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Jacobs KR, Castellano-Gonzalez G, Guillemin GJ, Lovejoy DB. Major Developments in the Design of Inhibitors along the Kynurenine Pathway. Curr Med Chem 2017; 24:2471-2495. [PMID: 28464785 PMCID: PMC5748880 DOI: 10.2174/0929867324666170502123114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Disrupted kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolism has been implicated in the progression of neurodegenerative disease, psychiatric disorders and cancer. Modulation of enzyme activity along this pathway may therefore offer potential new therapeutic strategies for these conditions. Considering their prominent positions in the KP, the enzymes indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, kynurenine 3-monooxygenase and kynurenine aminotransferase, appear the most attractive targets. Already, increasing interest in this pathway has led to the identification of a number of potent and selective enzyme inhibitors with promising pre-clinical data and the elucidation of several enzyme crystal structures provides scope to rationalize the molecular mechanisms of inhibitor activity. The field seems poised to yield one or more inhibitors that should find clinical utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly R Jacobs
- Neuroinflammation Group, Department of Biomedical Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney. Australia
| | - Gloria Castellano-Gonzalez
- Neuroinflammation Group, Department of Biomedical Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney. Australia
| | - Gilles J Guillemin
- Department of Biomedical Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Macquarie University, 2 Technology Place, Sydney. Australia
| | - David B Lovejoy
- Department of Biomedical Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Macquarie University, 2 Technology Place, Sydney. Australia
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102
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Moloney GM, O'Leary OF, Salvo-Romero E, Desbonnet L, Shanahan F, Dinan TG, Clarke G, Cryan JF. Microbial regulation of hippocampal miRNA expression: Implications for transcription of kynurenine pathway enzymes. Behav Brain Res 2017; 334:50-54. [PMID: 28736331 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence points to a functional role of the enteric microbiota in brain development, function and behaviour including the regulation of transcriptional activity in the hippocampus. Changes in CNS miRNA expression may reflect the colonisation status of the gut. Given the pivotal impact of miRNAs on gene expression, our study was based on the hypothesis that gene expression would also be altered in the germ-free state in the hippocampus. We measured miRNAs in the hippocampus of Germ free (GF), conventional (C) and Germ free colonised (exGF) Swiss Webster mice. miRNAs were selected for follow up based on significant differences in expression between groups according to sex and colonisation status. The expression of miR-294-5p was increased in male germ free animals and was normalised following colonisation. Targets of the differentially expressed miRNAs were over-represented in the kynurenine pathway. We show that the microbiota modulates the expression of miRNAs associated with kynurenine pathway metabolism and, demonstrate that the gut microbiota regulates the expression of kynurenine pathway genes in the hippocampus. We also show a sex-specific role for the microbiota in the regulation of miR-294-5p expression in the hippocampus. The gut microbiota plays an important role in modulating small RNAs that influence hippocampal gene expression, a process critical to hippocampal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard M Moloney
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Olivia F O'Leary
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Eloisa Salvo-Romero
- Laboratory of Neuro-Immuno-Gastroenterology, Digestive Diseases Research Unit, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca, Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Universitario Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Lieve Desbonnet
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Fergus Shanahan
- APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Timothy G Dinan
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioural Science, University College Cork, Ireland; APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Gerard Clarke
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioural Science, University College Cork, Ireland; APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - John F Cryan
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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103
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Matysik-Woźniak A, Jünemann A, Turski WA, Wnorowski A, Jóźwiak K, Paduch R, Okuno E, Moneta-Wielgoś J, Chorągiewicz T, Maciejewski R, Rejdak R. The presence of kynurenine aminotransferases in the human cornea: Evidence from bioinformatics analysis of gene expression and immunohistochemical staining. Mol Vis 2017; 23:364-371. [PMID: 28706436 PMCID: PMC5501688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs) catalyze the synthesis of kynurenic acid (KYNA), a compound of significant biological activity. The aim of this study is to investigate the presence and distribution of KAT immunoreactivity in the healthy human cornea. METHODS Data on gene expression in human eye structures were extracted from public microarray experiments using Genevestigator software. Immunohistochemistry was conducted using polyclonal antibodies against KAT I, II, and III on sections of eight enucleated eyes from patients with choroidal melanoma. RESULTS Bioinformatics analysis showed that all four KAT isoforms were actively transcribed in the cornea and the conjunctiva. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed the presence of KAT I, II, and III in all examined corneal sections. The corneal endothelium showed the strongest reactivity for all three KAT isoforms. There was a slight positive staining of the corneal stroma for KAT I and II. KAT III immunoreactivity was found only in the stroma of the limbal region. In the corneal epithelium, the expression of all three KAT isoforms showed a specific pattern of the stain with fine squatter granules throughout the cytoplasm. This reactivity was more pronounced in the basal cell layers. The intermediate cell layers showed only faint immunoreactivity, and occasionally, there was no staining. KAT I, II, and III were also present in the adjacent limbal conjunctiva. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that kynurenine can be metabolized to KYNA in the corneal epithelium, stroma, and endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Matysik-Woźniak
- Department of General Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Anselm Jünemann
- Department of General Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland,Department of Ophthalmology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Waldemar A. Turski
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Artur Wnorowski
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Jóźwiak
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Roman Paduch
- Department of General Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland,Department of Virology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Etsuo Okuno
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Kyushu Nutrition Welfare University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | | | - Tomasz Chorągiewicz
- Department of General Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Ryszard Maciejewski
- Chair and Department of Human Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Robert Rejdak
- Department of General Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland,Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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López Y, Dehzangi A, Lal SP, Taherzadeh G, Michaelson J, Sattar A, Tsunoda T, Sharma A. SucStruct: Prediction of succinylated lysine residues by using structural properties of amino acids. Anal Biochem 2017; 527:24-32. [PMID: 28363440 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2017.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Post-Translational Modification (PTM) is a biological reaction which contributes to diversify the proteome. Despite many modifications with important roles in cellular activity, lysine succinylation has recently emerged as an important PTM mark. It alters the chemical structure of lysines, leading to remarkable changes in the structure and function of proteins. In contrast to the huge amount of proteins being sequenced in the post-genome era, the experimental detection of succinylated residues remains expensive, inefficient and time-consuming. Therefore, the development of computational tools for accurately predicting succinylated lysines is an urgent necessity. To date, several approaches have been proposed but their sensitivity has been reportedly poor. In this paper, we propose an approach that utilizes structural features of amino acids to improve lysine succinylation prediction. Succinylated and non-succinylated lysines were first retrieved from 670 proteins and characteristics such as accessible surface area, backbone torsion angles and local structure conformations were incorporated. We used the k-nearest neighbors cleaning treatment for dealing with class imbalance and designed a pruned decision tree for classification. Our predictor, referred to as SucStruct (Succinylation using Structural features), proved to significantly improve performance when compared to previous predictors, with sensitivity, accuracy and Mathew's correlation coefficient equal to 0.7334-0.7946, 0.7444-0.7608 and 0.4884-0.5240, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosvany López
- Department of Medical Science Mathematics, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory for Medical Science Mathematics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Abdollah Dehzangi
- Department of Psychiatry, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa, USA.
| | - Sunil Pranit Lal
- School of Engineering & Advanced Technology, Massey University, New Zealand
| | - Ghazaleh Taherzadeh
- School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Queensland 4215, Australia
| | - Jacob Michaelson
- Department of Psychiatry, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa, USA
| | - Abdul Sattar
- School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Queensland 4215, Australia; Institute for Integrated and Intelligent Systems, Griffith University, Australia
| | - Tatsuhiko Tsunoda
- Department of Medical Science Mathematics, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory for Medical Science Mathematics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan; CREST, JST, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Alok Sharma
- Laboratory for Medical Science Mathematics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan; Institute for Integrated and Intelligent Systems, Griffith University, Australia
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105
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Abnormal kynurenine pathway of tryptophan catabolism in cardiovascular diseases. Cell Mol Life Sci 2017; 74:2899-2916. [PMID: 28314892 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-017-2504-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Kynurenine pathway (KP) is the primary path of tryptophan (Trp) catabolism in most mammalian cells. The KP generates several bioactive catabolites, such as kynurenine (Kyn), kynurenic acid (KA), 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), xanthurenic acid (XA), and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HAA). Increased catabolite concentrations in serum are associated with several cardiovascular diseases (CVD), including heart disease, atherosclerosis, and endothelial dysfunction, as well as their risk factors, including hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and aging. The first catabolic step in KP is primarily controlled by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO). Following this first step, the KP has two major branches, one branch is mediated by kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO) and kynureninase (KYNU) and is responsible for the formation of 3-HK, 3-HAA, and quinolinic acid (QA); and another branch is controlled by kynurenine amino-transferase (KAT), which generates KA. Uncontrolled Trp catabolism has been demonstrated in distinct CVD, thus, understanding the underlying mechanisms by which regulates KP enzyme expression and activity is paramount. This review highlights the recent advances on the effect of KP enzyme expression and activity in different tissues on the pathological mechanisms of specific CVD, KP is an inflammatory sensor and modulator in the cardiovascular system, and KP catabolites act as the potential biomarkers for CVD initiation and progression. Moreover, the biochemical features of critical KP enzymes and principles of enzyme inhibitor development are briefly summarized, as well as the therapeutic potential of KP enzyme inhibitors against CVD is briefly discussed.
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106
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Schwarcz R, Stone TW. The kynurenine pathway and the brain: Challenges, controversies and promises. Neuropharmacology 2017; 112:237-247. [PMID: 27511838 PMCID: PMC5803785 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Research on the neurobiology of the kynurenine pathway has suffered years of relative obscurity because tryptophan degradation, and its involvement in both physiology and major brain diseases, was viewed almost exclusively through the lens of the well-established metabolite serotonin. With increasing recognition that kynurenine and its metabolites can affect and even control a variety of classic neurotransmitter systems directly and indirectly, interest is expanding rapidly. Moreover, kynurenine pathway metabolism itself is modulated in conditions such as infection and stress, which are known to induce major changes in well-being and behaviour, so that kynurenines may be instrumental in the etiology of psychiatric and neurological disorders. It is therefore likely that the near future will not only witness the discovery of additional physiological and pathological roles for brain kynurenines, but also ever-increasing interest in drug development based on these roles. In particular, targeting the kynurenine pathway with new specific agents may make it possible to prevent disease by appropriate pharmacological or genetic manipulations. The following overview focuses on areas of kynurenine research which are either controversial, of major potential therapeutic interest, or just beginning to receive the degree of attention which will clarify their relevance to neurobiology and medicine. It also highlights technical issues so that investigators entering the field, and new research initiatives, are not misdirected by inappropriate experimental approaches or incorrect interpretations at this time of skyrocketing interest in the subject matter. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'The Kynurenine Pathway in Health and Disease'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Trevor W Stone
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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107
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Engin AB, Engin A. The Interactions Between Kynurenine, Folate, Methionine and Pteridine Pathways in Obesity. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 960:511-527. [PMID: 28585214 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-48382-5_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Obesity activates both innate and adaptive immune responses in adipose tissue. Elevated levels of eosinophils with depression of monocyte and neutrophil indicate the deficiencies in the immune system of morbidly obese individuals. Actually, adipose tissue macrophages are functional antigen-presenting cells that promote the proliferation of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma)-producing CD4+ T cells in adipose tissue of obese subjects. Eventually, diet-induced obesity is associated with the loss of tissue homeostasis and development of type 1 inflammatory responses in visceral adipose tissue. Activity of inducible indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-1 (IDO-1) plays a major role under pro-inflammatory, IFN-gamma dominated settings. One of the two rate-limiting enzymes which can metabolize tryptophan to kynurenine is IDO-1. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) correlates with IDO-1 in adipose compartments. Actually, IDO-1-mediated tryptophan catabolism due to chronic immune activation is the cause of reduced tryptophan plasma levels and be considered as the driving force for food intake in morbidly obese patients. Thus, decrease in plasma tryptophan levels and subsequent reduction in serotonin (5-HT) production provokes satiety dysregulation that leads to increased caloric uptake and obesity. However, after bariatric surgery, weight reduction does not lead to normalization of IDO-1 activity. Furthermore, there is a connection between arginine and tryptophan metabolic pathways in the generation of reactive nitrogen intermediates. Hence, abdominal obesity is associated with vascular endothelial dysfunction and reduced nitric oxide (NO) availability. IFN-gamma-induced activation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and dissociation of endothelial adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK)- phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-protein kinase B (Akt)- endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) pathway enhances oxidative stress production secondary to high-fat diet. Thus, reduced endothelial NO availability correlates with the increase in plasma non-esterified fatty acids and triglycerides levels. Additionally, in obese patients, folate-deficiency leads to hyperhomocysteinemia. Folic acid confers protection against hyperhomocysteinemia-induced oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Basak Engin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Gazi University, Hipodrom, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Atilla Engin
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of General Surgery, Gazi University, Besevler, Ankara, Turkey.
- , Mustafa Kemal Mah. 2137. Sok. 8/14, 06520, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey.
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108
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Fujigaki H, Yamamoto Y, Saito K. L-Tryptophan-kynurenine pathway enzymes are therapeutic target for neuropsychiatric diseases: Focus on cell type differences. Neuropharmacology 2017; 112:264-274. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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109
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Amin SA, Adhikari N, Jha T, Gayen S. First molecular modeling report on novel arylpyrimidine kynurenine monooxygenase inhibitors through multi-QSAR analysis against Huntington's disease: A proposal to chemists! Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:5712-5718. [PMID: 27838184 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.10.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by mutation of huntingtin protein (mHtt) leading to neuronal cell death. The mHtt induced toxicity can be rescued by inhibiting the kynurenine monooxygenase (KMO) enzyme. Therefore, KMO is a promising drug target to address the neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's diseases. Fiftysix arylpyrimidine KMO inhibitors are structurally explored through regression and classification based multi-QSAR modeling, pharmacophore mapping and molecular docking approaches. Moreover, ten new compounds are proposed and validated through the modeling that may be effective in accelerating Huntington's disease drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sk Abdul Amin
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour University, Sagar 470003, Madhya Pradesh, India; Natural Science Laboratory, Division of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, PO Box 17020, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India
| | - Nilanjan Adhikari
- Natural Science Laboratory, Division of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, PO Box 17020, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India
| | - Tarun Jha
- Natural Science Laboratory, Division of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, PO Box 17020, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India
| | - Shovanlal Gayen
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour University, Sagar 470003, Madhya Pradesh, India
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Yang C, Zhang L, Han Q, Liao C, Lan J, Ding H, Zhou H, Diao X, Li J. Kynurenine aminotransferase 3/glutamine transaminase L/cysteine conjugate beta-lyase 2 is a major glutamine transaminase in the mouse kidney. Biochem Biophys Rep 2016; 8:234-241. [PMID: 28955961 PMCID: PMC5613967 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Kynurenine aminotransferase 3 (KAT3) catalyzes the transamination of Kynurenine to kynurenic acid, and is identical to cysteine conjugate beta-lyase 2 (CCBL2) and glutamine transaminase L (GTL). GTL was previously purified from the rat liver and considered as a liver type glutamine transaminase. However, because of the substrate overlap and high sequence similarity of KAT3 and KAT1, it was difficult to assay the specific activity of each KAT and to study the enzyme localization in animals. Methods KAT3 transcript and protein levels as well as enzyme activity in the liver and kidney were analyzed by regular reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), real time RT-PCR, biochemical activity assays combined with a specific inhibition assay, and western blotting using a purified and a highly specific antibody, respectively. Results This study concerns the comparative biochemical characterization and localization of KAT 3 in the mouse. The results showed that KAT3 was present in both liver and kidney of the mouse, but was much more abundant in the kidney than in the liver. The mouse KAT3 is more efficient in transamination of glutamine with indo-3-pyruvate or oxaloacetate as amino group acceptor than the mouse KAT1. Conclusions Mouse KAT3 is a major glutamine transaminase in the kidney although it was named a liver type transaminase. General significance Our data highlights KAT3 as a key enzyme for studying the nephrotoxic mechanism of some xenobiotics and the formation of chemopreventive compounds in the mouse kidney. This suggests tissue localizations of KAT3/GTL/CCBL2 in other animals may be carefully checked. Mouse kynurenine aminotransferase 3 (KAT3) was specifically inhibited by methionine. Mouse KAT3 is more abundant in the kidney than in the liver. Mouse KAT3 is a major glutamine transaminase in the kidney although it was named a liver transaminase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cihan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
- Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
- Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
| | - Qian Han
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
- Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
- Corresponding author at: Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China.
| | - Chenghong Liao
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
- Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
| | - Jianqiang Lan
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
- Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
| | - Haizhen Ding
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Hailong Zhou
- Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
| | - Xiaoping Diao
- Laboratory of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Vector Biology, College of Agriculture, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
| | - Jianyong Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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111
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LC–MS/MS-based quantification of kynurenine metabolites, tryptophan, monoamines and neopterin in plasma, cerebrospinal fluid and brain. Bioanalysis 2016; 8:1903-17. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2016-0111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: The kynurenine (KYN) pathway is implicated in diseases such as cancer, psychiatric, neurodegenerative and autoimmune disorders. Measurement of KYN metabolite levels will help elucidating the involvement of the KYN pathway in the disease pathology and inform drug development. Methodology: Samples of plasma, cerebrospinal fluid or brain tissue were spiked with deuterated internal standards, processed and analyzed by LC–MS/MS; analytes were chromatographically separated by gradient elution on a C18 reversed phase analytical column without derivatization. Conclusion: We established an LC–MS/MS method to measure 11 molecules, namely tryptophan, KYN, 3-OH-KYN, 3-OH-anthranilic acid, quinolinic acid, picolinic acid, kynurenic acid, xanthurenic acid, serotonin, dopamine and neopterin within 5.5 min, with sufficient sensitivity to quantify these molecules in small sample volumes of plasma, cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue.
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112
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Ueland PM, McCann A, Midttun Ø, Ulvik A. Inflammation, vitamin B6 and related pathways. Mol Aspects Med 2016; 53:10-27. [PMID: 27593095 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The active form of vitamin B6, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), serves as a co-factor in more than 150 enzymatic reactions. Plasma PLP has consistently been shown to be low in inflammatory conditions; there is a parallel reduction in liver PLP, but minor changes in erythrocyte and muscle PLP and in functional vitamin B6 biomarkers. Plasma PLP also predicts the risk of chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease and some cancers, and is inversely associated with numerous inflammatory markers in clinical and population-based studies. Vitamin B6 intake and supplementation improve some immune functions in vitamin B6-deficient humans and experimental animals. A possible mechanism involved is mobilization of vitamin B6 to the sites of inflammation where it may serve as a co-factor in pathways producing metabolites with immunomodulating effects. Relevant vitamin B6-dependent inflammatory pathways include vitamin B6 catabolism, the kynurenine pathway, sphingosine 1-phosphate metabolism, the transsulfuration pathway, and serine and glycine metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Magne Ueland
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, 5021 Bergen, Norway; Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway.
| | | | | | - Arve Ulvik
- Bevital A/S, Laboratoriebygget, 5021 Bergen, Norway
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113
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Kynurenine Aminotransferase Isozyme Inhibitors: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17060946. [PMID: 27314340 PMCID: PMC4926479 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17060946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferase isozymes (KATs 1–4) are members of the pyridoxal-5’-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme family, which catalyse the permanent conversion of l-kynurenine (l-KYN) to kynurenic acid (KYNA), a known neuroactive agent. As KATs are found in the mammalian brain and have key roles in the kynurenine pathway, involved in different categories of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, the KATs are prominent targets in the quest to treat neurodegenerative and cognitive impairment disorders. Recent studies suggest that inhibiting these enzymes would produce effects beneficial to patients with these conditions, as abnormally high levels of KYNA are observed. KAT-1 and KAT-3 share the highest sequence similarity of the isozymes in this family, and their active site pockets are also similar. Importantly, KAT-2 has the major role of kynurenic acid production (70%) in the human brain, and it is considered therefore that suitable inhibition of this isozyme would be most effective in managing major aspects of CNS diseases. Human KAT-2 inhibitors have been developed, but the most potent of them, chosen for further investigations, did not proceed in clinical studies due to the cross toxicity caused by their irreversible interaction with PLP, the required cofactor of the KAT isozymes, and any other PLP-dependent enzymes. As a consequence of the possibility of extensive undesirable adverse effects, it is also important to pursue KAT inhibitors that reversibly inhibit KATs and to include a strategy that seeks compounds likely to achieve substantial interaction with regions of the active site other than the PLP. The main purpose of this treatise is to review the recent developments with the inhibitors of KAT isozymes. This treatise also includes analyses of their crystallographic structures in complex with this enzyme family, which provides further insight for researchers in this and related studies.
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Zádori D, Veres G, Szalárdy L, Klivényi P, Fülöp F, Toldi J, Vécsei L. Inhibitors of the kynurenine pathway as neurotherapeutics: a patent review (2012–2015). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2016; 26:815-32. [DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2016.1189531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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115
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Roussel G, Bessede A, Klein C, Maitre M, Mensah-Nyagan AG. Xanthurenic acid is localized in neurons in the central nervous system. Neuroscience 2016; 329:226-38. [PMID: 27167083 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine pathway metabolites (KPM) are thought to be synthesized mainly by non-neuronal cells in the mammalian brain. KPM are of particular interest because several studies demonstrated their implication in various disorders of the nervous system. Among KPM is xanthurenic acid (XA) deriving from the catabolism of 3-hydroxykynurenine. Based on its chemical structure, XA appears as a close analog of kynurenic acid which has been extensively investigated and is considered as a potent neuroprotective compound. Contrary to kynurenic acid (KYNA), XA has received little attention and its role in the brain remains not elucidated. We have previously described several characteristics of XA, suggesting its possible involvement in neurotransmission. XA is also proposed as a potential modulator at glutamatergic synapses. Here, we used a selective antibody against XA and various neuronal, glial and synaptic markers to show that XA is essentially localized in the soma and dendrites of brain neurons, but is absent from axonal compartments and terminal endings. Our results also reveal that XA-like immunoreactivity is not expressed by glial cells. To double-check our findings, we have also used another XA antibody obtained from a commercial source to confirm the neuronal expression of XA. Together, our results suggest that, differently to several other KPM produced by glial cells, XA exhibits a neuronal distribution in the mouse brain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christian Klein
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, INSERM U1119, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment 3 de la Faculté de Médecine, 11 rue Humann, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Michel Maitre
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, INSERM U1119, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment 3 de la Faculté de Médecine, 11 rue Humann, 67000 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Ayikoe Guy Mensah-Nyagan
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, INSERM U1119, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment 3 de la Faculté de Médecine, 11 rue Humann, 67000 Strasbourg, France
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Structure of the PLP-Form of the Human Kynurenine Aminotransferase II in a Novel Spacegroup at 1.83 Å Resolution. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:446. [PMID: 27023527 PMCID: PMC4848902 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17040446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferase II (KAT-II) is a 47 kDa pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme, active as a homodimer, which catalyses the transamination of the amino acids kynurenine (KYN) and 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) in the tryptophan pathway, and is responsible for producing metabolites that lead to kynurenic acid (KYNA), which is implicated in several neurological diseases such as schizophrenia. In order to fully describe the role of KAT-II in the pathobiology of schizophrenia and other brain disorders, the crystal structure of full-length PLP-form hKAT-II was determined at 1.83 Å resolution, the highest available. The electron density of the active site reveals an aldimine linkage between PLP and Lys263, as well as the active site residues, which characterize the fold-type I PLP-dependent enzymes.
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117
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Schwarcz R. Kynurenines and Glutamate: Multiple Links and Therapeutic Implications. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2016; 76:13-37. [PMID: 27288072 PMCID: PMC5803753 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate is firmly established as the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain and is actively involved in most aspects of neurophysiology. Moreover, glutamatergic impairments are associated with a wide variety of dysfunctional states, and both hypo- and hyperfunction of glutamate have been plausibly linked to the pathophysiology of neurological and psychiatric diseases. Metabolites of the kynurenine pathway (KP), the major catabolic route of the essential amino acid tryptophan, influence glutamatergic activity in several distinct ways. This includes direct effects of these "kynurenines" on ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors or vesicular glutamate transport, and indirect effects, which are initiated by actions at various other recognition sites. In addition, some KP metabolites affect glutamatergic functions by generating or scavenging highly reactive free radicals. This review summarizes these phenomena and discusses implications for brain physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.
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118
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Jiang X, Wang J, Chang H, Zhou Y. Recombinant expression, purification and crystallographic studies of the mature form of human mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase. Biosci Trends 2016; 10:79-84. [PMID: 26902786 DOI: 10.5582/bst.2015.01150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase (mAspAT) was recognized as a moonlighting enzyme because it has not only aminotransferase activity but also a high-affinity long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) binding site. This enzyme plays a key role in amino acid metabolism, biosynthesis of kynurenic acid and transport of the LCFA. Therefore, it is important to study the structure-function relationships of human mAspAT protein. In this work, the mature form of human mAspAT was expressed to a high level in Escherichia coli periplasmic space using pET-22b vector, purified by a combination of immobilized metal-affinity chromatography and cation exchange chromatography. Optimal activity of the enzyme occurred at a temperature of 47.5ºC and a pH of 8.5. Crystals of human mAspAT were grown using the hanging-drop vapour diffusion method at 277K with 0.1 M HEPES pH 6.8 and 25%(v/v) Jeffamine(®) ED-2001 pH 6.8. The crystals diffracted to 2.99 Å and belonged to the space group P1 with the unit-cell parameters a =56.7, b = 76.1, c = 94.2 Å, α =78.0, β =85.6, γ = 78.4º. Elucidation of mAspAT structure can provide a molecular basis towards understanding catalysis mechanism and substrate binding site of enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuping Jiang
- School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology
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119
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Lu H, Kopcho L, Ghosh K, Witmer M, Parker M, Gupta S, Paul M, Krishnamurthy P, Laksmaiah B, Xie D, Tredup J, Zhang L, Abell LM. Development of a RapidFire mass spectrometry assay and a fluorescence assay for the discovery of kynurenine aminotransferase II inhibitors to treat central nervous system disorders. Anal Biochem 2016; 501:56-65. [PMID: 26874021 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferases convert kynurenine to kynurenic acid and play an important role in the tryptophan degradation pathway. Kynurenic acid levels in brain have been hypothesized to be linked to a number of central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Kynurenine aminotransferase II (KATII) has proven to be a key modulator of kynurenic acid levels in brain and, thus, is an attractive target to treat CNS diseases. A sensitive, high-throughput, label-free RapidFire mass spectrometry assay has been developed for human KATII. Unlike other assays, this method is directly applicable to KATII enzymes from different animal species, which allows us to select proper animal model(s) to evaluate human KATII inhibitors. We also established a coupled fluorescence assay for human KATII. The short assay time and kinetic capability of the fluorescence assay provide a useful tool for orthogonal inhibitor validation and mechanistic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Lu
- Lead Discovery and Optimization, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Pennington, NJ 08534, USA.
| | - Lisa Kopcho
- Lead Discovery and Optimization, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Pennington, NJ 08534, USA
| | - Kaushik Ghosh
- Disease Sciences and Technology, Biocon Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D Centre, Bangalore, 560099, India
| | - Mark Witmer
- Protein Science, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Princeton, NJ 08648, USA
| | - Michael Parker
- Discovery Chemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Wallingford, CT 06492, USA
| | - Sumit Gupta
- Disease Sciences and Technology, Biocon Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D Centre, Bangalore, 560099, India
| | - Marilyn Paul
- Disease Sciences and Technology, Biocon Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D Centre, Bangalore, 560099, India
| | - Prasad Krishnamurthy
- Disease Sciences and Technology, Biocon Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D Centre, Bangalore, 560099, India
| | - Basanth Laksmaiah
- Disease Sciences and Technology, Biocon Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D Centre, Bangalore, 560099, India
| | - Dianlin Xie
- Protein Science, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Princeton, NJ 08648, USA
| | - Jeffrey Tredup
- Protein Science, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Princeton, NJ 08648, USA
| | - Litao Zhang
- Lead Discovery and Optimization, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Pennington, NJ 08534, USA
| | - Lynn M Abell
- Lead Discovery and Optimization, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, Pennington, NJ 08534, USA.
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120
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Kynurenine-3-monooxygenase: a review of structure, mechanism, and inhibitors. Drug Discov Today 2016; 21:315-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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121
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Sun G, Nematollahi A, Nadvi NA, Kwan AH, Jeffries CM, Church WB. Expression, purification and crystallization of human kynurenine aminotransferase 2 exploiting a highly optimized codon set. Protein Expr Purif 2016; 121:41-5. [PMID: 26773745 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2016.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT) is a pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP) dependent enzyme that catalyses kynurenine (KYN) to kynurenic acid (KYNA), a neuroactive product in the tryptophan metabolic pathway. Evidence suggests that abnormal levels of KYNA are involved in many neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. Reducing KYNA production through inhibiting kynurenine aminotransferase 2 (KAT2) would be a promising approach to understanding and treating the related neurological and mental disorders. In this study we used an optimized codon sequence to overexpress histidine-tagged human KAT2 (hKAT2) using an Escherichia coli expression system. After a single step of Ni-NTA based purification the purified protein (>95%) was confirmed to be active by an HPLC based activity assay and was crystallized using the hanging-drop vapour diffusion method. The crystal system represents a novel space group, and a complete X-ray diffraction data set was collected to 1.83 Å resolution, and higher resolution data than for any reported native human KAT2 structure. The optimised method of protein production provides a fast and reliable technique to generate large quantities of active human KAT2 suitable for future small-molecule lead compound screening and structural design work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanchen Sun
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Alireza Nematollahi
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Naveed A Nadvi
- School of Molecular Bioscience, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Ann H Kwan
- School of Molecular Bioscience, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Cy M Jeffries
- Bragg Institute, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Heights, NSW 2234, Australia
| | - W Bret Church
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Brinzer RA, Henderson L, Marchiondo AA, Woods DJ, Davies SA, Dow JAT. Metabolomic profiling of permethrin-treated Drosophila melanogaster identifies a role for tryptophan catabolism in insecticide survival. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 67:74-86. [PMID: 26474926 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2015.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Insecticides and associated synergists are rapidly losing efficacy in target insect pest populations making the discovery of alternatives a priority. To discover novel targets for permethrin synergists, metabolomics was performed on permethrin-treated Drosophila melanogaster. Changes were observed in several metabolic pathways including those for amino acids, glycogen, glycolysis, energy, nitrogen, NAD(+), purine, pyrimidine, lipids and carnitine. Markers for acidosis, ammonia stress, oxidative stress and detoxification responses were also observed. Many of these changes had not been previously characterized after permethrin exposure. From the altered pathways, tryptophan catabolism was selected for further investigation. The knockdown of some tryptophan catabolism genes (vermilion, cinnabar and CG6950) in the whole fly and in specific tissues including fat body, midgut and Malpighian tubules using targeted RNAi resulted in altered survival phenotypes against acute topical permethrin exposure. The knockdown of vermilion, cinnabar and CG6950 in the whole fly also altered survival phenotypes against chronic oral permethrin, fenvalerate, DDT, chlorpyriphos and hydramethylnon exposure. Thus tryptophan catabolism has a previously uncharacterized role in defence against insecticides, and shows that metabolomics is a powerful tool for target identification in pesticide research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Brinzer
- Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Louise Henderson
- Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | | | | | - Shireen A Davies
- Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Julian A T Dow
- Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
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123
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Yamamoto S, Ooshima Y, Nakata M, Yano T, Nishimura N, Nishigaki R, Satomi Y, Matsumoto H, Matsumoto Y, Takeyama M. Efficient gene-targeting in rat embryonic stem cells by CRISPR/Cas and generation of human kynurenine aminotransferase II (KAT II) knock-in rat. Transgenic Res 2015; 24:991-1001. [PMID: 26454650 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-015-9909-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The relative proportion of kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT) I-IV activities in the brain is similar between humans and rats. Moreover, KAT II is considered to be the main enzyme for kynurenic acid production in the brain. Taken together, human KAT II knock-in (hKAT II KI) rats will become a valuable tool for the evaluation of KAT II targeted drugs as a human mimetic model. Although we initially tried the approach by conventional gene-targeting via embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to generate them, we had to give up the production because of no recombinant ESCs. Accordingly, we developed a method to improve the efficiency of homologous recombination (HR) in ESCs by the combination with the CRISPR/Cas system. Co-electroporation of Cas9 plasmid, single guide RNA plasmid and hKAT II KI vector increased the number of drug-resistant colonies and greatly enhanced the HR efficiency from 0 to 36 %. All the clones which we obtained showed the same sequence as designed. These recombinant clones resulted in chimeras that transmitted the hKAT II KI allele to their offspring. hKAT II KI rats showed no reduction of KATs mRNA expression and the amount of kynurenic acid was similar between the hKAT II KI rats and the wild type in their brains. These results indicate that the methodology presented in this report can overcome the problem encountered in conventional gene-targeting that prevented production of humanized rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Yamamoto
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan.
| | - Yuki Ooshima
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Mitsugu Nakata
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Takashi Yano
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Naoya Nishimura
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Ryuuichi Nishigaki
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Satomi
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Matsumoto
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshio Matsumoto
- Takeda Rabics Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Michiyasu Takeyama
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan.
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Kynurenines and Multiple Sclerosis: The Dialogue between the Immune System and the Central Nervous System. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:18270-82. [PMID: 26287161 PMCID: PMC4581244 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160818270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, in which axonal transection takes place in parallel with acute inflammation to various, individual extents. The importance of the kynurenine pathway in the physiological functions and pathological processes of the nervous system has been extensively investigated, but it has additionally been implicated as having a regulatory function in the immune system. Alterations in the kynurenine pathway have been described in both preclinical and clinical investigations of multiple sclerosis. These observations led to the identification of potential therapeutic targets in multiple sclerosis, such as synthetic tryptophan analogs, endogenous tryptophan metabolites (e.g., cinnabarinic acid), structural analogs (laquinimod, teriflunomid, leflunomid and tranilast), indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase inhibitors (1MT and berberine) and kynurenine-3-monooxygenase inhibitors (nicotinylalanine and Ro 61-8048). The kynurenine pathway is a promising novel target via which to influence the immune system and to achieve neuroprotection, and further research is therefore needed with the aim of developing novel drugs for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases.
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125
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Dounay AB, Tuttle JB, Verhoest PR. Challenges and Opportunities in the Discovery of New Therapeutics Targeting the Kynurenine Pathway. J Med Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy B. Dounay
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Colorado College, 14 E. Cache
La Poudre Street, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80903, United States
| | - Jamison B. Tuttle
- Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Patrick R. Verhoest
- Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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126
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Kolomeets NS. [Role of astrocytes in alterations of glutamatergic neurotransmission in schizophrenia]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2015; 115:110-117. [PMID: 25945378 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro201511511110-117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The glutamatergic hypothesis of schizophrenia based on the hypofunction of the N-methyl-D-aspartate-type glutamate receptors (NMDA-R) is one of the most widely implicated hypothesis that explains the origin of positive and negative symptoms of illness as well as cognitive deficits. The author considered a neuromorphological aspect of this hypothesis related to the glial astrocytes function. The literature on the astrocyte ability to regulate glutamate neurotransmission is reviewed. Astrocyte abnormalities in schizophrenia include the disturbances of glutamate reuptake, recycling and turnover of endogenous NMDA-R ligands. The results of the experimental and clinical studies that target levels of endogenous NMDA-R ligands, their enzymes and transporters for treatment of schizophrenia symptoms are discussed. Further studies studies are needed to develop this strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- N S Kolomeets
- Mental Health Research Center, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow
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127
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Yan EB, Frugier T, Lim CK, Heng B, Sundaram G, Tan M, Rosenfeld JV, Walker DW, Guillemin GJ, Morganti-Kossmann MC. Activation of the kynurenine pathway and increased production of the excitotoxin quinolinic acid following traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:110. [PMID: 26025142 PMCID: PMC4457980 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0328-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract During inflammation, the kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolises the essential amino acid tryptophan (TRP) potentially contributing to excitotoxicity via the release of quinolinic acid (QUIN) and 3-hydroxykynurenine (3HK). Despite the importance of excitotoxicity in the development of secondary brain damage, investigations on the KP in TBI are scarce. In this study, we comprehensively characterised changes in KP activation by measuring numerous metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from TBI patients and assessing the expression of key KP enzymes in brain tissue from TBI victims. Acute QUIN levels were further correlated with outcome scores to explore its prognostic value in TBI recovery. Methods Twenty-eight patients with severe TBI (GCS ≤ 8, three patients had initial GCS = 9–10, but rapidly deteriorated to ≤8) were recruited. CSF was collected from admission to day 5 post-injury. TRP, kynurenine (KYN), kynurenic acid (KYNA), QUIN, anthranilic acid (AA) and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3HAA) were measured in CSF. The Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended (GOSE) score was assessed at 6 months post-TBI. Post-mortem brains were obtained from the Australian Neurotrauma Tissue and Fluid Bank and used in qPCR for quantitating expression of KP enzymes (indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-1 (IDO1), kynurenase (KYNase), kynurenine amino transferase-II (KAT-II), kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid oxygenase (3HAO) and quinolinic acid phosphoribosyl transferase (QPRTase) and IDO1 immunohistochemistry. Results In CSF, KYN, KYNA and QUIN were elevated whereas TRP, AA and 3HAA remained unchanged. The ratios of QUIN:KYN, QUIN:KYNA, KYNA:KYN and 3HAA:AA revealed that QUIN levels were significantly higher than KYN and KYNA, supporting increased neurotoxicity. Amplified IDO1 and KYNase mRNA expression was demonstrated on post-mortem brains, and enhanced IDO1 protein coincided with overt tissue damage. QUIN levels in CSF were significantly higher in patients with unfavourable outcome and inversely correlated with GOSE scores. Conclusion TBI induced a striking activation of the KP pathway with sustained increase of QUIN. The exceeding production of QUIN together with increased IDO1 activation and mRNA expression in brain-injured areas suggests that TBI selectively induces a robust stimulation of the neurotoxic branch of the KP pathway. QUIN’s detrimental roles are supported by its association to adverse outcome potentially becoming an early prognostic factor post-TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin B Yan
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia.
| | - Tony Frugier
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Chai K Lim
- Neuroinflammation group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Benjamin Heng
- Neuroinflammation group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Gayathri Sundaram
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
| | - May Tan
- Hospital Queen Elizabeth, Karung Berkunci No. 2029, 88586, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Jeffrey V Rosenfeld
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Surgery, Central Clinical School and Monash Institute of Medical Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - David W Walker
- The Ritchie Centre, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Monash Medical Centre, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Gilles J Guillemin
- Neuroinflammation group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Maria Cristina Morganti-Kossmann
- Australian New Zealand Intensive Care Research Centre, Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Child Health, Barrow Neurological Institute, University of Arizona, Phoenix, AZ, USA
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128
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García-Lara L, Pérez-Severiano F, González-Esquivel D, Elizondo G, Segovia J. Absence of aryl hydrocarbon receptors increases endogenous kynurenic acid levels and protects mouse brain against excitotoxic insult and oxidative stress. J Neurosci Res 2015; 93:1423-33. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucia García-Lara
- Departamento de Fisiología; Biofísica; y Neurociencias; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; México D.F. México
| | - Francisca Pérez-Severiano
- Departamento de Neuroquímica; Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez; México D.F. México
| | - Dinora González-Esquivel
- Departamento de Neuroquímica; Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez; México D.F. México
| | - Guillermo Elizondo
- Departamento de Biología Celular; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; México D.F. México
| | - José Segovia
- Departamento de Fisiología; Biofísica; y Neurociencias; Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN; México D.F. México
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129
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Blanco Ayala T, Lugo Huitrón R, Carmona Aparicio L, Ramírez Ortega D, González Esquivel D, Pedraza Chaverrí J, Pérez de la Cruz G, Ríos C, Schwarcz R, Pérez de la Cruz V. Alternative kynurenic acid synthesis routes studied in the rat cerebellum. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:178. [PMID: 26041992 PMCID: PMC4435238 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA), an astrocyte-derived, endogenous antagonist of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine and excitatory amino acid receptors, regulates glutamatergic, GABAergic, cholinergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission in several regions of the rodent brain. Synthesis of KYNA in the brain and elsewhere is generally attributed to the enzymatic conversion of L-kynurenine (L-KYN) by kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs). However, alternative routes, including KYNA formation from D-kynurenine (D-KYN) by D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) and the direct transformation of kynurenine to KYNA by reactive oxygen species (ROS), have been demonstrated in the rat brain. Using the rat cerebellum, a region of low KAT activity and high DAAO activity, the present experiments were designed to examine KYNA production from L-KYN or D-KYN by KAT and DAAO, respectively, and to investigate the effect of ROS on KYNA synthesis. In chemical combinatorial systems, both L-KYN and D-KYN interacted directly with peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) and hydroxyl radicals (OH•), resulting in the formation of KYNA. In tissue homogenates, the non-specific KAT inhibitor aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA; 1 mM) reduced KYNA production from L-KYN and D-KYN by 85.1 ± 1.7% and 27.1 ± 4.5%, respectively. Addition of DAAO inhibitors (benzoic acid, kojic acid or 3-methylpyrazole-5-carboxylic acid; 5 μM each) attenuated KYNA formation from L-KYN and D-KYN by ~35% and ~66%, respectively. ONOO(-) (25 μM) potentiated KYNA production from both L-KYN and D-KYN, and these effects were reduced by DAAO inhibition. AOAA attenuated KYNA production from L-KYN + ONOO(-) but not from D-KYN + ONOO(-). In vivo, extracellular KYNA levels increased rapidly after perfusion of ONOO(-) and, more prominently, after subsequent perfusion with L-KYN or D-KYN (100 μM). Taken together, these results suggest that different mechanisms are involved in KYNA production in the rat cerebellum, and that, specifically, DAAO and ROS can function as alternative routes for KYNA production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonali Blanco Ayala
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - Rafael Lugo Huitrón
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | | | - Daniela Ramírez Ortega
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - Dinora González Esquivel
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - José Pedraza Chaverrí
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoMéxico D.F., Mexico
| | - Gonzalo Pérez de la Cruz
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departmento de Matemáticas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoMéxico D.F., Mexico
| | - Camilo Ríos
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - Robert Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimore, MD, USA
| | - Verónica Pérez de la Cruz
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
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130
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Wu HQ, Okuyama M, Kajii Y, Pocivavsek A, Bruno JP, Schwarcz R. Targeting kynurenine aminotransferase II in psychiatric diseases: promising effects of an orally active enzyme inhibitor. Schizophr Bull 2014; 40 Suppl 2:S152-8. [PMID: 24562494 PMCID: PMC3934402 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbt157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Increased brain levels of the tryptophan metabolite kynurenic acid (KYNA) have been linked to cognitive dysfunctions in schizophrenia and other psychiatric diseases. In the rat, local inhibition of kynurenine aminotransferase II (KAT II), the enzyme responsible for the neosynthesis of readily mobilizable KYNA in the brain, leads to a prompt reduction in extracellular KYNA levels, and secondarily induces an increase in extracellular glutamate, dopamine, and acetylcholine levels in several brain areas. Using microdialysis in unanesthetized, adult rats, we now show that the novel, systemically active KAT II inhibitor BFF-816, applied orally at 30 mg/kg in all experiments, mimics the effects of local enzyme inhibition. No tolerance was seen when animals were treated daily for 5 consecutive days. Behaviorally, daily injections of BFF-816 significantly decreased escape latency in the Morris water maze, indicating improved performance in spatial and contextual memory. Thus, systemically applied BFF-816 constitutes an excellent tool for studying the neurobiology of KYNA and, in particular, for investigating the mechanisms linking KAT II inhibition to changes in glutamatergic, dopaminergic, and cholinergic function in brain physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Qiu Wu
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, PO Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, US; tel: 1-410-402-7635, fax: 1-410-747-2434, e-mail:
| | - Masahiro Okuyama
- 2Department II, Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratories I, Research Division, Mitsubishi-Tanabe Pharma Corporation, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Yasushi Kajii
- 3Department II, Pharmacology Research Laboratories I, Research Division, Mitsubishi-Tanabe Pharma Corporation, Yokohama, Japan;,5Present address: Medical Affairs, Medical, AbbVie, 3-5-27, Mita, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-6302, Japan
| | - Ana Pocivavsek
- 1Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - John P. Bruno
- 4Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
| | - Robert Schwarcz
- 1Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD;,*To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, PO Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, US; tel: 1-410-402-7635, fax: 1-410-747-2434, e-mail:
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131
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Majláth Z, Vécsei L. NMDA antagonists as Parkinson’s disease therapy: disseminating the evidence. Neurodegener Dis Manag 2014; 4:23-30. [DOI: 10.2217/nmt.13.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY Oral levodopa is the current baseline therapy in the management of Parkinson’s disease, but nonmotor complications and therapy-related dyskinesias pose an important challenge for clinicians. Glutamate receptors have been implicated in the neurodegenerative process of Parkinson’s disease and also in the development of levodopa-induced dyskinesias. This article discusses the role of NMDA receptors in Parkinson’s disease and their modulation as a possible therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsófia Majláth
- Department of Neurology, University of Szeged, Semmelweis utca 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Vécsei
- Neuroscience Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences & University of Szeged, Semmelweis utca 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
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132
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Structural and mechanistic insights into the kynurenine aminotransferase-mediated excretion of kynurenic acid. J Struct Biol 2014; 185:257-66. [PMID: 24473062 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2014.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2013] [Revised: 01/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT) is a homodimeric pyridoxal protein that mediates the catalytic conversion of kynurenine (KYN) to kynurenic acid (KYA), an endogenous N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist. KAT is involved in the biosynthesis of glutamic and aspartic acid, functions as a neurotransmitter for the NMDA receptor in mammals, and is regulated by allosteric mechanisms. Its importance in various diseases such as schizophrenia makes KAT a highly attractive drug target. Here, we present the crystal structure of the Pyrococcus horikoshii KAT (PhKAT) in complex with pyridoxamine phosphates (PMP), KYN, and KYA. Surprisingly, the PMP was bound to the LYS-269 of phKAT by forming a covalent hydrazine bond. This crystal structure clearly shows that an amino group of KYN was transaminated to PLP, which forms a Schiff's base with the LYS-269 of the KYN. Thus, our structure confirms that the PMPs represent an intermediate state during the KAT reaction. Thus, PhKAT catalyzes the sequential conversion of KYN to KYA via the formation of an intermediate 4-(2-aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoate (4AD), which is spontaneously converted to KYA in the absence of an amino group acceptor. Furthermore, we identified the two entry and exit sites of the PhKAT homodimer for KYN and KYA, respectively. The structural data on PhKAT presented in this manuscript contributes to further the understanding of transaminase enzyme reaction mechanisms.
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133
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Hallen A, Jamie JF, Cooper AJL. Lysine metabolism in mammalian brain: an update on the importance of recent discoveries. Amino Acids 2013. [PMID: 24043460 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-013-1590-1591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The lysine catabolism pathway differs in adult mammalian brain from that in extracerebral tissues. The saccharopine pathway is the predominant lysine degradative pathway in extracerebral tissues, whereas the pipecolate pathway predominates in adult brain. The two pathways converge at the level of ∆(1)-piperideine-6-carboxylate (P6C), which is in equilibrium with its open-chain aldehyde form, namely, α-aminoadipate δ-semialdehyde (AAS). A unique feature of the pipecolate pathway is the formation of the cyclic ketimine intermediate ∆(1)-piperideine-2-carboxylate (P2C) and its reduced metabolite L-pipecolate. A cerebral ketimine reductase (KR) has recently been identified that catalyzes the reduction of P2C to L-pipecolate. The discovery that this KR, which is capable of reducing not only P2C but also other cyclic imines, is identical to a previously well-described thyroid hormone-binding protein [μ-crystallin (CRYM)], may hold the key to understanding the biological relevance of the pipecolate pathway and its importance in the brain. The finding that the KR activity of CRYM is strongly inhibited by the thyroid hormone 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) has far-reaching biomedical and clinical implications. The inter-relationship between tryptophan and lysine catabolic pathways is discussed in the context of shared degradative enzymes and also potential regulation by thyroid hormones. This review traces the discoveries of enzymes involved in lysine metabolism in mammalian brain. However, there still remain unanswered questions as regards the importance of the pipecolate pathway in normal or diseased brain, including the nature of the first step in the pathway and the relationship of the pipecolate pathway to the tryptophan degradation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Hallen
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Balaclava Road, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia,
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134
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Majláth Z, Tajti J, Vécsei L. Kynurenines and other novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of dementia. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2013; 6:386-97. [PMID: 24228074 DOI: 10.1177/1756285613494989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Dementia is a common neuropsychological disorder with an increasing incidence. The most prevalent type of dementia is Alzheimer's disease. The underlying pathophysiological features of the cognitive decline are neurodegenerative processes, a cerebrovascular dysfunction and immunological alterations. The therapeutic approaches are still limited, although intensive research is being conducted with the aim of finding neuroprotective strategies. The widely accepted cholinesterase inhibitors and glutamate antagonists did not meet expectations of preventing disease progression, and research is therefore currently focusing on novel targets. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, secretase inhibitors and statins are promising drug candidates for the prevention and management of different forms of dementia. The kynurenine pathway has been associated with various neurodegenerative disorders and cerebrovascular diseases. This pathway is also closely related to neuroinflammatory processes and it has been implicated in the pathomechanisms of certain kinds of dementia. Targeting the kynurenine system may be of therapeutic value in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsófia Majláth
- Department of Neurology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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135
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Hallen A, Jamie JF, Cooper AJL. Lysine metabolism in mammalian brain: an update on the importance of recent discoveries. Amino Acids 2013; 45:1249-72. [PMID: 24043460 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-013-1590-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The lysine catabolism pathway differs in adult mammalian brain from that in extracerebral tissues. The saccharopine pathway is the predominant lysine degradative pathway in extracerebral tissues, whereas the pipecolate pathway predominates in adult brain. The two pathways converge at the level of ∆(1)-piperideine-6-carboxylate (P6C), which is in equilibrium with its open-chain aldehyde form, namely, α-aminoadipate δ-semialdehyde (AAS). A unique feature of the pipecolate pathway is the formation of the cyclic ketimine intermediate ∆(1)-piperideine-2-carboxylate (P2C) and its reduced metabolite L-pipecolate. A cerebral ketimine reductase (KR) has recently been identified that catalyzes the reduction of P2C to L-pipecolate. The discovery that this KR, which is capable of reducing not only P2C but also other cyclic imines, is identical to a previously well-described thyroid hormone-binding protein [μ-crystallin (CRYM)], may hold the key to understanding the biological relevance of the pipecolate pathway and its importance in the brain. The finding that the KR activity of CRYM is strongly inhibited by the thyroid hormone 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) has far-reaching biomedical and clinical implications. The inter-relationship between tryptophan and lysine catabolic pathways is discussed in the context of shared degradative enzymes and also potential regulation by thyroid hormones. This review traces the discoveries of enzymes involved in lysine metabolism in mammalian brain. However, there still remain unanswered questions as regards the importance of the pipecolate pathway in normal or diseased brain, including the nature of the first step in the pathway and the relationship of the pipecolate pathway to the tryptophan degradation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Hallen
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Balaclava Road, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia,
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136
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Muratore KE, Engelhardt BE, Srouji JR, Jordan MI, Brenner SE, Kirsch JF. Molecular function prediction for a family exhibiting evolutionary tendencies toward substrate specificity swapping: recurrence of tyrosine aminotransferase activity in the Iα subfamily. Proteins 2013; 81:1593-609. [PMID: 23671031 PMCID: PMC3823064 DOI: 10.1002/prot.24318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The subfamily Iα aminotransferases are typically categorized as having narrow specificity toward carboxylic amino acids (AATases), or broad specificity that includes aromatic amino acid substrates (TATases). Because of their general role in central metabolism and, more specifically, their association with liver-related diseases in humans, this subfamily is biologically interesting. The substrate specificities for only a few members of this subfamily have been reported, and the reliable prediction of substrate specificity from protein sequence has remained elusive. In this study, a diverse set of aminotransferases was chosen for characterization based on a scoring system that measures the sequence divergence of the active site. The enzymes that were experimentally characterized include both narrow-specificity AATases and broad-specificity TATases, as well as AATases with broader-specificity and TATases with narrower-specificity than the previously known family members. Molecular function and phylogenetic analyses underscored the complexity of this family's evolution as the TATase function does not follow a single evolutionary thread, but rather appears independently multiple times during the evolution of the subfamily. The additional functional characterizations described in this article, alongside a detailed sequence and phylogenetic analysis, provide some novel clues to understanding the evolutionary mechanisms at work in this family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Muratore
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California
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137
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Obara-Michlewska M, Tuszyńska P, Albrecht J. Ammonia upregulates kynurenine aminotransferase II mRNA expression in rat brain: a role for astrocytic NMDA receptors? Metab Brain Dis 2013; 28:161-5. [PMID: 23132651 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-012-9353-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferase II (KAT-II) is the astrocytic enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of kynurenic acid (KYNA), an endogenous inhibitor of the α7-nicotinic receptor and the NMDA receptor (NMDAr). A previous study demonstrated an increase of KYNA synthesis in the brain of rats with thioacetamide (TAA)-induced acute liver failure. Here we show that TAA administration increases KAT-II expression in the rat cerebral cortex and the effect is mimicked in cerebral cortical astrocytes in culture treated with high (5 mM) concentration of ammonia. KAT-II expression in control and TAA-treated rats was increased by NMDAr antagonist memantine, and the effects of TAA and memantine appeared additive. In astrocytes, the NMDAr antagonist MK-801 raised KAT-II expression as well, while NMDA added alone had no effect. Glutamate decreased KAT-II mRNA level, which was attenuated by MK-801. The results suggest that stimulation of KAT-II expression during hepatic encephalopathy may be associated with a partial inactivation of astrocytic NMDAr by ammonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Obara-Michlewska
- Department of Neurotoxicology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
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138
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Amaral M, Outeiro TF, Scrutton NS, Giorgini F. The causative role and therapeutic potential of the kynurenine pathway in neurodegenerative disease. J Mol Med (Berl) 2013; 91:705-13. [PMID: 23636512 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-013-1046-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Metabolites of the kynurenine pathway (KP), which arise from the degradation of tryptophan, have been studied in detail for over a century and garnered the interest of the neuroscience community in the late 1970s and early 1980s with work uncovering the neuromodulatory potential of this pathway. Much research in the following decades has found that perturbations in the levels of KP metabolites likely contribute to the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. More recently, it has become apparent that targeting KP enzymes, in particular kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), may hold substantial therapeutic potential for these disorders. Here we provide an overview of the KP, the neuroactive properties of KP metabolites and their role in neurodegeneration. We also discuss KMO as a therapeutic target for these disorders, and our recent resolution of the crystallographic structure of KMO, which will permit the development of new and improved KMO inhibitors which may ultimately expedite clinical application of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Amaral
- Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
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139
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Beggiato S, Antonelli T, Tomasini MC, Tanganelli S, Fuxe K, Schwarcz R, Ferraro L. Kynurenic acid, by targeting α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, modulates extracellular GABA levels in the rat striatum in vivo. Eur J Neurosci 2013; 37:1470-7. [PMID: 23442092 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Revised: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is an astrocyte-derived non-competitive antagonist of the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) and inhibits the NMDA receptor (NMDAR) competitively. The main aim of the present study was to examine the possible effects of KYNA (30 - 1000 nm), applied locally by reverse dialysis for 2 h, on extracellular GABA levels in the rat striatum. KYNA concentration-dependently reduced GABA levels, with 300 nm KYNA causing a maximal reduction to ~60% of baseline concentrations. The effect of KYNA (100 nm) was prevented by co-application of galantamine (5 μm), an agonist at a site of the α7nAChR that is very similar to that targeted by KYNA. Infusion of 7-chlorokynurenic acid (100 nm), an NMDAR antagonist acting selectively at the glycineB site of the receptor, affected neither basal GABA levels nor the KYNA-induced reduction in GABA. Inhibition of endogenous KYNA formation by reverse dialysis of (S)-4-(ethylsulfonyl)benzoylalanine (ESBA; 1 mm) increased extracellular GABA levels, reaching a peak of 156% of baseline levels after 1 h. Co-infusion of 100 nm KYNA abolished the effect of ESBA. Qualitatively and quantitatively similar, bi-directional effects of KYNA on extracellular glutamate were observed in the same microdialysis samples. Taken together, the present findings suggest that fluctuations in endogenous KYNA levels, by modulating α7nAChR function, control extracellular GABA levels in the rat striatum. This effect may be relevant for a number of physiological and pathological processes involving the basal ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Beggiato
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 17-19, 44100 Ferrara, Italy.
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140
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PF-04859989 as a template for structure-based drug design: identification of new pyrazole series of irreversible KAT II inhibitors with improved lipophilic efficiency. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:1961-6. [PMID: 23466229 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The structure-based design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of a new pyrazole series of irreversible KAT II inhibitors are described herein. The modification of the inhibitor scaffold of 1 and 2 from a dihydroquinolinone core to a tetrahydropyrazolopyridinone core led to discovery of a new series of potent KAT II inhibitors with excellent physicochemical properties. Compound 20 is the most potent and lipophilically efficient of these new pyrazole analogs, with a k(inact)/K(i) value of 112,000 M(-1)s(-1) and lipophilic efficiency (LipE) of 8.53. The X-ray crystal structure of 20 with KAT II demonstrates key features that contribute to this remarkable potency and binding efficiency.
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141
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Coppola A, Wenner BR, Ilkayeva O, Stevens RD, Maggioni M, Slotkin TA, Levin ED, Newgard CB. Branched-chain amino acids alter neurobehavioral function in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2013; 304:E405-13. [PMID: 23249694 PMCID: PMC3566503 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00373.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Recently, we have described a strong association of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) and aromatic amino acids (AAA) with obesity and insulin resistance. In the current study, we have investigated the potential impact of BCAA on behavioral functions. We demonstrate that supplementation of either a high-sucrose or a high-fat diet with BCAA induces anxiety-like behavior in rats compared with control groups fed on unsupplemented diets. These behavioral changes are associated with a significant decrease in the concentration of tryptophan (Trp) in brain tissues and a consequent decrease in serotonin but no difference in indices of serotonin synaptic function. The anxiety-like behaviors and decreased levels of Trp in the brain of BCAA-fed rats were reversed by supplementation of Trp in the drinking water but not by administration of fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, suggesting that the behavioral changes are independent of the serotonergic pathway of Trp metabolism. Instead, BCAA supplementation lowers the brain levels of another Trp-derived metabolite, kynurenic acid, and these levels are normalized by Trp supplementation. We conclude that supplementation of high-energy diets with BCAA causes neurobehavioral impairment. Since BCAA are elevated spontaneously in human obesity, our studies suggest a potential mechanism for explaining the strong association of obesity and mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Coppola
- Sarah W. Stedman Nutrition and Metabolism Center, Duke University, Durham, NC 27704, USA
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142
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Porcu E, Medici M, Pistis G, Volpato CB, Wilson SG, Cappola AR, Bos SD, Deelen J, den Heijer M, Freathy RM, Lahti J, Liu C, Lopez LM, Nolte IM, O'Connell JR, Tanaka T, Trompet S, Arnold A, Bandinelli S, Beekman M, Böhringer S, Brown SJ, Buckley BM, Camaschella C, de Craen AJM, Davies G, de Visser MCH, Ford I, Forsen T, Frayling TM, Fugazzola L, Gögele M, Hattersley AT, Hermus AR, Hofman A, Houwing-Duistermaat JJ, Jensen RA, Kajantie E, Kloppenburg M, Lim EM, Masciullo C, Mariotti S, Minelli C, Mitchell BD, Nagaraja R, Netea-Maier RT, Palotie A, Persani L, Piras MG, Psaty BM, Räikkönen K, Richards JB, Rivadeneira F, Sala C, Sabra MM, Sattar N, Shields BM, Soranzo N, Starr JM, Stott DJ, Sweep FCGJ, Usala G, van der Klauw MM, van Heemst D, van Mullem A, H.Vermeulen S, Visser WE, Walsh JP, Westendorp RGJ, Widen E, Zhai G, Cucca F, Deary IJ, Eriksson JG, Ferrucci L, Fox CS, Jukema JW, Kiemeney LA, Pramstaller PP, Schlessinger D, Shuldiner AR, Slagboom EP, Uitterlinden AG, Vaidya B, Visser TJ, Wolffenbuttel BHR, Meulenbelt I, Rotter JI, Spector TD, Hicks AA, Toniolo D, Sanna S, Peeters RP, Naitza S. A meta-analysis of thyroid-related traits reveals novel loci and gender-specific differences in the regulation of thyroid function. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003266. [PMID: 23408906 PMCID: PMC3567175 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone is essential for normal metabolism and development, and overt abnormalities in thyroid function lead to common endocrine disorders affecting approximately 10% of individuals over their life span. In addition, even mild alterations in thyroid function are associated with weight changes, atrial fibrillation, osteoporosis, and psychiatric disorders. To identify novel variants underlying thyroid function, we performed a large meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies for serum levels of the highly heritable thyroid function markers TSH and FT4, in up to 26,420 and 17,520 euthyroid subjects, respectively. Here we report 26 independent associations, including several novel loci for TSH (PDE10A, VEGFA, IGFBP5, NFIA, SOX9, PRDM11, FGF7, INSR, ABO, MIR1179, NRG1, MBIP, ITPK1, SASH1, GLIS3) and FT4 (LHX3, FOXE1, AADAT, NETO1/FBXO15, LPCAT2/CAPNS2). Notably, only limited overlap was detected between TSH and FT4 associated signals, in spite of the feedback regulation of their circulating levels by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Five of the reported loci (PDE8B, PDE10A, MAF/LOC440389, NETO1/FBXO15, and LPCAT2/CAPNS2) show strong gender-specific differences, which offer clues for the known sexual dimorphism in thyroid function and related pathologies. Importantly, the TSH-associated loci contribute not only to variation within the normal range, but also to TSH values outside the reference range, suggesting that they may be involved in thyroid dysfunction. Overall, our findings explain, respectively, 5.64% and 2.30% of total TSH and FT4 trait variance, and they improve the current knowledge of the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis function and the consequences of genetic variation for hypo- or hyperthyroidism. Levels of thyroid hormones are tightly regulated by TSH produced in the pituitary, and even mild alterations in their concentrations are strong indicators of thyroid pathologies, which are very common worldwide. To identify common genetic variants associated with the highly heritable markers of thyroid function, TSH and FT4, we conducted a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies in 26,420 and 17,520 individuals, respectively, of European ancestry with normal thyroid function. Our analysis identified 26 independent genetic variants regulating these traits, several of which are new, and confirmed previously detected polymorphisms affecting TSH (within the PDE8B gene and near CAPZB, MAF/LOC440389, and NR3C2) and FT4 (within DIO1) levels. Gender-specific differences in the genetic effects of several variants for TSH and FT4 levels were identified at several loci, which offer clues to understand the known sexual dimorphism in thyroid function and pathology. Of particular clinical interest, we show that TSH-associated loci contribute not only to normal variation, but also to TSH values outside reference range, suggesting that they may be involved in thyroid dysfunction. Overall, our findings add to the developing landscape of the regulation of thyroid homeostasis and the consequences of genetic variation for thyroid related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Porcu
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica (IRGB), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Marco Medici
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Giorgio Pistis
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Research Institute, Milano, Italy
- Università degli Studi di Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Claudia B. Volpato
- Center for Biomedicine, European Academy Bozen/Bolzano (EURAC), Bolzano, Italy (Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany)
| | - Scott G. Wilson
- Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- Department of Twin Research and Genetic Epidemiology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Anne R. Cappola
- University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Steffan D. Bos
- Leiden University Medical Center, Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Joris Deelen
- Leiden University Medical Center, Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Martin den Heijer
- Department of Endocrinology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Internal Medicine, Free University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rachel M. Freathy
- Genetics of Complex Traits, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Jari Lahti
- Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Chunyu Liu
- Center for Population Studies, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Framingham, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Lorna M. Lopez
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ilja M. Nolte
- Unit of Genetic Epidemiology and Bioinformatics, Department of Epidemiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeffrey R. O'Connell
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Toshiko Tanaka
- Clinical Research Branch, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Stella Trompet
- Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Alice Arnold
- Cardiovascular Health Research Unit and Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | | | - Marian Beekman
- Leiden University Medical Center, Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Böhringer
- Leiden University Medical Center, Medical Statistics and Bioinformatics, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Suzanne J. Brown
- Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Brendan M. Buckley
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Clara Camaschella
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Research Institute, Milano, Italy
- Vita e Salute University, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Anton J. M. de Craen
- Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gail Davies
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Marieke C. H. de Visser
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ian Ford
- Robertson Center for Biostatistics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Forsen
- Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Helsinki University Central Hospital, Unit of General Practice, Helsinki, Finland
- Vaasa Health Care Centre, Diabetes Unit, Vaasa, Finland
| | - Timothy M. Frayling
- Genetics of Complex Traits, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Fugazzola
- Endocrine Unit, Fondazione Ca' Granda Policlinico and Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Martin Gögele
- Center for Biomedicine, European Academy Bozen/Bolzano (EURAC), Bolzano, Italy (Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany)
| | - Andrew T. Hattersley
- Peninsula NIHR Clinical Research Facility, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Ad R. Hermus
- Department of Endocrinology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Albert Hofman
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)–sponsored Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging (NCHA), Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Richard A. Jensen
- Cardiovascular Health Research Unit and Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Eero Kajantie
- Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Hospital for Children and Adolescents, Helsinki University Central Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Margreet Kloppenburg
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ee M. Lim
- Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- Pathwest Laboratory Medicine WA, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Corrado Masciullo
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Research Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Stefano Mariotti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche, Università di Cagliari, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Cosetta Minelli
- Center for Biomedicine, European Academy Bozen/Bolzano (EURAC), Bolzano, Italy (Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany)
| | - Braxton D. Mitchell
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ramaiah Nagaraja
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Romana T. Netea-Maier
- Department of Endocrinology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Aarno Palotie
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Helsinki and University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Luca Persani
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Luca, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria G. Piras
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica (IRGB), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Bruce M. Psaty
- Cardiovascular Health Research Unit, Departments of Medicine, Epidemiology, and Health Services, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Group Health Research Institute, Group Health Cooperative, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Katri Räikkönen
- Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - J. Brent Richards
- Department of Twin Research and Genetic Epidemiology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Medicine, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Departments of Human Genetics, Epidemiology, and Biostatistics, Jewish General Hospital, Lady Davis Institute, McGill University, Montréal, Québec
| | - Fernando Rivadeneira
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)–sponsored Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging (NCHA), Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cinzia Sala
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Research Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Mona M. Sabra
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Medicine-Endocrinology, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Naveed Sattar
- BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Beverley M. Shields
- Peninsula NIHR Clinical Research Facility, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole Soranzo
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - John M. Starr
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Alzheimer Scotland Dementia Research Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David J. Stott
- Academic Section of Geriatric Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Fred C. G. J. Sweep
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gianluca Usala
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica (IRGB), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Melanie M. van der Klauw
- LifeLines Cohort Study, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Endocrinology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Diana van Heemst
- Leiden University Medical Center, Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Alies van Mullem
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sita H.Vermeulen
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - W. Edward Visser
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John P. Walsh
- Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Rudi G. J. Westendorp
- Leiden University Medical Center, Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth Widen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Guangju Zhai
- Department of Twin Research and Genetic Epidemiology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Discipline of Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Francesco Cucca
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica (IRGB), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Ian J. Deary
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Johan G. Eriksson
- Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Helsinki University Central Hospital, Unit of General Practice, Helsinki, Finland
- Folkhalsan Research Centre, Helsinki, Finland
- Vasa Central Hospital, Vasa, Finland
| | - Luigi Ferrucci
- Clinical Research Branch, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Caroline S. Fox
- Division of Intramural Research, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Framingham, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Division of Endocrinology, Hypertension, and Metabolism, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - J. Wouter Jukema
- Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Durrer Center for Cardiogenetic Research, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lambertus A. Kiemeney
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Urology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Peter P. Pramstaller
- Center for Biomedicine, European Academy Bozen/Bolzano (EURAC), Bolzano, Italy (Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany)
- Department of Neurology, General Central Hospital, Bolzano, Italy
- Department of Neurology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - David Schlessinger
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Alan R. Shuldiner
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Geriatric Research and Education Clinical Center, Veterans Administration Medical Center, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eline P. Slagboom
- Leiden University Medical Center, Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - André G. Uitterlinden
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)–sponsored Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging (NCHA), Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bijay Vaidya
- Diabetes, Endocrinology and Vascular Health Centre, Royal Devon and Exeter NHS Foundation Trust, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Theo J. Visser
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bruce H. R. Wolffenbuttel
- LifeLines Cohort Study, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Endocrinology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ingrid Meulenbelt
- Leiden University Medical Center, Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Ageing, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jerome I. Rotter
- Medical Genetics Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Tim D. Spector
- Department of Twin Research and Genetic Epidemiology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew A. Hicks
- Center for Biomedicine, European Academy Bozen/Bolzano (EURAC), Bolzano, Italy (Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany)
| | - Daniela Toniolo
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Research Institute, Milano, Italy
- Institute of Molecular Genetics–CNR, Pavia, Italy
| | - Serena Sanna
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica (IRGB), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
- * E-mail: (S Sanna); (RP Peeters); (S Naitza)
| | - Robin P. Peeters
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (S Sanna); (RP Peeters); (S Naitza)
| | - Silvia Naitza
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica (IRGB), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
- * E-mail: (S Sanna); (RP Peeters); (S Naitza)
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143
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Tuttle JB, Anderson M, Bechle BM, Campbell BM, Chang C, Dounay AB, Evrard E, Fonseca KR, Gan X, Ghosh S, Horner W, James LC, Kim JY, McAllister LA, Pandit J, Parikh VD, Rago BJ, Salafia MA, Strick CA, Zawadzke LE, Verhoest PR. Structure-Based Design of Irreversible Human KAT II Inhibitors: Discovery of New Potency-Enhancing Interactions. ACS Med Chem Lett 2013; 4:37-40. [PMID: 24900560 DOI: 10.1021/ml300237v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2012] [Accepted: 10/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of aryl hydroxamates recently have been disclosed as irreversible inhibitors of kynurenine amino transferase II (KAT II), an enzyme that may play a role in schizophrenia and other psychiatric and neurological disorders. The utilization of structure-activity relationships (SAR) in conjunction with X-ray crystallography led to the discovery of hydroxamate 4, a disubstituted analogue that has a significant potency enhancement due to a novel interaction with KAT II. The use of k inact/K i to assess potency was critical for understanding the SAR in this series and for identifying compounds with improved pharmacodynamic profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamison B. Tuttle
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Marie Anderson
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Bruce M. Bechle
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Brian M. Campbell
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Cheng Chang
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Amy B. Dounay
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Edelweiss Evrard
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Kari R. Fonseca
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Xinmin Gan
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Somraj Ghosh
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Weldon Horner
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Larry C. James
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Ji-Young Kim
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Laura A. McAllister
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Jayvardhan Pandit
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Vinod D. Parikh
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Brian J. Rago
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Michelle A. Salafia
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Christine A. Strick
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Laura E. Zawadzke
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Patrick R. Verhoest
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Eastern
Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
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144
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Henderson JL, Sawant-Basak A, Tuttle JB, Dounay AB, McAllister LA, Pandit J, Rong S, Hou X, Bechle BM, Kim JY, Parikh V, Ghosh S, Evrard E, Zawadzke LE, Salafia MA, Rago B, Obach RS, Clark A, Fonseca KR, Chang C, Verhoest PR. Discovery of hydroxamate bioisosteres as KAT II inhibitors with improved oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetics. MEDCHEMCOMM 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c2md20166f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of kynurenine aminotransferase II (KAT II) inhibitors has been developed replacing the hydroxamate motif with a bioisostere.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Suobao Rong
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry
- Cambridge
- USA
| | - Xinjun Hou
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry
- Cambridge
- USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Brian Rago
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry
- Cambridge
- USA
| | | | - Alan Clark
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry
- Cambridge
- USA
| | | | - Cheng Chang
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry
- Cambridge
- USA
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145
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Xu Y, Zheng Q, Yu L, Zhang H, Sun C. A molecular dynamics and computational study of human KAT3 involved in KYN pathway. Sci China Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-012-4802-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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146
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Albuquerque EX, Schwarcz R. Kynurenic acid as an antagonist of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain: facts and challenges. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 85:1027-32. [PMID: 23270993 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Revised: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA), a major tryptophan metabolite, is a glutamate receptor antagonist, which is also reported to inhibit α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChRs). Due to variations in experimental approaches, controversy has arisen regarding the ability of KYNA to directly influence α7nAChR function. Here we summarize current concepts of KYNA neurobiology and review evidence pertaining to the proposed role of KYNA as an endogenous modulator of α7nAChRs and synaptic transmission. As dysfunction of α7nAChRs plays a major role in the pathophysiology of central nervous system disorders, elucidation of KYNA's action on this receptor subtype has significant therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edson X Albuquerque
- Division of Translational Toxicology, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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147
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Biochemical identification and crystal structure of kynurenine formamidase from Drosophila melanogaster. Biochem J 2012; 446:253-60. [PMID: 22690733 DOI: 10.1042/bj20120416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
KFase (kynurenine formamidase), also known as arylformamidase and formylkynurenine formamidase, efficiently catalyses the hydrolysis of NFK (N-formyl-L-kynurenine) to kynurenine. KFase is the second enzyme in the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism. A number of intermediates formed in the kynurenine pathway are biologically active and implicated in an assortment of medical conditions, including cancer, schizophrenia and neurodegenerative diseases. Consequently, enzymes involved in the kynurenine pathway have been considered potential regulatory targets. In the present study, we report, for the first time, the biochemical characterization and crystal structures of Drosophila melanogaster KFase conjugated with an inhibitor, PMSF. The protein architecture of KFase reveals that it belongs to the α/β hydrolase fold family. The PMSF-binding information of the solved conjugated crystal structure was used to obtain a KFase and NFK complex using molecular docking. The complex is useful for understanding the catalytic mechanism of KFase. The present study provides a molecular basis for future efforts in maintaining or regulating kynurenine metabolism through the molecular and biochemical regulation of KFase.
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148
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Modulatory effects of acupuncture on murine depression-like behavior following chronic systemic inflammation. Brain Res 2012; 1472:149-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 06/19/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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149
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Schwarcz R, Bruno JP, Muchowski PJ, Wu HQ. Kynurenines in the mammalian brain: when physiology meets pathology. Nat Rev Neurosci 2012; 13:465-77. [PMID: 22678511 DOI: 10.1038/nrn3257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1033] [Impact Index Per Article: 86.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The essential amino acid tryptophan is not only a precursor of serotonin but is also degraded to several other neuroactive compounds, including kynurenic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine and quinolinic acid. The synthesis of these metabolites is regulated by an enzymatic cascade, known as the kynurenine pathway, that is tightly controlled by the immune system. Dysregulation of this pathway, resulting in hyper-or hypofunction of active metabolites, is associated with neurodegenerative and other neurological disorders, as well as with psychiatric diseases such as depression and schizophrenia. With recently developed pharmacological agents, it is now possible to restore metabolic equilibrium and envisage novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Schwarcz
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21228, USA. rschwarc@mprc. umaryland.edu
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150
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Okada K, Angkawidjaja C, Koga Y, Takano K, Kanaya S. Characteristic features of kynurenine aminotransferase allosterically regulated by (alpha)-ketoglutarate in cooperation with kynurenine. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40307. [PMID: 22792273 PMCID: PMC3391261 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferase from Pyrococcus horikoshii OT3 (PhKAT), which is a homodimeric protein, catalyzes the conversion of kynurenine (KYN) to kynurenic acid (KYNA). We analyzed the transaminase reaction mechanisms of this protein with pyridoxal-5′-phosphate (PLP), KYN and α-ketoglutaric acid (2OG) or oxaloacetic acid (OXA). 2OG significantly inhibited KAT activities in kinetic analyses, suggesting that a KYNA biosynthesis is allosterically regulated by 2OG. Its inhibitions evidently were unlocked by KYN. 2OG and KYN functioned as an inhibitor and activator in response to changes in the concentrations of KYN and 2OG, respectively. The affinities of one subunit for PLP or 2OG were different from that of the other subunit, as confirmed by spectrophotometry and isothermal titration calorimetry, suggesting that the difference of affinities between subunits might play a role in regulations of the KAT reaction. Moreover, we identified two active and allosteric sites in the crystal structure of PhKAT-2OG complexes. The crystal structure of PhKAT in complex with four 2OGs demonstrates that two 2OGs in allosteric sites are effector molecules which inhibit the KYNA productions. Thus, the combined data lead to the conclusion that PhKAT probably is regulated by allosteric control machineries, with 2OG as the allosteric inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Okada
- Department of Material and Life Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
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