gingivalis-induced IRSA coincided with altered uterine natural killer (uNK) cell populations, decreased placental bed expression of interleukin-18 (IL-18) with increased production of temperature requirement A1 (Htra1), a marker of oxidative stress. By GD18, placental bed IL-18 and Htra1 levels, and uNK cell numbers were equivalent in control and infected groups. However, infected GD18 placental bed specimens had decreased TNF + T cells. These results suggest disturbances in placental bed decidual stroma and uNK cells are involved in P. gingivalis-mediated IRSA.

Purinergic receptors are a key bottleneck in tumor metabolic reprogramming: The prime suspect in cancer therapeutic resistance

ATP and other nucleoside phosphates have specific receptors named purinergic receptors. Purinergic receptors and ectonucleotidases regulate various signaling pathways that play a role in physiological and pathological processes. Extracellular ATP in the tumor microenvironment (TME) has a higher level than in normal tissues and plays a role in cancer cell growth, survival, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. In this review, we investigated the role of purinergic receptors in the development of resistance to therapy through changes in tumor cell metabolism. When a cell transforms to neoplasia, its metabolic processes change. The metabolic reprogramming modified metabolic feature of the TME, that can cause impeding immune surveillance and promote cancer growth. The purinergic receptors contribute to therapy resistance by modifying cancer cells' glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolism. Limiting the energy supply of cancer cells is one approach to overcoming resistance. Glycolysis inhibitors which reduce intracellular ATP levels may make cancer cells more susceptible to anti-cancer therapies. The loss of the P2X7R through glucose intolerance and decreased fatty acid metabolism reduces therapeutic resistance. Potential metabolic blockers that can be employed in combination with other therapies will aid in the discovery of new anti-cancer immunotherapy to overcome therapy resistance. Therefore, therapeutic interventions that are considered to inhibit cancer cell metabolism and purinergic receptors simultaneously can potentially reduce resistance to treatment.

Ceiling culture of human mature white adipocytes with a browning agent: A novel approach to induce transdifferentiation into beige adipocytes

Excess and dysfunctional adipose tissue plays an important role in metabolic diseases, including obesity, atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes mellitus. In mammals, adipose tissue is categorized into two types: white and brown. Adult brown tissue is mainly composed of beige adipocytes, which dispose of stored energy as heat and have become increasingly popular as a therapeutic target for obesity. However, there is still a paucity of cell models that allow transdifferentiation of mature white adipocytes into beige adipocytes, as seen in vivo. Here, we describe a novel, ceiling culture-based model of human mature white adipocytes, which transdifferentiate into beige adipocytes under the mechanical force and hypoxia of ceiling culture. We also show that the use of rosiglitazone and rapamycin can modulate transdifferentiation, up and down regulating expression of beige adipocyte-specific genes, respectively. Rosiglitazone additionally facilitated the upregulation of fatty acid lipolysis and oxidation genes. Finally, these beige adipocytes derived from dedifferentiated adipocytes exhibited a progenitor-specific phenotype, with higher expression of mature adipocyte-specific genes than adipocyte-derived stem cells. Overall, we report a novel approach to conveniently cultivate beige adipocytes from white adipocytes in vitro, suitable for mechanistic studies of adipose biology and development of cell and drug therapies in the future.

Suppression of resistance to aminolevulinic acid-based photodynamic therapy in esophageal cell lines by administration of iron chelators in collagen type I matrices

PURPOSE

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) utilizes visible light to activate the cytotoxic effects of photosensitizing drugs. PDT protocols require optimization to overcome treatment resistance and induce a beneficial anti-tumor immune response. The aim of this study was to examine the possibility to suppress the resistance of esophageal cell lines to aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-PDT by administration of iron chelators to induce sufficient cell cytotoxicity under pathophysiologically relevant conditions, mimicking the advanced stages of cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Effects of ALA-PDT in combination with iron chelators were compared in three esophageal cell lines in conventional monolayers and in 3 D cultures based on collagen type I. Modified colony assay and fluorescence-based live cell imaging, respectively were applied. The latter was used also to test the capability of pre-polarized macrophages to interact with cancer cells subjected to ALA-PDT with or without iron chelators.

RESULTS

Iron chelators were effective in the enhancement of ALA-PDT in all cell lines under both culture conditions. Fluorescence evaluation of cell viability in 3 D cultures indicated the contribution of apoptotic cell death after ALA-PDT, both with and without iron chelators. Engulfment of remnants of dead cancer cells by macrophages in 2 D cultures was indicated, however, the interaction between macrophages and cancer cells in 3 D cultures subjected to ALA-PDT with or without iron chelators was not present.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential of iron chelators to enhance ALA-PDT was maintained in 3 D collagen matrices. Although PDT dose (ALA concentration, light exposure time) required modification in a cell line-dependent manner to achieve a comparable effect of PDT alone in conventional monolayers and in collagen matrices, the potential of iron chelators to suppress the resistance of esophageal cells to ALA-PDT was not influenced by a fibrillar collagen matrix.

Macrophages Treated with VEGF and PDGF Exert Paracrine Effects on Olfactory Ensheathing Cell Function

Glial cell transplantation using olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) holds a promising approach for treating spinal cord injury (SCI). However, integration of OECs into the hostile acute secondary injury site requires interaction and response to macrophages. Immunomodulation of macrophages to reduce their impact on OECs may improve the functionality of OECs. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), known for their immunomodulatory and neuroprotective functions, have provided improved outcomes in SCI animal models. Thus, VEGF and PDGF modulation of the SCI microenvironment may be beneficial for OEC transplantation. In this in vitro study, the effect of VEGF and PDGF on macrophages in an inflammatory condition was tested. Combined VEGF + PDGF reduced translocation nuclear factor kappa B p65 in macrophages without altering pro-inflammatory cytokines. Further, the ability of OECs to phagocytose myelin debris was assessed using macrophage-conditioned medium. Conditioned medium from macrophages incubated with PDGF and combined VEGF + PDGF in inflammatory conditions promoted phagocytosis by OECs. The growth factor treated conditioned media also modulated the expression of genes associated with nerve repair and myelin expression in OECs. Overall, these results suggest that the use of growth factors together with OEC transplantation may be beneficial in SCI therapy.

Metabolites and growth factors produced by airway epithelial cells induce tolerance in macrophages

Macrophages play a role in preventing inflammation in the respiratory tract. To investigate the mechanisms that lead to tolerance in macrophages, we examined the crosstalk between airway epithelial cells (AECs) and macrophages using a 2D coculture model. Culture of macrophages with AECs led to a significant inhibition of LPS induced pro-inflammatory responses. More importantly, AECs induced the secretion of TGF-β and IL-10 from macrophages even in the absence of LPS stimulation. In addition, the expression of inhibitory molecule, CD200R was also upregulated on AEC exposed macrophages. Furthermore, the AECs exposed macrophages induced significantly increased level of T regulatory cells. Investigation into the possible mechanisms indicated that a combination of growth factor, G-CSF, and metabolites, Kynurenine and lactic acid produced by AECs is responsible for inducing tolerance in macrophages. Interestingly, all these molecules had differential effect on macrophages with G-CSF inducing TGF-β, Kynurenine elevating IL-10, and lactic acid upregulating CD200R. Furthermore, a cocktail of these factors/metabolites induced similar changes in macrophages as AEC exposure. Altogether, these data identify factors secreted by AECs that enhance tolerance in the respiratory tract. These mediators thus have the potential to be used for therapeutic purposes to modulate respiratory inflammation following local viral infections and lung diseases.

Versatile-in-All-Trades: Multifunctional Boron-Doped Calcium-Deficient Hydroxyapatite Directs Immunomodulation and Regeneration

Osseointegration of implants depends on several intertwined factors: osteogenesis, angiogenesis, and immunomodulation. Lately, novel reinforcements allowing faster bonding with osseous tissue have been explored intensively. In this study, we hypothesized the use of boron as a major multifunctional ion to confer versatility to calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (cHA) synthesized by a wet precipitation/microwave reflux method. By synthesis of boron-doped calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (BcHA), we expected to obtain an osteoimmunomodulatory and regenerative nanoreinforcement. BcHA was found to possess a pure HA phase, a greater surface area (66.41 m²/g, p = 0.028), and cumulative concentrations of Ca (207.87 ± 6.90 mg/mL, p < 0.001) and B (112.70 ± 11.79 mg/mL, p < 0.001) released in comparison to cHA. Osteogenic potential of BcHA was analyzed using human fetal osteoblasts. BcHA resulted in a drastic increase in the ALP activity (1.11 ± 0.11 mmol/gDNA·min, p < 0.001), biomineralization rate, and osteogenic gene expressions compared to cHA. BcHA angiogenic potential was investigated using human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells. Significantly, the highest VEGF-A release (1111.14 ± 87.82 in 4 h, p = 0.009) and angiogenic gene expressions were obtained for BcHA-treated samples. These samples were also observed to induce a more prominent and highly branched tube network. Finally, inflammatory and inflammasome responses toward BcHA were elucidated using human monocyte-derived macrophages differentiated from THP-1s. BcHA exhibited lower CAS-1 release (50.18 ± 5.52 μg/g_DNA μg/gDNA) and higher IL-10 release (126.97 ± 15.05 μg/g_DNA) than cHA. In addition, BcHA treatment led to increased expression of regenerative genes such as VEGF-A, RANKL, and BMP-2. In vitro results demonstrated that BcHA has tremendous osteogenic, angiogenic, and immunomodulatory potential to be employed as a "versatile-in-all-trades" modality in various bone tissue engineering applications.

Update on Immune Mechanisms in Hypertension

The contribution of immune cells in the initiation and maintenance of hypertension is undeniable. Several studies have established the association between hypertension, inflammation, and immune cells from the innate and adaptive immune systems. Here, we provide an update to our 2017 American Journal of Hypertension review on the overview of the cellular immune responses involved in hypertension. Further, we discuss the activation of immune cells and their contribution to the pathogenesis of hypertension in different in vivo models. We also highlight existing gaps in the field of hypertension that need attention. The main goal of this review is to provide a knowledge base for translational research to develop therapeutic strategies that can improve cardiovascular health in humans.

Interactions between Macrophages and Mast Cells in the Female Reproductive System

Mast cells (MCs) and macrophages (Mϕs) are innate immune cells that differentiate from early common myeloid precursors and reside in all body tissues. MCs have a unique capacity to neutralize/degrade toxic proteins, and they are hypothesized as being able to adopt two alternative polarization profiles, similar to Mϕs, with distinct or even opposite roles. Mϕs are very plastic phagocytic cells that are devoted to the elimination of senescent/anomalous endogenous entities (to maintain tissue homeostasis), and to the recognition and elimination of exogenous threats. They can adopt several functional phenotypes in response to microenvironmental cues, whose extreme profiles are the inflammatory/killing phenotype (M1) and the anti-inflammatory/healing phenotype (M2). The concomitant and abundant presence of these two cell types and the partial overlap of their defensive and homeostatic functions leads to the hypothesis that their crosstalk is necessary for the optimal coordination of their functions, both under physiological and pathological conditions. This review will examine the relationship between MCs and Mϕs in some situations of homeostatic regulation (menstrual cycle, embryo implantation), and in some inflammatory conditions in the same organs (endometriosis, preeclampsia), in order to appreciate the importance of their cross-regulation.

Myometrial-derived CXCL12 promotes lipopolysaccharide induced preterm labour by regulating macrophage migration, polarization and function in mice

Preterm birth is a major contributor to neonatal mortality and morbidity. Infection results in elevation of inflammation-related cytokines followed by infiltration of immune cells into gestational tissue. CXCL12 levels are elevated in preterm birth indicating it may have a role in preterm labour (PTL); however, the pathophysiological correlations between CXCL12/CXCR4 signalling and premature labour are poorly understood. In this study, PTL was induced using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in a murine model. LPS induced CXCL12 RNA and protein levels significantly and specifically in myometrium compared with controls (3-fold and 3.5-fold respectively). Highest levels were found just before the start of labour. LPS also enhanced the infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and T cells, and induced macrophage M1 polarization. In vitro studies showed that condition medium from LPS-treated primary smooth muscle cells (SMC) induced macrophage migration, M1 polarization and upregulated inflammation-related cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). AMD3100 treatment in pregnant mice led to a significant decrease in the rate of PTL (70%), prolonged pregnancy duration and suppressed macrophage infiltration into gestation tissue by 2.5-fold. Further, in-vitro treatment of SMC by AMD3100 suppressed the macrophage migration, decreased polarization and downregulated IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-α expression. LPS treatment in pregnant mice induced PTL by increasing myometrial CXCL12, which recruits immune cells that in turn produce inflammation-related cytokines. These effects stimulated by LPS were completely reversed by AMD3100 through blocking of CXCL12/CXCR4 signalling. Thus, the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis presents an excellent target for preventing infection and inflammation-related PTL.

The Effects of the Combination of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells and Nanofiber-Hydrogel Composite on Repair of the Contused Spinal Cord

A bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) transplant and a bioengineered nanofiber-hydrogel composite (NHC) have been shown to stimulate nervous tissue repair in the contused spinal cord in rodent models. Here, these two modalities were combined to assess their repair effects in the contused spinal cord in adult rats. Cohorts of contused rats were treated with MSC in NHC (MSC-NHC), MSC in phosphate-buffered saline (MSC-PBS), NHC, or PBS injected into the contusion site at 3 days post-injury. One week after injury, there were significantly fewer CD68+ cells in the contusion with MSC-NHC and NHC, but not MSC-PBS. The reduction in CD86+ cells in the injury site with MSC-NHC was mainly attributed to NHC. One and eight weeks after injury, we found a greater CD206+/CD86+ cell ratio with MSC-NHC or NHC, but not MSC-PBS, indicating a shift from a pro-inflammatory towards an anti-inflammatory milieu in the injury site. Eight weeks after injury, the injury size was significantly reduced with MSC-NHC, NHC, and MSC-PBS. At this time, astrocyte, and axon presence in the injury site was greater with MSC-NHC compared with MSC-PBS. We did not find a significant effect of NHC on MSC transplant survival, and hind limb function was similar across all groups. However, we did find fewer macrophages at 1 week post-injury, more macrophages polarized towards a pro-regenerative phenotype at 1 and 8 weeks after injury, and reduced injury volume, more astrocytes, and more axons at 8 weeks after injury in rats with MSC-NHC and NHC alone compared with MSC-PBS; these findings were especially significant between rats with MSC-NHC and MSC-PBS. The data support further study in the use of an NHC-MSC combination transplant in the contused spinal cord.

Altered uterine angiogenesis in rats treated with a glyphosate-based herbicide

Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) are the agrochemicals most used around the globe. However, they might have adverse effects on human and animal health. Previously, we showed that female rats neonatally exposed to GBHs exhibit altered expression of morphogenetic molecules and biomarkers of uterine development. We also observed a reduction in the size of implantation sites, altered expression of decidualization-related molecules, and increased post-implantation losses. Since decidualization comprises morphogenetic, biochemical and vascular changes, here we investigated the effects of neonatal GBH exposure on uterine angiogenesis in neonatal and pregnant rats. To achieve this, Wistar female rats were exposed to saline solution or GBH (2 mg glyphosate/kg-bw/day) on post-natal days (PND) 1, 3, 5 and 7. On PND8, uterine samples were collected for developmental studies. On PND90, the remaining females were mated and in the morning of gestational day (GD) 9, the implantation sites were collected. Angiogenesis-related molecules and cells involved in this process were identified and/or measured by immunohistochemistry or RT-PCR. On PND8, GBH-treated rats showed increased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and decreased Notch1, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and Angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) mRNA levels. Vascular area, vessel diameter, endothelial cell proliferation, VEGF and Nestin protein expression, and VEGF, Notch1, iNOS and cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) genes were downregulated in implantation sites of exposed females, while Ang2, VEGF receptor 1 and interleukin-10 (IL-10) were increased. Mast cells and macrophages were increased on PND8 and GD9 of treated rats. The increased Transforming growth factor-beta expression in the antimesometrial zone and IL-10 mRNA expression suggest that the M2 type is the predominant population of macrophages on implantation sites. In conclusion, neonatal GBH exposure alters the expression of angiogenesis-related molecules at neonatal uterine development and decidual reaction, suggesting altered vascular support. These alterations might contribute to the increased post-implantation losses observed in GBH-treated rats.

Long-Term Recruitment of Endogenous M2 Macrophages by Platelet Lysate-Rich Plasma Macroporous Hydrogel Scaffold for Articular Cartilage Defect Repair

After cartilage damage, a large number of monocytes/macrophages infiltrate into adjacent synovium and the resident macrophages in synovial tissue transform to activated macrophages (M1), which secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines to induce sustained inflammation and chondrocyte apoptotic. However, current clinical therapies for cartilage repair can rarely achieve long-term anti-inflammatory regulation and satisfactory outcomes. Herein, a platelet lysate-rich plasma macroporous hydrogel (PLPMH) scaffold with around 100 µm pore size and 1.25 MPa Young's modulus is developed to sustainedly recruit and polarize endogenous anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2) for improving cartilage defect repair. PLPMH scaffold can steadily release sphingosine1-phosphate and proteins via gradual degradation, thus inducing M2 macrophages migration or resting (M0) macrophages migration and then polarization to M2 phenotype, and improving the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, PLPMH scaffold exhibits negligible inflammatory responses in vivo and promotes endogenous M2 macrophage infiltration in large numbers and long-time duration to provide a local anti-inflammatory microenvironment, which even lasts for 42 d. In a rabbit model of cartilage defect, PLPMH scaffold increases the ratio of M2 macrophages and improves cartilage tissue regeneration. These studies support that PLPMH scaffold may have a great potential in articular cartilage tissue engineering by providing an anti-inflammatory and pro-regenerative microenvironment.

Inhibition of the VEGF signaling pathway attenuates tumor‑associated macrophage activity in liver cancer

Tumor-associated macrophage (TAMs) are paramount for tumor progression and immune tolerance in the tumor microenvironment of various types of cancer, including liver cancer. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibition on TAM polarization and function during their interactions with macrophages and liver cancer cells. TAMs were induced by culturing M0 macrophages with cancer cell-conditioned medium. TAMs cultured with cancer cell-conditioned medium and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor were defined as modified TAMs, and the expression levels of TAM-associated markers and VEGF receptor 2 were evaluated using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The effects of TAMs and modified TAMs on cancer cell proliferation and migration were investigated using conditioned medium. Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) mRNA expression in modified TAMs and cancer cells cultured in modified TAM-conditioned medium (TAM-CM) for 48 h was examined using RT-qPCR. In order to investigate signaling pathways in macrophages, western blot analysis was performed. CD163 and CD206 and M2 macrophage marker expression was upregulated in TAMs and modified TAMs. Modified TAM-CM exhibited a decreased ability to promote cancer cell proliferation and migration in comparison with the use of TAM-CM. The VEGF concentration was significantly higher in the TAMs than in M0 macrophages; however, the modified TAMs displayed a significantly lower VEGF secretion than TAMs. PD-L1 expression was decreased in modified TAMs as compared with TAMs. Western blot analysis revealed that the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway was significantly suppressed in the modified TAMs compared with TAMs. It was observed that TAMs cultured in a VEGF-depleted environment displayed lower secretion levels of cytokines involved in tumor progression and a decreased immune tolerance-inducing ability. On the whole, the results of the present study suggested that VEGF inhibition in TAMs may be a potential therapeutic target for liver cancer.

How neuroactive factors mediates immune responses during pregnancy: An interdisciplinary view

Pregnancy, from insemination to parturition, is a highly complex but well-orchestrated process that requires various organs and systems to participate. Immune system and neuroendocrine system are important regulators in healthy pregnancy. Dozens of neuroactive factors have been detected in human placenta, whether they are locally secreted or circulated. Among them, some are vividly studied such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), progesterone and estrogens, while others are relatively lack of research. Though the neuroendocrine-immune interactions are demonstrated in some diseases for decades, the roles of neuroactive factors in immune system and lymphocytes during pregnancy are not fully elucidated. This review aims to provide an interdisciplinary view on how the neuroendocrine system mediate immune system during pregnancy process.

Therapeutic Implications of Tumor Microenvironment in Lung Cancer: Focus on Immune Checkpoint Blockade

In the last decade, the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has been revolutionized by the introduction of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) directed against programmed death protein 1 (PD-1) and its ligand (PD-L1), or cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4). In spite of these improvements, some patients do not achieve any benefit from ICI, and inevitably develop resistance to therapy over time. Tumor microenvironment (TME) might influence response to immunotherapy due to its prominent role in the multiple interactions between neoplastic cells and the immune system. Studies investigating lung cancer from the perspective of TME pointed out a complex scenario where tumor angiogenesis, soluble factors, immune suppressive/regulatory elements and cells composing TME itself participate to tumor growth. In this review, we point out the current state of knowledge involving the relationship between tumor cells and the components of TME in NSCLC as well as their interactions with immunotherapy providing an update on novel predictors of benefit from currently employed ICI or new therapeutic targets of investigational agents. In first place, increasing evidence suggests that TME might represent a promising biomarker of sensitivity to ICI, based on the presence of immune-modulating cells, such as Treg, myeloid derived suppressor cells, and tumor associated macrophages, which are known to induce an immunosuppressive environment, poorly responsive to ICI. Consequently, multiple clinical studies have been designed to influence TME towards a pro-immunogenic state and subsequently improve the activity of ICI. Currently, the mostly employed approach relies on the association of "classic" ICI targeting PD-1/PD-L1 and novel agents directed on molecules, such as LAG-3 and TIM-3. To date, some trials have already shown promising results, while a multitude of prospective studies are ongoing, and their results might significantly influence the future approach to cancer immunotherapy.

Insight of Autophagy in Spontaneous Miscarriage

In some cases of spontaneous miscarriage (SM), the exact etiology cannot be determined. Autophagy, which is responsible for cellular survival under stress conditions, has also been implicated in many diseases. Recently, it is also surmised to be correlated with SM. However, the detailed mechanism remains elusive. In fact, there are several essential steps during pregnancy establishment and maintenance: trophoblasts invasion, placentation, decidualization, enrichment and infiltration of decidua immune cells (e.g., natural killer, macrophage and T cells). Accordingly, upstream molecules and downstream effects of autophagy are discussed in these processes, respectively. Of note, autophagy regulates the crosstalk between these cells at the maternal-fetal interface as well. Aberrant autophagy is found in villi, decidual stromal cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells in SM patients, although the findings are inconsistent among different studies. Furthermore, potential treatments targeting autophagy are included, during which rapamycin and vitamin D are hot-spots in recent literatures. To conclude, a moderately activated autophagy is deeply involved in pregnancy, suggesting that autophagy should be a regulator and promising target for treating SM.

Dynamic Multiscale Regulation of Perfusion Recovery in Experimental Peripheral Arterial Disease: A Mechanistic Computational Model

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A first-of-a-kind systems biology computational model is presented that describes multiscale regulation of perfusion recovery in experimental peripheral arterial disease.

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Multilevel model calibration and validation enable high-resolution model simulations for experimental peripheral arterial disease (mouse HLI).

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An integrative model-based mechanistic characterization of the intracellular, cellular, and tissue-level features critical for the dynamic reconstitution of perfusion following different patterns of occlusion-induced ischemia in HLI is described.

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Using a model-based virtual HLI mouse population, pharmacologic inhibition of cell necrosis is predicted as a strategy with high therapeutic potential to improve perfusion recovery; in real HLI mice, the positive impact of this new strategy is then experimentally studied and confirmed.

In peripheral arterial disease (PAD), the degree of endogenous capacity to modulate revascularization of limb muscle is central to the management of leg ischemia. To characterize the multiscale and multicellular nature of revascularization in PAD, we have developed the first computational systems biology model that mechanistically incorporates intracellular, cellular, and tissue-level features critical for the dynamic reconstitution of perfusion after occlusion-induced ischemia. The computational model was specifically formulated for a preclinical animal model of PAD (mouse hindlimb ischemia [HLI]), and it has gone through multilevel model calibration and validation against a comprehensive set of experimental data so that it accurately captures the complex cellular signaling, cell–cell communication, and function during post-HLI perfusion recovery. As an example, our model simulations generated a highly detailed description of the time-dependent spectrum-like macrophage phenotypes in HLI, and through model sensitivity analysis we identified key cellular processes with potential therapeutic significance in the pathophysiology of PAD. Furthermore, we computationally evaluated the in vivo effects of different targeted interventions on post-HLI tissue perfusion recovery in a model-based, data-driven, virtual mouse population and experimentally confirmed the therapeutic effect of a novel model-predicted intervention in real HLI mice. This novel multiscale model opens up a new avenue to use integrative systems biology modeling to facilitate translational research in PAD.

Obesity and Maternal-Placental-Fetal Immunology and Health

Obesity rates in women of childbearing age is now at 29%, according to recent CDC reports. It is known that obesity is associated with oxidative stress and inflammation, including disruptions in cellular function and cytokine levels. In pregnant women who are obese, associated placental dysfunction can lead to small for gestational age (SGA) infants. More frequently, however, maternal obesity is associated with large for gestational age (LGA) newborns, who also have higher incidence of metabolic disease and asthma due to elevated levels of inflammation. In addition, anthropogenic environmental exposures to "endocrine disrupting" and "forever" chemicals affect obesity, as well as maternal physiology, the placenta, and fetal development. Placental function is intimately associated with the control of inflammation during pregnancy. There is a large amount of literature examining the relationship of placental immunology, both cellular and humoral, with pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Cells such as placental macrophages and NK cells have been implicated in spontaneous miscarriage, preeclampsia, preterm birth, perinatal neuroinflammation, and other post-natal conditions. Differing levels of placental cytokines and molecular inflammatory mediators also have known associations with preeclampsia and developmental outcomes. In this review, we will specifically examine the literature regarding maternal, placental, and fetal immunology and how it is altered by maternal obesity and environmental chemicals. We will additionally describe the relationship between placental immune function and clinical outcomes, including neonatal conditions, autoimmune disease, allergies, immunodeficiency, metabolic and endocrine conditions, neurodevelopment, and psychiatric disorders.

The role of vascular endothelial growth factor as a prognostic and clinicopathological marker in osteosarcoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

In recent years, numerous investigations have been conducted to determine the clinical significance and critical functions of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in various malignant cancers. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to comprehensively evaluate the prognostic and clinicopathological value of VEGF in patients with osteosarcoma.

METHODS

We performed a systematic literature retrieval of available databases. Odds ratios (ORs) or standard mean difference (SMD) for clinicopathological parameters, hazard ratios (HRs) for overall survival and disease-free survival were calculated to assess the correlation between VEGF expression and prognosis in patients with osteosarcoma.

RESULTS

A total of 22 studies with 1144 patients were included in our study. Pooled analyses showed that VEGF overexpression predicted worse overall survival (HR, 2.42; 95% CI, 1.87-3.11, p < 0.001) and disease-free survival (HR, 2.604; 95% CI, 1.698-3.995, p < 0.001), respectively. Furthermore, investigation regarding osteosarcoma clinicopathologic characteristics suggested that high VEGF expression was significantly associated with metastasis (OR, 4.39; 95% CI, 2.77-6.95; p < 0.001), clinical stage (OR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.62-0.87; p < 0.001), and microvessel density (SMD, 3.33, 95% CI,1.57-5.10, p < 0.001), but not associated with tumor location, gender, age, local recurrence, and chemotherapy response.

CONCLUSION

Our meta-analysis findings suggest that elevated VEGF expression may be a predictive biomarker for poor prognosis and adverse clinicopathological characteristics in patients with osteosarcoma.

VEGF loaded porcine decellularized adipose tissue derived hydrogel could enhance angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo

Decellularized adipose tissue (DAT) has been widely applied in soft tissue regeneration, however, DAT may play a promising role in accelerating wound healing because of suitable physical characteristics and biological properties. In this research, we fabricated the DAT hydrogel and the VEGF loaded heparinized-DAT hydrogel (VEGF hydrogel) and evaluated their efficiency in full-thickness skin wound model. We designed one method to encapsulate VEGF to hep-DAT hydrogel in order to control VEGF release rate. Result showed that the VEGF release could last up to 3 day, and 1 ml hep-DAT hydrogel (5 mg/ml) could bind up to (64.521 ± 11.550) ng VEGF which was 4.2 times to that of DAT hydrogels. Moreover, the VEGF released in 3 days still preserved biological activities that the released VEGF could enhance tube formation of HUVECs in vitro. Otherwise, the VEGF hydrogel could significantly accelerate wound healing compared with DAT hydrogel and VEGF injection, collagen deposition and newly formed vessels in the VEGF hydrogel groups were also higher than those of other groups. We believed that the VEGF hydrogel could be one attractive biomaterial for potential clinical applications.

Microfluidicmixing system for precise PLGA-PEG nanoparticles size control

In this study, a microfluidic device was employed to produce polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) with well-controlled sizes. The influence of several parameters in the synthesis process, namely, polymer concentration, flow rate and flow rate ratio between the aqueous and organic solutions was investigated. To evaluate the NPs size effect, three diameters were selected (30, 50 and 70nm). Their cytocompatibility was demonstrated on endothelial cells and macrophages. Additionally, their efficacy to act as drug carriers was assessed in an in vitro inflammatory scenario. NPs loaded and released diclofenac (DCF) in a size-dependent profile (smaller sizes presented lower DCF content and higher release rate). Moreover, 30nm NPs were the most effective in reducing prostaglandin E₂ concentration. Therefore, this study demonstrates that microfluidics can generate stable NPs with controlled sizes, high monodispersity and enhanced batch-to-batch reproducibility. Indeed, NPs size is a crucial parameter for drug encapsulation, release and overall biological efficacy.

Bulk Gene Expression Deconvolution Reveals Infiltration of M2 Macrophages in Retinal Neovascularization

Purpose

This study interrogated the transcriptional features and immune cellular landscape of the retinae of rats subjected to oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR).

Methods

Bulk RNA sequencing was performed with retinal RNA isolated from control and OIR rats. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was undertaken to identify gene sets associated with immune responses in retinal neovascularization. Bulk gene expression deconvolution analysis by CIBERSORTx was performed to identify immune cell types involved in retinal neovascularization, followed by functional enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Protein–protein interaction analysis was performed to predict the hub genes relevant to identified immune cell types. CIBERSORTx was applied to profile immune cell types in the macula of patients with both proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) and diabetic macular edema using a public RNA-seq dataset.

Results

Transcriptome analysis by GSEA revealed that the retina of OIR rats and patients with PDR is characterized by increased immunoregulatory interactions and complement cascade. Deconvolution analysis demonstrated that M2 macrophages infiltrate the retinae of OIR rats and patients with PDR. Functional enrichment analysis of DEGs in OIR rats showed that the dysregulated genes are related to leukocyte-mediated immunity and myeloid leukocyte activation. Downstream protein–protein interaction analysis revealed that several potential hub genes, including Ccl2, Itgam, and Tlr2, contribute to M2 macrophage infiltration in the ischemic retina.

Conclusions

This study highlights application of the gene expression deconvolution tool to identify immune cell types in inflammatory ocular diseases with transcriptomes, providing a new approach to assess changes in immune cell types in diseased ocular tissues.

Clinical and neurodevelopmental outcomes based on brain imaging studies in a Colombian cohort of children with probable antenatal Zika virus exposure

BACKGROUND

Our aim was to describe the neuroimaging and clinical evaluations of children with antenatal Zika-virus (ZIKV) exposure.

METHODS

The Colombian National Institute of Health performed serial clinical evaluations of children with probable antenatal ZIKV exposure (i.e., born to ZIKV symptomatic mothers or born with birth defects compatible with ZIKV infection, regardless of laboratory results) over 2 years that included head circumference (HC), eye examination, and neurodevelopmental assessments. Clinical neuroimaging studies (head computed tomography and/or brain magnetic resonance imaging) were analyzed for abnormalities, two-dimensional measurements were made of the right and left frontal and occipital cortical thickness. Two abnormal patterns were defined: Pattern 1 (sum of four areas of cortex <6 cm) and Pattern 2 (sum of four areas of cortex ≥6 cm and < 10 cm).

RESULTS

Thirty-one children had a neuroimaging study; in 24, cortical thickness was measured. The median age at the first visit was 8 (range: 6-9) months and 22 (range: 19-42) months at the last evaluation. In the 24 cases with cortical measurements, three were normal, 12 were in Pattern 1, and nine were in Pattern 2. Children within Pattern 1 had lower mean HC at birth and in follow-up (both p < .05) and a higher frequency of structural eye abnormalities (p < .01). A trend towards poorer neuromotor development was seen in Pattern 1, although not statistically significant (p = .06).

CONCLUSION

Brain imaging classification based on cortical measurements correlate with ophthalmologic abnormalities and HC. Cortical thickness may be a marker for clinical outcomes in children with congenital ZIKV infection.

In Vitro Study of the Interaction of Innate Immune Cells with Liquid Silicone Rubber Coated with Zwitterionic Methyl Methacrylate and Thermoplastic Polyurethanes

The biocompatibility of medical devices, such as implants and prostheses, is strongly determined by the host's immune response to the implanted material. Monocytes and macrophages are main actors of the so-called foreign body reaction. The innate immune system macrophages (M) can be broadly classified into the pro-inflammatory M1-type and the anti-inflammatory, pro-healing M2-type. While a transient inflammatory initial state can be helpful during an infection, persistent inflammation interferes with proper healing and subsequent regeneration. The functional orientation of the immune response, mirrored by monocyte polarization, during interaction with different biomaterials has not yet been sufficiently explored. In implant manufacturing, thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) represents the state-of-the-art material. The constantly growing areas of application and the associated necessary adaptations make the optimization of these materials indispensable. In the present study, modified liquid silicone rubber (LSR) were compared with two of the most commonly used TPUs, in terms of monocyte adhesion and M1/M2 polarization in vitro. Human monocytes isolated from venous blood were evaluated for their ability to adhere to various biomaterials, their gene expression profile, and their cytokine release. Based on the results, the different polymers exhibit different potential to bias monocytes with respect to early pro-inflammatory cytokine production and gene transcription. Furthermore, none of our test materials showed a clear trend towards M1 or M2 polarization. However, we were able to evaluate the inflammatory potential of the materials, with the classic TPUs appearing to be the most unreactive compared to the silicone-based materials.

A micro/nano-biomimetic coating on titanium orchestrates osteo/angio-genesis and osteoimmunomodulation for advanced osseointegration

Osseointegration is a sophisticated bone and implant healing process comprising of initial hematoma formation, immediate osteoimmunomodulation, angiogenesis, and osteogenesis. To fulfill rapid and satisfying osseointegration, this study developed a biomimetic implant coating that could confer the intraosseous implants a systematical regulation of the participatory processes. Herein, we shaped dissimilar nano-scale (NS) to form highly biomimetic structures of natural extracellular matrix (ECM) of the host bone and bone healing hematoma with micro/nano-scale (MNS) titania fiber-like network on the surface of titanium (Ti) implants. In vitro experiments revealed that the MNS not only facilitated osteogenic and angiogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) and endothelial cells, respectively, but also suppressed M1 macrophages (MΦs), whereas, stimulated pro-healing M2 phenotype. Notably, BMSCs on MNS surfaces enabled a significant immunomodulatory effect on MΦs resulting in the downregulation of inflammation-related cell signaling pathways. The favorable osteoimmune microenvironment manipulated by MNS further facilitated osteo-/angio-genesis via the crosstalk of multi-signaling pathways. In vivo evaluation mirrored the aforementioned results, and depicted that MNS induced ameliorative osseointegration when compared with the NS as well as the pristine Ti implant. The study demonstrated the modulatory effect of the multifaceted biomimetic structure on spatiotemporal regulation of the participatory processes during osseointegration.

Macrophage Identification In Situ

Understanding the processes of inflammation and tissue regeneration after injury is of great importance. For a long time, macrophages have been known to play a central role during different stages of inflammation and tissue regeneration. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which they exert their effects are as yet mostly unknown. While in vitro macrophages have been characterized, recent progress in macrophage biology studies revealed that macrophages in vivo exhibited distinctive features. Actually, the precise characterization of the macrophages in vivo is essential to develop new healing treatments and can be approached via in situ analyses. Nowadays, the characterization of macrophages in situ has improved significantly using antigen surface markers and cytokine secretion identification resulting in specific patterns. This review aims for a comprehensive overview of different tools used for in situ macrophage identification, reporter genes, immunolabeling and in situ hybridization, discussing their advantages and limitations.

MERTK+/hi M2c Macrophages Induced by Baicalin Alleviate Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most common liver diseases worldwide. An accumulation of fat, followed by inflammation, is the major cause of NAFLD progression. During inflammation, macrophages are the most abundant immune cells recruited to the site of injury. Macrophages are classified into "proinflammatory" M1 macrophages, and "anti-inflammatory" M2 macrophages. In NAFLD, M1 macrophages are the most prominent macrophages that lead to an excessive inflammatory response. Previously, we found that baicalin could polarize macrophages into anti-inflammatory M2c subtype macrophages with an increased level of MERTK expression. Several studies have also shown a strong correlation between MERTK expression and cholesterol efflux, efferocytosis, as well as phagocytosis capability. Therefore, in this study, we aim to elucidate the potential and efficacy of mononuclear-cell (MNC)-derived MERTK+/hi M2c macrophages induced by baicalin as a cell-based therapy for NAFLD treatment. In our results, we have demonstrated that a MERTK+/hi M2c macrophage injection to NAFLD mice contributes to an increased level of serum HDL secretion in the liver, a decline in the circulating CD4+CD25- and CD8+CD25- T cells and lowers the total NAFLD pathological score by lessening the inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis. In the liver, profibrotic COL1A1 and FN, proinflammation TNFα, as well as the regulator of lipid metabolism PPARɣ expression, were also downregulated after injection. In parallel, the transcriptomic profiles of the injected MERTK+/hi M2c macrophages showed that the various genes directly or indirectly involved in NAFLD progression (e.g., SERPINE1, FADS2) were also suppressed. Downregulation of cytokines and inflammation-associated genes, such as CCR5, may promote a pro-resolving milieu in the NAFLD liver. Altogether, cell-based therapy using MERTK+/hi M2c macrophages is promising, as it ameliorates NAFLD in mice.

The effects of a biodegradable Mg-based alloy on the function of VSMCs via immunoregulation of macrophages through Mg-induced responses

Background

Restenosis is one of the worst side effects of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) due to neointima formation resulting from the excessive proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and continuous inflammation. Biodegradable Mg-based alloy is a promising candidate material because of its good mechanical properties and biocompatibility, and biodegradation of cardiovascular stents. Although studies have shown reduced neointima formation after Mg-based CVS implantation in vivo, these findings were inconsistent with in vitro studies, demonstrating magnesium-mediated promotion of the proliferation and migration of VSMCs. Given the vital role of activated macrophage-driven inflammation in neointima formation, along with the well-demonstrated crosstalk between macrophages and VSMCs, we investigated the interactions of a biodegradable Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr alloy (denoted JDBM), which is especially important for cardiovascular stents, with VSMCs via macrophages.

Methods

JDBM extracts and MgCl₂ solutions were prepared to study their effect on macrophages. To study the effects of the JDBM extracts and MgCl₂ solutions on the function of VSMCs via immunoregulation of macrophages, conditioned media (CM) obtained from macrophages was used to establish a VSMC-macrophage indirect coculture system.

Results

Our results showed that both JDBM extracts and MgCl₂ solutions significantly attenuated the inflammatory response stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated macrophages and converted macrophages into M2-type cells. In addition, JDBM extracts and MgCl₂ solutions significantly decreased the expression of genes related to VSMC phenotypic switching, migration, and proliferation in macrophages. Furthermore, the proliferation, migration, and proinflammatory phenotypic switching of VSMCs were significantly inhibited when the cells were incubated with CMs from macrophages treated with LPS + extracts or LPS + MgCl₂ solutions.

Conclusions

Taken together, our results suggested that the magnesium in the JDBM extract could affect the functions of VSMCs through macrophage-mediated immunoregulation, inhibiting smooth muscle hyperproliferation to suppress restenosis after implantation of a biodegradable Mg-based stent.

Single cell analysis of M. tuberculosis phenotype and macrophage lineages in the infected lung

In this study, we detail a novel approach that combines bacterial fitness fluorescent reporter strains with scRNA-seq to simultaneously acquire the host transcriptome, surface marker expression, and bacterial phenotype for each infected cell. This approach facilitates the dissection of the functional heterogeneity of M. tuberculosis-infected alveolar (AMs) and interstitial macrophages (IMs) in vivo. We identify clusters of pro-inflammatory AMs associated with stressed bacteria, in addition to three different populations of IMs with heterogeneous bacterial phenotypes. Finally, we show that the main macrophage populations in the lung are epigenetically constrained in their response to infection, while inter-species comparison reveals that most AMs subsets are conserved between mice and humans. This conceptual approach is readily transferable to other infectious disease agents with the potential for an increased understanding of the roles that different host cell populations play during the course of an infection.

Isoalantolactone alleviates ovalbumin‑induced asthmatic inflammation by reducing alternatively activated macrophage and STAT6/PPAR‑γ/KLF4 signals

Isoalantolactone (IAL), a sesquiterpene lactone, has anti‑inflammatory activity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑induced sepsis. However, it remains to be elucidated whether IAL influences asthmatic inflammation. The present study found that IAL inhibited ovalbumin (OVA)‑induced asthmatic inflammation and attenuated OVA‑induced eosinophil infiltration, immunoglobulin E generation and the production of interleukin (IL)‑4, IL‑5, C‑C motif chemokine ligand (CCL)17 and CCL22. In addition, IAL treatment with IL‑4 reduced the expression of arginase‑1, Ym‑1, CCL17 and CCL22 in bone marrow‑derived macrophages in vitro. Furthermore, IAL inhibited IL‑4‑induced STAT6 phosphorylation and the expression of peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor γ and Krüppel‑like factor 4. Collectively, the results suggested that IAL attenuated asthmatic inflammation and is a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of asthma.

Regulation of Tumor Necrosis Factor-α by Peptide Lv in Bone Marrow Macrophages and Synovium

Background: Bone marrow-derived monocytes/macrophages are recruited into synovial tissue, where they contribute to synovial inflammation in osteoarthritis through inflammatory cytokine production. Recent studies have suggested that V-Set and transmembrane domain-containing 4 (VSTM4) and its fragment, peptide Lv, exhibit immunosuppressive activity on T cells and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-like activity, respectively. Given that evidence suggests that VEGF may play a role in macrophage function, we investigated peptide Lv-mediated regulation of inflammatory cytokines in bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) and synovial inflammation. Method: To investigate the effects of peptide Lv, BMMs were stimulated with vehicle, LPS, or LPS + peptide Lv, and Tnfa, Il1b, Il6, and Ifng expression were evaluated using quantitative PCR (qPCR). TNF-α and IFN-γ production was measured using ELISA. To examine the effect of peptide Lv deficiency on macrophages and synovitis, peptide Lv-deficient mice were generated using genome editing. LPS-induced Tnfa and Ifng expression and TNF-α and IFN-γ production were evaluated in BMM isolated from wild-type and peptide Lv-deficient mice. Additionally, Tnfa and Ifng expression levels were compared between wild-type and peptide Lv-deficient mice before and after knee injury. Results: Peptide Lv suppressed the LPS-mediated elevation in TNF-α and IFN-γ. LPS stimulation significantly increased TNF-α and IFN-γ production in BMM derived from peptide Lv-deficient mice compared to wild-type mice. Synovial TNF-α expression in the injured knee was elevated in peptide Lv-deficient compared to wild-type mice. Conclusion: Peptide Lv suppressed TNF-α in macrophages and plays a role in synovial inflammation. Thus, peptide Lv may be a useful therapeutic target for synovitis.

The Entry and Egress of Monocytes in Atherosclerosis: A Biochemical and Biomechanical Driven Process

In accordance with “the response to injury” theory, the entry of monocytes into the intima guided by inflammation signals, taking up cholesterol and transforming into foam cells, and egress from plaques determines the progression of atherosclerosis. Multiple cytokines and receptors have been reported to be involved in monocyte recruitment such as CCL2/CCR2, CCL5/CCR5, and CX3CL1/CX3CR1, and the egress of macrophages from the plaque like CCR7/CCL19/CCL21. Interestingly, some neural guidance molecules such as Netrin-1 and Semaphorin 3E have been demonstrated to show an inhibitory effect on monocyte migration. During the processes of monocytes recruitment and migration, factors affecting the biomechanical properties (e.g., the membrane fluidity, the deformability, and stiffness) of the monocytes, like cholesterol, amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), and lipopolysaccharides (LPS), as well as the biomechanical environment that the monocytes are exposed, like the extracellular matrix stiffness, mechanical stretch, blood flow, and hypertension, were discussed in the latter section. Till now, several small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), monoclonal antibodies, and antagonists for CCR2 have been designed and shown promising efficiency on atherosclerosis therapy. Seeking more possible biochemical factors that are chemotactic or can affect the biomechanical properties of monocytes, and uncovering the underlying mechanism, will be helpful in future studies.

Pro- and Antiangiogenic Factors in Gliomas: Implications for Novel Therapeutic Possibilities

Angiogenesis, a complex, multistep process of forming new blood vessels, plays crucial role in normal development, embryogenesis, and wound healing. Malignant tumors characterized by increased proliferation also require new vasculature to provide an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients for developing tumor. Gliomas are among the most frequent primary tumors of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by increased new vessel formation. The processes of neoangiogenesis, necessary for glioma development, are mediated by numerous growth factors, cytokines, chemokines and other proteins. In contrast to other solid tumors, some biological conditions, such as the blood–brain barrier and the unique interplay between immune microenvironment and tumor, represent significant challenges in glioma therapy. Therefore, the objective of the study was to present the role of various proangiogenic factors in glioma angiogenesis as well as the differences between normal and tumoral angiogenesis. Another goal was to present novel therapeutic options in oncology approaches. We performed a thorough search via the PubMed database. In this paper we describe various proangiogenic factors in glioma vasculature development. The presented paper also reviews various antiangiogenic factors necessary in maintaining equilibrium between pro- and antiangiogenic processes. Furthermore, we present some novel possibilities of antiangiogenic therapy in this type of tumors.

Anti-angiogenic and macrophage-based therapeutic strategies for glioma immunotherapy

As a new concept of glioma therapy, immunotherapy combined with standard therapies is a promising modality to improve glioma patient survival. VEGF and its signaling pathway molecules not only inhibit angiogenesis but also may reinforce the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, including promotion of the accumulation of immunosuppressive tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). In this review, we discuss VEGF-targeted therapy as a new treatment option of the TAM-targeted therapy for high-grade gliomas, as well as other TAM-targeted therapies. The authors also discuss the potential of these therapies combined with conventional immunotherapies.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, a Key Modulator of the Anti-Tumor Immune Response

During tumor growth, angiogenesis is required to ensure oxygen and nutrient transport to the tumor. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is the major inducer of angiogenesis and appears to be a key modulator of the anti-tumor immune response. Indeed, VEGF modulates innate and adaptive immune responses through direct interactions and indirectly by modulating protein expressions on endothelial cells or vascular permeability. The inhibition of the VEGF signaling pathway is clinically approved for the treatment of several cancers. Therapies targeting VEGF can modulate the tumor vasculature and the immune response. In this review, we discuss the roles of VEGF in the anti-tumor immune response. In addition, we summarize therapeutic strategies based on its inhibition, and their clinical approval.

Pluripotency and Growth Factors in Early Embryonic Development of Mammals: A Comparative Approach

The regulation of early events in mammalian embryonic development is a complex process. In the early stages, pluripotency, cellular differentiation, and growth should occur at specific times and these events are regulated by different genes that are expressed at specific times and locations. The genes related to pluripotency and cellular differentiation, and growth factors that determine successful embryonic development are different (or differentially expressed) among mammalian species. Some genes are fundamental for controlling pluripotency in some species but less fundamental in others, for example, Oct4 is particularly relevant in bovine early embryonic development, whereas Oct4 inhibition does not affect ovine early embryonic development. In addition, some mechanisms that regulate cellular differentiation do not seem to be clear or evolutionarily conserved. After cellular differentiation, growth factors are relevant in early development, and their effects also differ among species, for example, insulin-like growth factor improves the blastocyst development rate in some species but does not have the same effect in mice. Some growth factors influence genes related to pluripotency, and therefore, their role in early embryo development is not limited to cell growth but could also involve the earliest stages of development. In this review, we summarize the differences among mammalian species regarding the regulation of pluripotency, cellular differentiation, and growth factors in the early stages of embryonic development.

Zinc Finger Protein St18 Protects against Septic Death by Inhibiting VEGF-A from Macrophages

Zinc finger protein St18 was initially reported as candidate tumor suppressor gene, and also suggested that fibroblast St18 positively regulates NF-κB activation. Despite the pleiotropic functions of St18, little is known about its roles in macrophages. Here, we report that myeloid St18 is a potent inhibitor of VEGF-A. Mice lacking St18 in myeloid lineages exhibit increased retinal vasculature with enhanced serum VEGF-A concentrations. Despite the normal activation of NF-κB target genes, these mice are highly susceptible to LPS-induced shock, polymicrobial sepsis, and experimental colitis, accompanied by enhanced vascular and intestinal leakage. Pharmacological inhibition of VEGF signaling rescued the high mortality rate of myeloid-specific St18-deficient mice in response to inflammation. Mechanistically, St18 directly binds to Sp1 and attenuates its activity, leading to the suppression of Sp1 target gene VEGF-A. Using mouse genetic and pharmacological models, we reveal myeloid St18 as a critical septic death protector.

VEGF Contributes to Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Mediated Reversion of Nor1-Dependent Hypertrophy in iPS Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes

Myocardial hypertrophy is present in many heart diseases, representing a strong predictor of adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Regarding therapeutic intervention, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been suggested to significantly reduce cardiac hypertrophy and progression to heart failure. Preconditioning of MSCs was previously demonstrated to highly improve their paracrine activity resulting in modulation of immune responses and the progression of diseases. Here, we studied the effects of bone marrow-derived preconditioned MSCs on hypertrophied induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPS-CM) and also sought to identify MSC-derived antihypertrophic molecules. Phenylephrine (PE) was used to induce hypertrophy in murine iPS-CM, and markers of hypertrophy were identified by microarray analysis. Murine MSCs were treated with IFN-γ and IL-1β to enhance their paracrine activity, and transcriptional profiling was performed by microarray analysis. Hypertrophied iPS-CM were subsequently cocultured with preconditioned MSCs or MSC-conditioned medium (CM), respectively. Effects on hypertrophied iPS-CM were studied by cell area quantification, real-time PCR, and western blot. In some experiments, cells were incubated with fractions of MSC-CM obtained by ultrafiltration or by MSC-CM supplemented with inhibitory antibodies. Intracellular and extracellular levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were evaluated by western blot and ELISA. PE-induced hypertrophy in iPS-CM was associated with an upregulation of neuron-derived orphan receptor (Nor1) expression, activation of Akt, and inhibition of both strongly prevented hypertrophy induction in iPS-CM. VEGF secreted by preconditioned MSCs provoked hypertrophy regression in iPS-CM, and a negative correlation between Nor1 expression and hypertrophic growth could be evidenced. Our results demonstrate that Nor1 expression strongly supports hypertrophy in iPS-CM. Moreover, the secretome of preconditioned MSCs triggered regression of hypertrophy in iPS-CM in a VEGF-dependent manner. We suggest that the delivery of the MSC-derived secretome may represent a therapeutic strategy to limit cardiac hypertrophy. However, additional in vivo studies are needed to prove this hypothesis.

Imbalance of growth factors mRNA expression associated with oxidative stress in the early pregnancy loss

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the role of growth factors associated with angiogenesis and oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of spontaneous miscarriage.

METHODS

We performed a comparative mRNA expression analysis of VEGF, PlGF, Flt-1, Angiogenin and Endoglin using Real-Time PCR, in the placenta and decidua collected from 12 patients presenting with spontaneous abortion and from 14 women undergoing induced abortion, during the first and second trimester of pregnancy.

RESULTS

The mRNA expression of Flt-1 was significantly upregulated in the placenta of spontaneous abortions (5.17-fold, IQR: 2.72-9.11, p < 0.01). The placental expression of the soluble isoforms of Flt-1, sFlt-1 e15a and sFlt-1 i13, was also significantly upregulated in spontaneous abortions (sFlt-1 e15a: 2.35-fold, IQR: 0.98-2.83, p < 0.01; sFlt-1 i13: 3.47-fold, IQR: 2.37-5.08, p < 0,05). Placental tmFlt-1, PlGF and Endoglin showed a tendency of higher expression levels in spontaneous abortions, although they did not reach statistical significance (tmFlt-1: 7.42-fold, IQR: 3.58-14.32; PlGF: 2.36-fold, IQR: 0.90-4.12; Endoglin: 1.97-fold, IQR: 1.18-2.43). VEGF and Angiogenin mRNA expression in induced, as well as in spontaneous abortions, did not convey any statistically significant difference. In the decidua, the expression levels of Flt-1 and its splice variants sFlt-1 e15a, sFlt-1 i13 and tmFlt-1 did not show any statistically significant differences, as was the case for the rest of the herein examined growth factors.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we observed higher levels of sFlt-1 mRNA expression in the placenta of spontaneous abortions, while expression of other growth factors in placenta and decidua remained constant. This suggests that an imbalance of sFlt-1 expression in the placenta might contribute to the pathogenesis of spontaneous abortion, probably via oxidative stress, providing a possible biomarker for prompt identification of this condition.

Controlled aggregation enhances immunomodulatory potential of mesenchymal stromal cell aggregates

Human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are promising candidates for cell therapy due to their ease of isolation and expansion and their ability to secrete antiapoptotic, pro‐angiogenic, and immunomodulatory factors. Three‐dimensional (3D) aggregation “self‐activates” MSCs to augment their pro‐angiogenic and immunomodulatory potential, but the microenvironmental features and culture parameters that promote optimal MSC immunomodulatory function in 3D aggregates are poorly understood. Here, we generated MSC aggregates via three distinct methods and compared them with regard to their (a) aggregate structure and (b) immunomodulatory phenotype under resting conditions and in response to inflammatory stimulus. Methods associated with fast aggregation kinetics formed aggregates with higher cell packing density and reduced extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis compared to those with slow aggregation kinetics. While all three methods of 3D aggregation enhanced MSC expression of immunomodulatory factors compared to two‐dimensional culture, different aggregation methods modulated cells' temporal expression of these factors. A Design of Experiments approach, in which aggregate size and aggregation kinetics were systematically covaried, identified a significant effect of both parameters on MSCs' ability to regulate immune cells. Compared to small aggregates formed with fast kinetics, large aggregates with slow assembly kinetics were more effective at T‐cell suppression and macrophage polarization toward anti‐inflammatory phenotypes. Thus, culture parameters including aggregation method, kinetics, and aggregate size influence both the structural properties of aggregates and their paracrine immunomodulatory function. These findings underscore the utility of engineering strategies to control properties of 3D MSC aggregates, which may identify new avenues for optimizing the immunomodulatory function of MSC‐based cell therapies.

Contribution of macrophages to fetomaternal immunological tolerance

The semi-allogeneic fetus develops in a uniquely immune tolerant environment within the uterus. For successful pregnancy, both the innate and adaptive immune systems must favor acceptance of the fetal allograft. Macrophages are the second most abundant immune cells after natural killer (NK) cells in the decidua. In coordination with decidual NK cells and dendritic cells, macrophages aid in implantation, vascular remodeling, placental development, immune tolerance to placental cells, and maintenance of tissue homeostasis at the maternal-fetal interface. Decidual macrophages show the classical activated (M1) and alternatively activated (M2) phenotypes under the influence of the local milieu of growth factors and cytokines, and appropriate temporal regulation of the M1/M2 switch is vital for successful pregnancy. Disturbances in the mechanisms that control the M1/M2 balance and associated functions during pregnancy can trigger a spectrum of pregnancy complications ranging from preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction to preterm delivery. This review addresses various mechanisms of tolerance, focusing on the basic biology of macrophages, their plasticity and polarization, and their protective roles at the immune-privileged maternal-fetal interface, including direct and indirect roles in promoting fetomaternal immune tolerance.

A data-driven computational model enables integrative and mechanistic characterization of dynamic macrophage polarization

Macrophages are highly plastic immune cells that dynamically integrate microenvironmental signals to shape their own functional phenotypes, a process known as polarization. Here we develop a large-scale mechanistic computational model that for the first time enables a systems-level characterization, from quantitative, temporal, dose-dependent, and single-cell perspectives, of macrophage polarization driven by a complex multi-pathway signaling network. The model was extensively calibrated and validated against literature and focused on in-house experimental data. Using the model, we generated dynamic phenotype maps in response to numerous combinations of polarizing signals; we also probed into an in silico population of model-based macrophages to examine the impact of polarization continuum at the single-cell level. Additionally, we analyzed the model under an in vitro condition of peripheral arterial disease to evaluate strategies that can potentially induce therapeutic macrophage repolarization. Our model is a key step toward the future development of a network-centric, comprehensive "virtual macrophage" simulation platform.

Expression of Estrogen Receptor α by Decidual Macrophages in Preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a gestation-associated hypertensive syndrome that threatens the life and health of the mother and the child. The condition is presumably caused by systemic failure with a strong involvement of innate immunity. In particular, it has been associated with flexible phenotypes of macrophages, which depend on the molecules circulating in the blood and tissue fluid, such as cytokines and hormones. This study aimed at a comparative evaluation of pro-inflammatory (TNFα) and anti-inflammatory (CD206, MMP9, HGF) markers, as well as the levels of estrogen receptor α, expressed by decidual macrophages in normal pregnancy and in patients with early- and late-onset preeclampsia. The tissue samples of decidua basalis were examined by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. Isolation of decidual macrophages and their characterization were performed using cultural methods, flow cytometry and real-time PCR. Over 50% of the isolated decidual macrophages were positive for the pan-macrophage marker CD68. In the early-onset preeclampsia group, the levels of estrogen receptor α in decidua were significantly decreased. Furthermore, significantly decreased levels of HGF and CD206 were observed in both preeclampsia groups compared with the control group. The observed downregulation of estrogen receptor α, HGF and CD206 may contribute to the balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory macrophages and thereby to pathogenesis of preeclampsia.

Role of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) in Human Embryo Implantation: Clinical Implications

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a well-known angiogenic factor that plays a critical role in various physiological and pathological processes. VEGF also contributes to the process of embryo implantation by enhancing embryo development, improving endometrial receptivity, and facilitating the interactions between the developing embryo and the endometrium. There is a correlation between the alteration of VEGF expression and reproductive failure, including recurrent implantation failure (RIF) and recurrent miscarriage (RM). In order to clarify the role of VEGF in embryo implantation, we reviewed recent literature concerning the expression and function of VEGF in the reproductive system around the time of embryo implantation and we provide a summary of the findings reported so far. We also explored the effects and the possible underlying mechanisms of action of VEGF in embryo implantation.

High-throughput phenotypic screen and transcriptional analysis identify new compounds and targets for macrophage reprogramming

Macrophages are plastic and, in response to different local stimuli, can polarize toward multi-dimensional spectrum of phenotypes, including the pro-inflammatory M1-like and the anti-inflammatory M2-like states. Using a high-throughput phenotypic screen in a library of ~4000 FDA-approved drugs, bioactive compounds and natural products, we find ~300 compounds that potently activate primary human macrophages toward either M1-like or M2-like state, of which ~30 are capable of reprogramming M1-like macrophages toward M2-like state and another ~20 for the reverse repolarization. Transcriptional analyses of macrophages treated with 34 non-redundant compounds identify both shared and unique targets and pathways through which the tested compounds modulate macrophage activation. One M1-activating compound, thiostrepton, is able to reprogram tumor-associated macrophages toward M1-like state in mice, and exhibit potent anti-tumor activity. Our compound-screening results thus help to provide a valuable resource not only for studying the macrophage biology but also for developing therapeutics through modulating macrophage activation.