101
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Cheng SY. Thyroid hormone receptor mutations and disease: insights from knock-in mouse models. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2007; 2:47-57. [PMID: 30743748 DOI: 10.1586/17446651.2.1.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone nuclear receptors (TRs) mediate thyroid hormone's activities in growth, differentiation, and development. Two TR genes (α and β ) encode four thyroid hormone-binding receptors that regulate target gene expression. Mutations of the TRβ gene cause the genetic syndrome of resistance to thyroid hormone. Studies indicate a close association between TRβ mutations and several human cancers, suggesting their oncogenic role. A TRβ gene knock-in mutant mouse (TRβPV/PV mouse) that spontaneously develops thyroid cancer allows elucidation of the oncogenic functions in vivo. TRβPV is a potent dominant negative mutant identified in a resistance to thyroid hormone patient. Molecular studies indicate that the PV mutant mediates its oncogenic activities via nucleus-initiated transcription and novel extranuclear actions. Thus, the deleterious effects of the gene mutations go beyond resistance to thyroid hormone and are more severe and extensive than previously envisioned. This newly identified oncogene exerts its tumorigenic effects via multiple signaling mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheue-Yann Cheng
- a National Cancer Institute, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, 37 Convent Dr., Room 5128, Bethesda, MD 20892-4264, USA.
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102
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Wilcoxon JS, Nadolski GJ, Samarut J, Chassande O, Redei EE. Behavioral inhibition and impaired spatial learning and memory in hypothyroid mice lacking thyroid hormone receptor alpha. Behav Brain Res 2006; 177:109-16. [PMID: 17129617 PMCID: PMC1819397 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2006] [Revised: 10/26/2006] [Accepted: 10/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone insufficiency leads to impaired neurogenesis, behavioral alterations and cognitive deficits. Thyroid hormone receptors, expressed in brain regions involved in these behaviors, mediate the effects of thyroid hormone deficiency or excess. To determine the contribution of thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TRalpha) in these behaviors, we examined the behavior of euthyroid as well as hypo- and hyperthyroid mice lacking all isoforms of the TRalpha (TRalpha(o/o)). The hypothyroxinemic TRalpha(o/o) mice demonstrated behavioral inhibition, manifested in decreased activity and increased anxiety/fear in the open field test (OFT) and increased immobility in the forced swim test (FST) compared to C57BL/6J mice. TRalpha(o/o) mice also showed learning and recall impairments in the Morris water maze (MWM), which were exaggerated by hypothyroidism in TRalpha(o/o) mice. These impairments were concurrent with increased thigmotaxis, suggesting an increased anxiety-like state of the TRalpha(o/o) mice in the MWM. Expression of genes, known to be involved in processes modulating learning and memory, such as glucocorticoid receptor (GR), growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43) and neurogranin (RC3), were significantly decreased in the hippocampus of TRalpha(o/o) mice. GR expression was also decreased in the frontal cortex and amygdala of TRalpha(o/o) mice, indicating that expression of GR is regulated, probably developmentally, by one or more isoforms of TRalpha in the mouse brain. Taken together these data demonstrate behavioral alterations in the TRalpha(o/o) mice, indicating the functional role of TRalpha, and a delicate interaction between TRalpha and TRbeta-regulated genes in these behaviors. Thyroid hormone-regulated genes potentially responsible for the learning deficit found in TRalpha(o/o) mice include GR, RC3 and GAP-43.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Slone Wilcoxon
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, The Asher Center Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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103
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You SH, Gauger KJ, Bansal R, Zoeller RT. 4-Hydroxy-PCB106 acts as a direct thyroid hormone receptor agonist in rat GH3 cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2006; 257-258:26-34. [PMID: 16930818 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2006.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2006] [Revised: 06/09/2006] [Accepted: 06/23/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) may interfere with thyroid hormone (TH) action by interacting directly with the TH receptor (TR). We found that the hydroxylated PCB metabolite, 4-OH-CB106, bound to the human TRbeta1 and significantly elevated endogenous growth hormone (GH) expression in GH3 cells in a manner similar to that of T(3) itself. This effect was also observed using a consensus TH response element (TRE) in a luciferase expression system, and was blocked by a single base-pair substitution in this TRE. In addition, we found that 4-OH-CB106 did not alter the ability of TRbeta1 to physically interact with the TRE in the GH promoter, or with SRC1 or NCoR. These effects were directly parallel to effects of T(3), indicating that 4-OH-CB106 exerts a direct agonistic effect on the TRbeta1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seo-Hee You
- Program in Molecular & Cellular Biology, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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104
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Koibuchi N, Iwasaki T. Regulation of brain development by thyroid hormone and its modulation by environmental chemicals. Endocr J 2006; 53:295-303. [PMID: 16702774 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.kr-69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Koibuchi
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
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105
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Storey NM, Gentile S, Ullah H, Russo A, Muessel M, Erxleben C, Armstrong DL. Rapid signaling at the plasma membrane by a nuclear receptor for thyroid hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:5197-201. [PMID: 16549781 PMCID: PMC1458817 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0600089103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Many nuclear hormones have physiological effects that are too rapid to be explained by changes in gene expression and are often attributed to unidentified or novel G protein-coupled receptors. Thyroid hormone is essential for normal human brain development, but the molecular mechanisms responsible for its effects remain to be identified. Here, we present direct molecular evidence for potassium channel stimulation in a rat pituitary cell line (GH(4)C(1)) by a nuclear receptor for thyroid hormone, TRbeta, acting rapidly at the plasma membrane through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) to slow the deactivation of KCNH2 channels already in the membrane. Signaling was disrupted by heterologous expression of TRbeta receptors with mutations in the ligand-binding domain that are associated with neurological disorders in humans, but not by mutations that disrupt DNA binding. More importantly, PI3K-dependent signaling was reconstituted in cell-free patches of membrane from CHO cells by heterologous expression of human KCNH2 channels and TRbeta, but not TRalpha, receptors. TRbeta signaling through PI3K provides a molecular explanation for the essential role of thyroid hormone in human brain development and adult lipid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina M. Storey
- Membrane Signaling Group, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Saverio Gentile
- Membrane Signaling Group, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Hemayet Ullah
- Membrane Signaling Group, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Angela Russo
- Membrane Signaling Group, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Michelle Muessel
- Membrane Signaling Group, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Christian Erxleben
- Membrane Signaling Group, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - David L. Armstrong
- Membrane Signaling Group, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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106
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Oh-Nishi A, Saji M, Furudate SI, Suzuki N. Dopamine D(2)-like receptor function is converted from excitatory to inhibitory by thyroxine in the developmental hippocampus. J Neuroendocrinol 2005; 17:836-45. [PMID: 16280031 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2005.01381.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism by which a lack of thyroid hormone in the early development of the brain causes permanent mental retardation in cretins is currently unknown. On the other hand, an abnormality in dopamine-related brain function is believed to underlie some forms of mental illness. In this study, we demonstrate that although the activation of a dopaminergic D(2)-like receptor inhibited glutamatergic transmission in the hippocampal slices of normal adult rats, indicating the inhibitory action of the D(2)-like receptor on glutamatergic transmission, it markedly enhanced glutamatergic transmission both in a mutant hypothyroid rat with a missense mutation in thyroglobulin and in hypothyroid rats treated with methylmercaptoimidazole (MMI), indicating the excitatory action of the D(2)-like receptor on glutamatergic transmission. Paired pulse facilitation of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials was reduced by the activation of the D(2)-like receptors from MMI-induced hypothyroid rats, suggesting a presynaptic locus of the excitatory action of the D(2)-like receptors. In normal rats, the excitatory D(2)-like dopamine receptors were observed in the developing stages and were completely replaced by normal inhibitory responses up to adulthood. Furthermore, the continuous supplement of thyroxine from birth exerted a normalising effect on the abnormal excitatory property of D(2)-like dopamine receptors in the hippocampal slices of MMI-treated hypothyroid rats. From these results, it is suggested that thyroxine may play a crucial role in reversing the excitatory property of D(2)-like dopaminergic receptors in the immature brain to an inhibitory one in the mature brain. Moreover, we suggest that the abnormal excitatory property of D(2)-like dopaminergic receptors may develop in response to a lack of thyroxine and may contribute to some central nervous system deficits, including cognitive dysfunctions accompanied by hypothyroidism.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Oh-Nishi
- Division of Brain Science, Kitasato University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa, Japan
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107
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Hashimoto K, Cohen RN, Yamada M, Markan KR, Monden T, Satoh T, Mori M, Wondisford FE. Cross-talk between thyroid hormone receptor and liver X receptor regulatory pathways is revealed in a thyroid hormone resistance mouse model. J Biol Chem 2005; 281:295-302. [PMID: 16260782 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m507877200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypercholesterolemia is found in patients with hypothyroidism and resistance to thyroid hormone. In this study, we examined cholesterol metabolism in a thyroid hormone receptor beta (TR-beta) mutant mouse model of resistance to thyroid hormone. Whereas studies of cholesterol metabolism have been reported in TR-beta knock-out mice, generalized expression of a non-ligand binding TR-beta protein in this knock-in model more fully recapitulates the hypothyroid state, because the hypothyroid effect of TRs is mediated by the unliganded receptor. In the hypothyroid state, a high cholesterol diet increased serum cholesterol levels in wild-type animals (WT) but either did not change or reduced levels in mutant (MUT) mice relative to hypothyroidism alone. 7alpha-Hydroxylase (CYP7A1) is the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol metabolism and mRNA levels were undetectable in the hypothyroid state in all animals. triiodothyronine replacement restored CYP7A1 mRNA levels in WT mice but had minimal effect in MUT mice. In contrast, a high cholesterol diet markedly induced CYP7A1 levels in MUT but not WT mice in the hypothyroid state. Elevation of CYP7A1 mRNA levels and reduced hepatic cholesterol content in MUT animals are likely because of cross-talk between TR-beta and liver X receptor alpha (LXR-alpha), which both bind to a direct repeat + 4 (DR+4) element in the CYP7A1 promoter. In transfection studies, WT but not MUT TR-beta antagonized induction of this promoter by LXR-alpha. Electromobility shift analysis revealed that LXR/RXR heterodimers bound to the DR+4 element in the presence of MUT but not WT TR-beta. A mechanism for cross-talk, and potential antagonism, between TR-beta and LXR-alpha is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koshi Hashimoto
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
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108
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Constantinou C, Margarity M, Valcana T. Region-specific effects of hypothyroidism on the relative expression of thyroid hormone receptors in adult rat brain. Mol Cell Biochem 2005; 278:93-100. [PMID: 16180094 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-005-6934-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2005] [Accepted: 05/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine whether changes in the circulating thyroid hormone (TH) and brain synaptosomal TH content affected the relative levels of mRNA encoding different thyroid hormone receptor (TR) isoforms in adult rat brain. Northern analysis of polyA+RNA from cerebral cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum of control and hypothyroid adult rats was performed in order to determine the relative expression of all TR isoforms. Circulating and synaptosomal TH concentrations were determined by radioimmunoassay. Region-specific quantitative differences in the expression pattern of all TR isoforms in euthyroid animals and hypothyroid animals were recorded. In hypothyroidism, the levels of TRalpha2 mRNA (non-T3-binding isoform) were decreased in all brain regions examined. In contrast the relative expression of TRalpha1 was increased in cerebral cortex and hippocampus, whereas in cerebellum remained unaffected. The TRbeta1 relative expression in cerebral cortex and hippocampus of hypothyroid animals was not affected, whereas this TR isoform was not detectable in cerebellum. The TR isoform mRNA levels returned to control values following T4 intraperitoneal administration to the hypothyroid rats. The obtained results show that in vivo depletion of TH regulates TR gene expression in adult rat brain in a region-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Constantinou
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
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109
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Kim CS, Vasko VV, Kato Y, Kruhlak M, Saji M, Cheng SY, Ringel MD. AKT activation promotes metastasis in a mouse model of follicular thyroid carcinoma. Endocrinology 2005; 146:4456-63. [PMID: 16002527 DOI: 10.1210/en.2005-0172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT pathway is crucial to many cell functions, and its dysregulation in tumors is a common finding. The molecular basis of follicular thyroid cancer metastasis is not well understood but may also be influenced by AKT activation. We previously created a knockin mutant mouse that expresses a mutant thyroid hormone receptor-beta gene (TRbetaPV mouse) that spontaneously develops thyroid cancer and distant metastasis similar to human follicular thyroid cancer. In this study, we investigated whether our mouse model exhibits similar AKT activation as human follicular thyroid cancer. Western blot analysis on thyroids from both wild-type and TRbeta(PV/PV) mice revealed elevation of activated AKT in TRbeta(PV/PV) mice. Immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy reveal activated AKT in both the thyroid and metastatic lesions of TRbeta(PV/PV) mice. Whereas all three AKT isoforms were overexpressed in primary tumors from TRbeta(PV/PV) mice in the cytoplasm of thyroid cancer cells, only AKT1 was also found in the nucleus, matching the localization of activated AKT in a pattern similar to human follicular thyroid cancer. In the metastases, all AKT isoforms correlated with phosphorylated AKT nuclear localization. We created primary thyroid cell lines derived from TRbeta(PV/PV) mice and found reduction of phosphorylated AKT levels or AKT downstream targets diminishes cell motility. Activated AKT is common to both human and mouse follicular thyroid cancer and is correlated with increased cell motility in vitro and metastasis in vivo. Thus, TRbeta(PV/PV) mice could be used to further dissect the detailed pathways underlying the progression and metastasis of follicular thyroid carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline S Kim
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, 37 Convent Drive, Room 5128, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4264, USA
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110
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Venero C, Guadaño-Ferraz A, Herrero AI, Nordström K, Manzano J, de Escobar GM, Bernal J, Vennström B. Anxiety, memory impairment, and locomotor dysfunction caused by a mutant thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 can be ameliorated by T3 treatment. Genes Dev 2005; 19:2152-63. [PMID: 16131613 PMCID: PMC1221886 DOI: 10.1101/gad.346105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The transcriptional properties of unliganded thyroid hormone receptors are thought to cause the misdevelopment during hypothyroidism of several functions essential for adult life. To specifically determine the role of unliganded thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 (TRalpha1) in neuronal tissues, we introduced a mutation into the mouse TRalpha1 gene that lowers affinity to thyroid hormone (TH) 10-fold. The resulting heterozygous mice exhibit several distinct neurological abnormalities: extreme anxiety, reduced recognition memory, and locomotor dysfunction. The anxiety and memory deficiencies were relieved by treatment with high levels of TH in adulthood, an effect that correlated with a normalization of GABAergic inhibitory interneurons in the hippocampal CA1 region. In contrast, a post-natal TH treatment was necessary and sufficient for ameliorating the adult locomotor dysfunction. Here, the hormone treatment normalized the otherwise delayed cerebellar development. The data thus identify two novel and distinct functions of an unliganded TRalpha1 during development and adulthood, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Venero
- Psychobiology Department, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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111
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Ortiga-Carvalho TM, Shibusawa N, Nikrodhanond A, Oliveira KJ, Machado DS, Liao XH, Cohen RN, Refetoff S, Wondisford FE. Negative regulation by thyroid hormone receptor requires an intact coactivator-binding surface. J Clin Invest 2005; 115:2517-23. [PMID: 16100573 PMCID: PMC1184039 DOI: 10.1172/jci24109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2004] [Accepted: 05/31/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) action is mediated by TH receptors (TRs), which are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. In vitro studies have demonstrated that TR activity is regulated by interactions with corepressor and coactivator proteins (CoRs and CoAs, respectively). TH stimulation is thought to involve dissociation of CoRs and recruitment of CoAs to the liganded TR. In contrast, negative regulation by TH is thought to occur via recruitment of CoRs to the liganded TR. The physiological role of CoAs bound to TRs, however, has yet to be defined. In this study, we used gene-targeting techniques to mutate the TR-beta locus within its activation function-2 (AF-2) domain (E457A). This mutation was chosen because it completely abolished CoA recruitment in vitro, while preserving normal triiodothyronine (T3) binding and CoR interactions. As expected, TH-stimulated gene expression was reduced in homozygous E457A mice. However, these animals also displayed abnormal regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Serum thyroxine, T3, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels and pituitary Tshb mRNA levels were inappropriately elevated compared with those of WT animals, and L-T3 treatment failed to suppress serum TSH and pituitary Tshb mRNA levels. Therefore, the AF-2 domain of TR-beta is required for positive and, paradoxically, for negative regulation by TH in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania M Ortiga-Carvalho
- Department of Medicine and Committee on Molecular Metabolism and Nutrition, Pritzker School of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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112
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Abstract
Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are ligand-dependent transcription factors that mediate the biological activities of thyroid hormone (T3). Two THR genes (A and B), located on different chromosomes, yield four T3-binding isoforms with highly conserved sequences in the DNA- and ligand-binding domains. Mutations of THRB cause a human genetic disease, thyroid hormone resistance syndrome (RTH). Comprehensive genomic profiling unveiled the contribution of novel change-of-function mutations of TRbeta to the pathogenesis of RTH. In addition, abnormalities associated with mutations of the THRA gene have been uncovered recently. The phenotypic manifestations of mutated THRB and THRA genes are distinct, indicating isoform-dependent actions of TR mutants in vivo. Therefore, mutant TRs provide a new paradigm to understand the molecular basis of receptor disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheue-yann Cheng
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4264, USA.
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113
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Heuer H, Maier MK, Iden S, Mittag J, Friesema ECH, Visser TJ, Bauer K. The monocarboxylate transporter 8 linked to human psychomotor retardation is highly expressed in thyroid hormone-sensitive neuron populations. Endocrinology 2005; 146:1701-6. [PMID: 15661862 DOI: 10.1210/en.2004-1179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent genetic analysis in several patients presenting a severe form of X-linked psychomotor retardation combined with abnormal thyroid hormone (TH) levels have revealed mutations or deletions in the gene of the monocarboxylate transporter 8 (MCT8). Because in vitro MCT8 functions as a TH transporter, the complex clinical picture of these patients indicated an important role for MCT8 in TH-dependent processes of brain development. To provide a clue to the cellular function of MCT8 in brain, we studied the expression of MCT8 mRNA in the murine central nervous system by in situ hybridization histochemistry. In addition to the choroid plexus structures, the highest transcript levels were found in neo- and allocortical regions (e.g. olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala), moderate signal intensities in striatum and cerebellum, and low levels in a few neuroendocrine nuclei. Colocalization studies revealed that MCT8 is predominantly expressed in neurons. Together with the spatiotemporal expression pattern of MCT8 during the perinatal period, these results strongly indicate that MCT8 plays an important role for proper central nervous system development by transporting TH into neurons as its main target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Heuer
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Beutenbergstrasse 11, D-07745 Jena, Germany.
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114
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Zhao X, Lorenc H, Stephenson H, Wang YJ, Witherspoon D, Katzenellenbogen B, Pfaff D, Vasudevan N. Thyroid hormone can increase estrogen-mediated transcription from a consensus estrogen response element in neuroblastoma cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:4890-5. [PMID: 15778291 PMCID: PMC555723 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0501042102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (T) and estrogens (E) are nuclear receptor ligands with at least two molecular mechanisms of action: (i) relatively slow genomic effects, such as the regulation of transcription by cognate T receptors (TR) and E receptors (ER); and (ii) relatively rapid nongenomic effects, such as kinase activation and calcium release initiated at the membrane by putative membrane receptors. Genomic and nongenomic effects were thought to be disparate and independent. However, in a previous study using a two-pulse paradigm in neuroblastoma cells, we showed that E acting at the membrane could potentiate transcription from an E-driven reporter gene in the nucleus. Because both T and E can have important effects on mood and cognition, it is possible that the two hormones can act synergistically. In this study, we demonstrate that early actions of T via TRalpha1 and TRbeta1 can potentiate E-mediated transcription (genomic effects) from a consensus E response element (ERE)-driven reporter gene in transiently transfected neuroblastoma cells. Such potentiation was reduced by inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase. Using phosphomutants of ERalpha, we also show that probable mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation sites on the ERalpha, the serines at position 167 and 118, are important in TRbeta1-mediated potentiation of ERalpha-induced transactivation. We suggest that crosstalk between T and E includes potential interactions through both nuclear and membrane-initiated molecular mechanisms of hormone signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Zhao
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
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115
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Porlan E, Vega S, Iglesias T, Rodríguez-Peña A. Unliganded thyroid hormone receptor beta1 inhibits proliferation of murine fibroblasts by delaying the onset of the G1 cell-cycle signals. Oncogene 2005; 23:8756-65. [PMID: 15467737 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are members of the ligand-inducible transcription factor superfamily. The two major functional TRs (alpha1 and beta1) have different spatial and temporal expression patterns and specific physiological functions for these isoforms are now starting to emerge. By expressing these TR isoforms individually in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts, we found that TRbeta1 expression, in the absence of hormone, provokes a proliferation arrest in G0/G1, lengthening the cycling time. Upon serum stimulation TRbeta1-expressing cells showed a marked delay in the induction of cyclins D and E, in the phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein, and in the activation of cyclin-dependent kinase 2, accompanied by increased levels of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27Kip1. Accordingly, serum-stimulated E2F-1 transcriptional activity was repressed by TRbeta1 in transient transfection experiments. Analysis of the receptor domains required for this effect confirmed that there is no need for a functional ligand-binding domain while the DNA-binding domain is essential. In this work, we demonstrate for the first time that TRbeta1 participates in the molecular mechanisms that control cell proliferation. The unliganded TRbeta1 impairs the normal induction of the G1/S cycle regulators preventing progression into the S phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Porlan
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas--Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arturo Duperier, 4, Madrid 28029, Spain
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116
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Farwell AP, Dubord-Tomasetti SA, Pietrzykowski AZ, Stachelek SJ, Leonard JL. Regulation of cerebellar neuronal migration and neurite outgrowth by thyroxine and 3,3',5'-triiodothyronine. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2005; 154:121-35. [PMID: 15617761 DOI: 10.1016/j.devbrainres.2004.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The timing of granule cell migration in the developing cerebellum is regulated by thyroid hormone. Granule cell migration depends on the recognition of extracellular neuronal guidance molecule(s), such as laminin, and this, in turn, requires cell surface adhesion molecules (integrins) that are anchored on the cell membrane by the actin cytoskeleton. While many of the actions of thyroid hormone, specifically 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3), are mediated by regulated gene expression, both thyroxine (T4) and 3,3',5'-triiodothyronine (rT3) also exert direct, positive control of the quantity of polymerized actin in cultured astrocytes without affecting gene expression. T4-dependent actin polymerization has been shown to (i) participate in the immobilization of laminin to the cell surface, (ii) help deposit laminin in the molecular layer of the developing cerebellum, and (iii) anchor integrin(s) that recognize laminin present in the extracellular matrix. In this study, we show that both T4 and rT3, but not T3, directly regulate the F-actin content of elongating neurites of cerebellar neurons. T4 and rT3 also promoted extensive granule cell migration from cerebellar explants, as well as, dense cell clustering and extensive neuronal process formation when granule cells were grown on a laminin-coated surface. Both granule cell migration and neuronal process outgrowth were markedly attenuated by the addition of integrin-blocking antibodies or binding peptides, by the absence of thyroid hormone or the presence of T3. These data suggest that the T4-dependent actin polymerization in developing neurons is necessary for these migrating cells to recognize the laminin guidance molecule, thereby providing a novel molecular mechanism for the profound influence of thyroid hormone on brain development that is independent of regulated gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan P Farwell
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA.
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117
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Abstract
The action of thyroid hormones (thyroxine, T4; triiodothyronine, T3) on brain development and function is gaining renewed interest. It has been known for many years that thyroid hormones are very important in mammalian brain maturation, influencing many aspects related to neural cell migration, differentiation, and signaling. In the last 10 years, genes regulated by thyroid hormones have been identified in the rodent brain, and understanding of the role of thyroid hormone nuclear receptors has been facilitated with the analysis of the phenotype of mutant mice for the different receptor isoforms. The general picture that emerges is that T4 and T3 may enter the brain through specific transporters. T4 is converted to the active hormone, T3, in glial cells, astrocytes, and tanycytes, although the main target cells are neurons and maturing oligodendrocytes. T3, acting through the nuclear receptors, controls the expression of genes involved in myelination, cell differentiation, migration, and signaling. In addition to transducing the T3 signal, the nuclear receptors also have activity in the unliganded state (i.e., as aporeceptors), mainly as repressors of transcription. The physiological meaning of aporreceptor action is not known, but they may play a role in the genesis of the hypothyroid phenotype. Among the questions that remain to be explored in more detail is the role of thyroid hormones and the T3 receptors, both liganded and unliganded, in the fetal brain, especially before onset of fetal thyroid gland function. These questions are relevant for human health and the management of thyroid diseases during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Bernal
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomedicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas and Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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118
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Buchholz DR, Tomita A, Fu L, Paul BD, Shi YB. Transgenic analysis reveals that thyroid hormone receptor is sufficient to mediate the thyroid hormone signal in frog metamorphosis. Mol Cell Biol 2004; 24:9026-37. [PMID: 15456876 PMCID: PMC517898 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.24.20.9026-9037.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (T3) has long been known to be important for vertebrate development and adult organ function. Whereas thyroid hormone receptor (TR) knockout and transgenic studies of mice have implicated TR involvement in mammalian development, the underlying molecular bases for the resulting phenotypes remain to be determined in vivo, especially considering that T3 is known to have both genomic, i.e., through TRs, and nongenomic effects on cells. Amphibian metamorphosis is an excellent model for studying the role of TR in vertebrate development because of its total dependence on T3. Here we investigated the role of TR in metamorphosis by developing a dominant positive mutant thyroid hormone receptor (dpTR). In the frog oocyte transcription system, dpTR bound a T3-responsive promoter and activated the promoter independently of T3. Transgenic expression of dpTR under the control of a heat shock-inducible promoter in premetamorphic tadpoles led to precocious metamorphic transformations. Molecular analyses showed that dpTR induced metamorphosis by specifically binding to known T3 target genes, leading to increased local histone acetylation and gene activation, similar to T3-bound TR during natural metamorphosis. Our experiments indicated that the metamorphic role of T3 is through genomic action of the hormone, at least on the developmental parameters tested. They further provide the first example where TR is shown to mediate directly and sufficiently these developmental effects of T3 in individual organs by regulating target gene expression in these organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Buchholz
- Section on Molecular Morphogenesis, Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Development, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
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119
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Kapfhammer JP. Cellular and molecular control of dendritic growth and development of cerebellar Purkinje cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 39:131-82. [PMID: 15580762 DOI: 10.1016/j.proghi.2004.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Purkinje cells are the principal neurons of the cerebellar cortex and are characterized by a large and highly branched dendritic tree. For this reason, they have for a long time been an attractive model system to study the regulation of dendritic growth and differentiation. In this article, I will first review studies on different aspects of Purkinje cell dendritic development and then go on to present studies which have aimed at experimentally altering Purkinje cell dendritic development. Some of the cellular and molecular mechanisms which have been shown by these studies to be important determinants of Purkinje cell dendritic development will be discussed, in particular the role of the parallel fiber input, of hormones, and of neuronal growth factors. The organotypic slice culture method will be introduced as an important experimental tool to study Purkinje cell dendritic development under controlled conditions. Using cerebellar slice cultures, protein kinase C (PKC) has been identified as a major determinant of Purkinje cell dendritic development and the contribution of specific isoforms of PKC will be discussed. Finally, it will be shown that Purkinje cell dendritic development in slice cultures does not depend on the activation of glutamate receptors and appears to be independent of the presence of the neurotrophin BDNF. These studies indicate that the initial outgrowth of the Purkinje cell dendritic tree can occur in the absence of signals derived from afferent fibers, but is under control of PKC signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef P Kapfhammer
- Universität Basel, Anatomisches Institut, Pestalozzistrasse 20, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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120
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van Tuyl M, Blommaart PE, de Boer PAJ, Wert SE, Ruijter JM, Islam S, Schnitzer J, Ellison AR, Tibboel D, Moorman AFM, Lamers WH. Prenatal exposure to thyroid hormone is necessary for normal postnatal development of murine heart and lungs. Dev Biol 2004; 272:104-17. [PMID: 15242794 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2003] [Revised: 02/02/2004] [Accepted: 03/26/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Maternal hypothyroxinemia during early pregnancy poses an increased risk for poor neuropsychological development of the fetus. We tested the hypothesis that maternal hypothyroidism before the onset of fetal thyroid function also affects postnatal development of heart and lungs. This question was addressed in transgenic mice that express herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase in their thyroidal follicle cells. Treatment with ganciclovir rendered these mice severely hypothyroid because viral thymidine kinase converts ganciclovir into a cytotoxic nucleoside analog. Since ganciclovir crosses the placenta, it also destroyed the thyroid of transgenic embryos while leaving the thyroids of nontransgenic littermates unaffected. Hypothyroidism of both mother and fetus did not affect prenatal heart and lung development. However, the postnatal switch from beta- to alpha-myosin heavy chain (beta- and alpha-MHC, respectively) gene expression and the increase of SERCA-2a mRNA expression did not occur in the ventricular myocardium of either the transgenic (thyroid destroyed) or nontransgenic (intact thyroid) offspring of hypothyroid mothers. Similarly, postnatal animals of the latter two groups retained elevated surfactant protein (SP) A, B, and C mRNA levels in their alveolar epithelium. In hypothyroid pups from hypothyroid mothers, these changes were accompanied by decreased alveolar septation. Our study shows that these effects of maternal hypothyroidism become manifest after birth and are aggravated by the concomitant existence of neonatal hypothyroidism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minke van Tuyl
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Sophia Children's Hospital, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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121
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Mishra MK, Wilson FE, Scanlan TS, Chiellini G. Thyroid hormone-dependent seasonality in American tree sparrows (Spizella arborea): effects of GC-1, a thyroid receptor beta-selective agonist, and of iopanoic acid, a deiodinase inhibitor. J Comp Physiol B 2004; 174:471-9. [PMID: 15235810 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-004-0433-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/13/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
To explore the role of TH in the control of seasonality [i.e., photoperiodic testicular growth, photorefractoriness, and postnuptial (prebasic) molt] in American tree sparrows (Spizella arborea), we performed experiments in which THX males were simultaneously photostimulated and given TH replacement therapy. In the first experiment, equimolar concentrations (1X = 1.3 nmol) of T4, T3, or GC-1, an iodine-free TRbeta agonist, were administered s.c. daily during the first 21 days of photostimulation. Two additional THX groups received GC-1 at 0.1X or 10X, and THX and THI control groups received vehicle. In the second experiment, T4 or T3, alone or in combination with the deiodinase inhibitor IOP, was injected i.m. twice daily during the first 14 days of photostimulation. In both experiments, end points were testis length and molt score. In the first experiment, THI birds given vehicle and THX birds given T4 replacement therapy exhibited all three components of seasonality. THX birds given T3 or GC-1 (1X or 10X) showed a subdued photoperiodic testicular response, but they did not become photorefractory or initiate molt. THX birds that received 0.1X GC-1 or vehicle exhibited none of the components of seasonality. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that photoperiodic testicular growth, a vernal component of seasonality, is a TRbeta-mediated response and suggest that T4 may activate TRbeta more efficiently than does T3 or GC-1. By contrast, the failure both of T3 and of GC-1, but not of T4, to program photostimulated THX males for photorefractoriness and postnuptial molt suggests that autumnal components of seasonality may be TRalpha-mediated responses solely to T4. In the second experiment, IOP administered alone had no significant impact on seasonality. THX birds that received T4 with or without IOP showed all components of seasonality, whereas birds that received T3 with or without IOP showed only photoperiodic testicular growth. These results challenge the widely held view that T4 is merely a prohormone for T3 and support the emerging view that T4 has intrinsic hormonal activity. Because IOP augmented the photoperiodic testicular response in T3-treated THX birds, T3 may act either independently or co-dependently with T4 in programming vernal seasonal events.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Mishra
- Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.
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122
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Abstract
The set point of thyrotropin (TSH) secretion is determined by the balance of a positive regulation of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and the strong negative regulation exerted by thyroid hormones. In addition, there are other regulators superimposed on this main axis such as somatostatin and dopamine, which act as inhibitors of TSH secretion, and central alpha-adrenergic pathways that are predominantly stimulatory and involved in the cold-induced thyroid activation. Nutritional status and leptin also regulate TSH by stimulating TRH neurons through direct and indirect mechanisms. Stress is also involved in lowering TRH/TSH secretion possibly through glucocorticoids, cytokines and opioids. Recently, a new regulatory pathway has been proposed, via peptides produced in pituitary, acting in an autocrine/paracrine manner. Among those, more consistent data are available on neuromedin B, gastrin-releasing peptide and pituitary leptin, which act as local inhibitors of TSH release. Neonatal programming of TSH secretion set point is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egberto G de Moura
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
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123
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Tomita A, Buchholz DR, Shi YB. Recruitment of N-CoR/SMRT-TBLR1 corepressor complex by unliganded thyroid hormone receptor for gene repression during frog development. Mol Cell Biol 2004; 24:3337-46. [PMID: 15060155 PMCID: PMC381683 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.24.8.3337-3346.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The corepressors N-CoR (nuclear receptor corepressor) and SMRT (silencing mediator for retinoid and thyroid hormone receptors) interact with unliganded nuclear hormone receptors, including thyroid hormone (T(3)) receptor (TR). Several N-CoR/SMRT complexes containing histone deacetylases have been purified. The best studied among them are N-CoR/SMRT complexes containing TBL1 (transducin beta-like protein 1) or TBLR1 (TBL1-related protein). Despite extensive studies of these complexes, there has been no direct in vivo evidence for the interaction of TBL1 or TBLR1 with TR or the possible involvement of such complexes in gene repression by any nuclear receptors in any animals. Here, we used the frog oocyte system to demonstrate that unliganded TR interacts with TBLR1 and recruits TBLR1 to its chromatinized target promoter in vivo, accompanied by histone deacetylation and gene repression. We further provide evidence to show that the recruitment of TBLR1 or related proteins is important for repression by unliganded TR. To investigate the potential role for TBLR1 complexes during vertebrate development, we made use of T(3)-dependent amphibian metamorphosis as a model. We found that TBLR1, SMRT, and N-CoR are recruited to T(3)-inducible promoters in premetamorphic tadpoles and are released upon T(3) treatment, which induces metamorphosis. More importantly, we demonstrate that the dissociation of N-CoR/SMRT-TBLR1 complexes from endogenous TR target promoters is correlated with the activation of these genes during spontaneous metamorphosis. Taken together, our studies provide in vivo evidence for targeted recruitment of N-CoR/SMRT-TBLR1 complexes by unliganded TR in transcriptional repression during vertebrate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Tomita
- Section on Molecular Morphogenesis, Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Development, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-5431, USA
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124
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Ortiga-Carvalho TM, Hashimoto K, Pazos-Moura CC, Geenen D, Cohen R, Lang RM, Wondisford FE. Thyroid hormone resistance in the heart: role of the thyroid hormone receptor beta isoform. Endocrinology 2004; 145:1625-33. [PMID: 14684607 DOI: 10.1210/en.2003-1031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Several cardiac genes possess thyroid hormone (TH) response elements regulated by TH receptors. Mutation in TR-beta gene causes the human syndrome of resistance to TH, which is characterized by elevated serum concentration of T(4) and T(3) and variable degrees of insensitivity to TH. It is unclear, however, whether a mutant TR-beta could function as a dominant negative in the heart when expressed from the endogenous locus. A well-described resistance to TH (Delta337T) was either introduced into germline of mice (KI-mut) or expressed as a transgene in the heart using a cardiac-specific promoter (KS-mut). Mice were studied at baseline, after 5-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) or after PTU and T(3) treatment (PTU + T(3)). PTU + T(3) treatment significantly increased left ventricular mass in all groups compared with baseline measurements, although the increase in left ventricular mass was significantly less in KI-mut animals. Baseline heart rates (HRs) were similar in wild-type (WT) and KI-mut but were lower in KS-mut animals. After TH deprivation (PTU), HR decreased in WT and KI-mut animals; similarly, HR increased in WT and KI-mut after PTU + T(3). In contrast, HR in KS-mut animals did not change after either treatment. Except for cardiac hypertrophy, the presence of a germline TR-beta mutation had surprisingly little effect on cardiac function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania M Ortiga-Carvalho
- Department of Medicine, Pritzker School of the Medicine, The University of Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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125
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Zhu Z, Zhao B, Wang X, Zhu S, Zhang Q, Xu Y, Hui R, Tepel M. Differentially expressed genes in hypertensive rats developing cerebral ischemia. Life Sci 2004; 74:1899-909. [PMID: 14761671 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2003.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2003] [Accepted: 08/22/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The molecular events occurring after cerebral ischemia in hypertension may include de novo expression of numerous genes. Receptor genes are predominantly involved in the process of cell death, neuroprotection and reconstruction after ischemic injury. Ischemic stroke was observed in the non-genetic, non-surgical model of hypertension, the cold-induced hypertensive rat. In hypertensive rats suppression subtractive hybridization analysis was used to identify differentially expressed receptor genes in stroke-tissue compared to normal rat brain. We found 76 genes predominantly expressed in hypertensive rat stroke-tissue. These predominantly expressed genes included genes involved in energy metabolism, signal transduction/cell regulation, and replication/transcription/translation. For example, the T3 receptor alpha was predominantly expressed in stroke-tissue, indicating that regeneration of nerves in stroke tissue may be facilitated by increased T3 receptor alpha expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiming Zhu
- Department of Hypertension and Endocrinology, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, PR China.
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126
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Koibuchi N, Jingu H, Iwasaki T, Chin WW. Current perspectives on the role of thyroid hormone in growth and development of cerebellum. THE CEREBELLUM 2004; 2:279-89. [PMID: 14964687 DOI: 10.1080/14734220310011920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The thyroid hormone (TH) is essential for growth and development of brain, including the cerebellum. Deficiency of TH during the perinatal period results in abnormal cerebellar development, which is well documented in rodent animal models. TH exerts its major effect by binding to the nuclear TH receptor (TR), a ligand-regulated transcription factor. Although TR is highly expressed in many brain regions, including the cerebellum, TH-target genes that likely play critical roles in brain development have not yet been fully clarified. At present, however, expression of many cerebellar genes is known to be altered by perinatal hypothyroidism. Interestingly, after the critical period of TH action (first 2 weeks of postnatal life in rodent cerebellum), the activities of many genes that are altered by perinatal hypothyroidism return to the same levels as those of euthyroid animal despite morphological alterations. Several prominent candidate genes that may play key roles in TH-mediated cerebellar development are discussed in this review. On the other hand, TR-mediated transcription may be modulated by various substances. The nuclear hormone receptor superfamily contains more than 40 transcriptional factors and, most of these receptors are present in the brain. Possible interactions between TR and such transcription factors are also discussed. Further, several additional issues that need to be clarified are discussed. One such issue is the discrepancy of phenotypes among TR-knockout and perinatal hypothyroid mice. Recent studies have provided several important clues to address this issue. Another current area that needs attention is the effect of endocrine disruptors on brain development. Since the molecular structures of TH and several endocrine disrupting chemicals are similar, the effect of such chemicals on brain may be exerted at least in part through the TH system. Recent studies have shown the possible interaction between TR and such chemicals. Overall, this review provides current findings regarding molecular mechanisms on TH action in cerebellar development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Koibuchi
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan.
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127
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128
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Thyroid hormone induces cerebellar Purkinje cell dendritic development via the thyroid hormone receptor alpha1. J Neurosci 2003. [PMID: 14627645 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.23-33-10604.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The thyroid hormone l-3,3',5-triiodothyronine (T3) plays an important role during cerebellar development. Perinatal T3 deficiency leads to severe cellular perturbations, among them a striking reduction in the growth and branching of Purkinje cell dendritic arborization. The molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are poorly understood. Despite the well documented broad expression of thyroid hormone receptors (TRs), analysis of different TR-deficient mice has failed to provide detailed information about the function of distinct TRs during neuronal development. The cerebellar cell culture systems offer an excellent model by which to study the effects of T3, because differentiation of cerebellar neurons in mixed and purified cultures proceeds in the absence of serum that contains T3. Addition of T3 to cerebellar cultures causes a dramatic increase in Purkinje cell dendrite branching and caliber in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, we demonstrate for the first time that T3 acts on Purkinje cells directly through TRalpha1 expressed on the Purkinje cell and not on the granule cell, the presynaptic partner of Purkinje cells. In contrast, TRbeta isoforms are not involved, because Purkinje cells derived from TRbeta-/- mice show the same T3 responsiveness as wild-type cells. T3-promoted Purkinje cell differentiation was not mediated via neurotrophins, as suggested previously, because dendritogenesis of Purkinje cells from BDNF-/- mice could be effectively stimulated in vitro by T3 treatment. Furthermore, the effects of T3 observed were not abolished by tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB)-IgG, TrkC-IgG, or K252a, agents known to block the actions of neurotrophin. These results indicate that T3 directly affects Purkinje cell differentiation through activation of the TRalpha1.
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129
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Heuer H, Mason CA. Thyroid hormone induces cerebellar Purkinje cell dendritic development via the thyroid hormone receptor alpha1. J Neurosci 2003; 23:10604-12. [PMID: 14627645 PMCID: PMC6740935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The thyroid hormone l-3,3',5-triiodothyronine (T3) plays an important role during cerebellar development. Perinatal T3 deficiency leads to severe cellular perturbations, among them a striking reduction in the growth and branching of Purkinje cell dendritic arborization. The molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are poorly understood. Despite the well documented broad expression of thyroid hormone receptors (TRs), analysis of different TR-deficient mice has failed to provide detailed information about the function of distinct TRs during neuronal development. The cerebellar cell culture systems offer an excellent model by which to study the effects of T3, because differentiation of cerebellar neurons in mixed and purified cultures proceeds in the absence of serum that contains T3. Addition of T3 to cerebellar cultures causes a dramatic increase in Purkinje cell dendrite branching and caliber in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, we demonstrate for the first time that T3 acts on Purkinje cells directly through TRalpha1 expressed on the Purkinje cell and not on the granule cell, the presynaptic partner of Purkinje cells. In contrast, TRbeta isoforms are not involved, because Purkinje cells derived from TRbeta-/- mice show the same T3 responsiveness as wild-type cells. T3-promoted Purkinje cell differentiation was not mediated via neurotrophins, as suggested previously, because dendritogenesis of Purkinje cells from BDNF-/- mice could be effectively stimulated in vitro by T3 treatment. Furthermore, the effects of T3 observed were not abolished by tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB)-IgG, TrkC-IgG, or K252a, agents known to block the actions of neurotrophin. These results indicate that T3 directly affects Purkinje cell differentiation through activation of the TRalpha1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Heuer
- Department of Pathology, Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York 10032, USA
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130
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Jones I, Srinivas M, Ng L, Forrest D. The thyroid hormone receptor beta gene: structure and functions in the brain and sensory systems. Thyroid 2003; 13:1057-68. [PMID: 14651789 DOI: 10.1089/105072503770867228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone profoundly influences the development of the vertebrate nervous system. The thyroid hormone receptor beta gene (Thrb) is a key mediator of many of these actions. The Thrb gene is complex, spanning up to 400 kb in mammals, and differentially expresses distinct receptor subtypes through independent tissue-specific promoters and alternative splicing. These receptors serve a range of functions in the brain as well as particularly sensitive functions in the auditory and visual sensory systems. The Thrb gene illustrates how versatility in neurodevelopmental control can be achieved at the receptor level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iwan Jones
- Department of Human Genetics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029, USA
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131
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Abstract
Thyroid hormones play important roles in brain development. The physiologic function of thyroid hormones in the developing brain is to provide a timing signal that leads to the induction of differentiation and maturation programs during precise stages of development. Inappropriate initiation of these timing events leads to asynchrony in developmental processes and a deleterious outcome. The developing brain is protected from premature thyroid hormone signaling through a variety of measures. Firstly, local brain levels of both thyroxine and triiodothyronine are controlled by ontogenically regulated patterns of production and metabolism. Secondly, developmentally regulated expression of nuclear proteins involved with the nuclear TH response apparatus control the temporal response of brain genes to thyroid hormone. Finally, developmental regulation of TH action modulating transcription factor expression also controls TH action in the developing brain. Together these molecular mechanisms cooperatively act to temporally control TH action during brain development. A description of these controlling mechanisms is the subject of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant W Anderson
- College of Pharmacy, Duluth, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Minnesota 55812-3095, USA.
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132
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Bernal J, Guadaño-Ferraz A, Morte B. Perspectives in the study of thyroid hormone action on brain development and function. Thyroid 2003; 13:1005-12. [PMID: 14651784 DOI: 10.1089/105072503770867174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to provide an up-to-date report on the molecular and physiologic processes involved in the role of thyroid hormone as an epigenetic factor in brain maturation. We summarize the available data on the control of brain gene expression by thyroid hormone, the correlation between gene expression and physiologic effects, and the likely mechanisms of action of thyroid hormone on brain gene expression. In addition we propose a role for unliganded thyroid hormone receptors in the pathogenesis of hypothyroidism. Finally, we review recent data indicating that thyroid hormone receptors have an impact on behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Bernal
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas y Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
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133
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Abstract
Thyroid hormone appears to play a critical, yet not fully understood, role in the development of the neuroretina. This review focuses on recent experiments in the rodent, chicken, and amphibian, with an emphasis on how the hormone and its receptor isoforms influence retinal cell proliferation and cell fate decisions. The initial results are fueling the next generation of experiments in the retina, which promise to provide insights into the mechanisms of thyroid hormone action in a wide variety of developing neural tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjiv Harpavat
- Department of Genetics and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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134
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Buchholz DR, Hsia SCV, Fu L, Shi YB. A dominant-negative thyroid hormone receptor blocks amphibian metamorphosis by retaining corepressors at target genes. Mol Cell Biol 2003; 23:6750-8. [PMID: 12972595 PMCID: PMC193935 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.23.19.6750-6758.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The total dependence of amphibian metamorphosis on thyroid hormone (T(3)) provides a unique vertebrate model for studying the molecular mechanism of T(3) receptor (TR) function in vivo. In vitro transcription and developmental expression studies have led to a dual function model for TR in amphibian development, i.e., TRs act as transcriptional repressors in premetamorphic tadpoles and as activators during metamorphosis. We examined molecular mechanisms of TR action in T3-induced metamorphosis by using dominant-negative receptors (dnTR) ubiquitously expressed in transgenic Xenopus laevis. We showed that T(3)-induced activation of T(3) target genes and morphological changes are blocked in dnTR transgenic animals. By using chromatin immunoprecipitation, we show that dnTR bound to target promoters, which led to retention of corepressors and continued histone deacetylation in the presence of T(3). These results thus provide direct in vivo evidence for the first time for a molecular mechanism of altering gene expression by a dnTR. The correlation between dnTR-mediated gene repression and inhibition of metamorphosis also supports a key aspect of the dual function model for TR in development: during T(3)-induced metamorphosis, TR functions as an activator via release of corepressors and promotion of histone acetylation and gene activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Buchholz
- Unit on Molecular Morphogenesis, Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Development, National Institute for Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-5431, USA
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135
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Abel ED, Moura EG, Ahima RS, Campos-Barros A, Pazos-Moura CC, Boers ME, Kaulbach HC, Forrest D, Wondisford FE. Dominant inhibition of thyroid hormone action selectively in the pituitary of thyroid hormone receptor-beta null mice abolishes the regulation of thyrotropin by thyroid hormone. Mol Endocrinol 2003; 17:1767-76. [PMID: 12819298 DOI: 10.1210/me.2003-0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones, T4 and T3, regulate their own production by feedback inhibition of TSH and TRH synthesis in the pituitary and hypothalamus when T3 binds to thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) that interact with the promoters of the genes for the TSH subunit and TRH. All TR isoforms are believed to be involved in the regulation of this endocrine axis, as evidenced by the massive dysregulation of TSH production in mice lacking all TR isoforms. However, the relative contributions of TR isoforms in the pituitary vs. the hypothalamus remain to be completely elucidated. Thus, to determine the relative contribution of pituitary expression of TR-alpha in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, we selectively impaired TR-alpha function in TR-beta null mice (TR-beta-/-) by pituitary restricted expression of a dominant negative TR-beta transgene harboring a delta337T mutation. These animals exhibited 10-fold and 32-fold increase in T4 and TSH concentrations, respectively. Moreover, the negative regulation of TSH by exogenous T3 was completely absent and a paradoxical increase in TSH concentrations and TSH-beta mRNA was observed. In contrast, prepro-TRH expression levels in T3-treated TR-beta-/- were similar to levels observed in the delta337/TR-beta-/- mice, and ligand-independent activation of TSH in hypothyroid mice was equivalently impaired. Thus, isolated TR-beta deficiency in TRH paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus neurons and impaired function of all TRs in the pituitary recapitulate the baseline hormonal disturbances that characterize mice with complete absence of all TRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dale Abel
- Division of Endocrinology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North 2030 East, Building 533, Room 3410B, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA.
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136
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Abstract
Resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH) is a syndrome in which patients have raised serum thyroid hormone (TH) levels and raised or inappropriately normal thyrotropin (TSH) levels. In general, patients exhibit TH resistance in the pituitary and peripheral tissues. Novel techniques and genetically engineered mouse model systems have increased our understanding of thyroid hormone receptor (TR) action, and shed new light on the underlying molecular mechanisms for RTH. In particular, we are learning how mutant TRs from RTH patients can block wild-type TR function, with consequent effects in various tissues and cells. This dominant-negative activity has important implications for other hormone-resistant conditions and in hormone-sensitive tumors. This article examines the molecular basis of RTH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Yen
- Molecular Regulation and Neuroendocrinology Section, Clinical Endocrinology Branch, NIDDK/NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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137
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Thyroid hormones are key regulators of development and metabolism that modulate transcription via nuclear receptors. Although the molecular actions of thyroid hormones have been thoroughly studied, their pleiotropic effects are mediated by complex changes in expression of numerous, but still largely unknown, target genes. This review summarizes the recent advances in the characterization of target genes in different organs. RECENT FINDINGS New patterns of gene expression regulation have been described in tissues with known physiological actions of thyroid hormone, that is brain, liver, skeletal and cardiac muscles, and brown and white adipose tissues. The studies have benefited from the numerous transgenic models with altered thyroid hormone receptor expression and the application of DNA microarray technology to mouse and human tissues. SUMMARY Data on thyroid hormone-mediated control of gene expression and on the roles of the different thyroid hormone receptor isoforms bring new clues to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of thyroid hormone action in physiological situations and, most importantly, in diseases associated with alterations of the thyroid status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Viguerie
- French Institute of Health and Medical Research, Toulouse University Hospitals, Toulouse, France
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138
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Wondisford FE. Thyroid Hormone Action: Insight from Transgenic Mouse Models. J Investig Med 2003. [DOI: 10.1177/108155890305100422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are cellular homologues of the viral erythroblastic leukemia oncogene (v-erbA). TRs (c-crbA isoforms) are derived from two separate gene loci in mammals: a and p. Through a series of knockout experiments in mice in which one or several of the TR isoforms were deleted, it has been demonstrated that the TR-β isoforms control central regulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone. Of these isoforms, TR-β2 is the most important in mediating negative feedback control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Further analysis of TR knockout animals revealed, however, that they exhibited a much milder overall phenotype than hypothyroid animals, indicating that receptor loss was not equivalent to ligand loss in vivo. To understand this apparent paradox, we generated animals expressing a non-T3 binding receptor (Δ337T) from the TR-β allele. These mice displayed a complete hypothyroid phenotype, demonstrating that the unliganded TR mediates the effect of hypothyroidism. Because this mutant TR constitutively binds to nuclear coreprssors, it also suggests that this class of proteins is essential for mediating hypothyroidism in vivo.
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139
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Vara H, Muñoz-Cuevas J, Colino A. Age-dependent alterations of long-term synaptic plasticity in thyroid-deficient rats. Hippocampus 2003; 13:816-25. [PMID: 14620877 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.10132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone deficiency during a critical period of development profoundly affects cognitive functions such as attention, learning, and memory, but the synaptic alterations underlying these deficits remain unexplored. The present study examines the effect of congenital hypothyroidism on long-term synaptic plasticity. This plasticity is believed to be essential for learning and memory and for activity-dependent regulation of synapse formation in the developing brain. We found that the neonatal expression of long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression (LTD), depotentiation, and de-depression in hippocampal slices from hypothyroid animals was similar to that of controls. To examine the postnatal development of these plasticities, we used slices from neonatal (2-3 weeks) and adult (7-8 weeks) rats. This work demonstrates that the ability to express all these forms of synaptic plasticity is reduced in an age-dependent manner in control rats. LTP and depotentiation are also downregulated in adult hypothyroid rats, but we have found that de-depression is not affected during maturation. In addition, these animals express LTD at ages at which controls fail to induce it. In contrast, input/output experiments have shown greater levels of basal synaptic efficacy in hypothyroid adults, and this effect is probably related to the higher probability of release observed by paired-pulse experiments. Nevertheless, these effects appear to be unrelated to the differences observed in long-term synaptic plasticity, as no correlation was found between basal synaptic efficacy and the degree of LTD and de-depression. Furthermore, the NMDA-receptor antagonist amino-phosphonopentanoic acid (APV) completely blocked LTD, which suggests a postsynaptic locus of this alteration. Because LTD has been associated with novelty acquisition, we suggest that the greater LTD observed in adult hypothyroid rats might be related to the hyperactivity of these animals. However, other possibilities such as a retarded maturation of synaptic plasticity must be taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Vara
- Departament de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain
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140
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Weston AD, Blumberg B, Underhill TM. Active repression by unliganded retinoid receptors in development: less is sometimes more. J Cell Biol 2003; 161:223-8. [PMID: 12719467 PMCID: PMC2172895 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200211117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The retinoid receptors have major roles throughout development, even in the absence of ligand. Here, we summarize an emerging theme whereby gene repression, mediated by unliganded retinoid receptors, can dictate cell fate. In addition to activating transcription, retinoid receptors actively repress gene transcription by recruiting cofactors that promote chromatin compaction. Two developmental processes for which gene silencing by the retinoid receptors is essential are head formation in Xenopus and skeletal development in the mouse. Inappropriate repression, by oncogenic retinoic acid (RA)**Abbreviations used in this paper: APL, acute promyelocytic leukemia; dnRARalpha, dominant-negative version of the RARalpha; E, embryonic age; HDAC, histone deacetylase; LCoR, ligand-dependent corepressor; NCoR, nuclear receptor corepressor; RA, retinoic acid; RAR, RA receptor; RARE, RXR homodimer bound to bipartite response element; RXR, retinoid X receptor; TSA, trichostatin A; CYP26, cytochrome p450, 26; TR, thyroid hormone receptor. receptor (RAR) fusion proteins, blocks myeloid differentiation leading to a rare form of leukemia. Our current understanding of the developmental role of retinoid repression and future perspectives in this field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea D Weston
- Institute for Systems Biology, 1441 N. 34th St., Seattle, WA 98103, USA.
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141
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Abstract
The genes encoding thyroid hormone receptor alpha and beta (TRalpha and TRbeta) encode four thyroid hormone receptors and four variant isoforms with antagonistic properties. Because of this complexity, numerous models of TR mutation have been developed to understand the functions of specific receptors. In total, 13 mutant strains are now available. Phenotype analysis has shown that the two genes serve distinct functions: TRalpha is crucial for postnatal development and cardiac function, whereas TRbeta mainly controls inner ear and retina development, liver metabolism and thyroid hormone levels. These mouse mutant strains also provide us with the unique opportunity to address the respective contribution of each receptor isoform and isotype in vivo and highlight the in vivo importance of the ligand-independent function of the TR gene products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Flamant
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon UMR CNRS 5665 LA INRA 913, 46 Allée d'Italie 69364 Lyon CEDEX07, France.
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142
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Poguet AL, Legrand C, Feng X, Yen PM, Meltzer P, Samarut J, Flamant F. Microarray analysis of knockout mice identifies cyclin D2 as a possible mediator for the action of thyroid hormone during the postnatal development of the cerebellum. Dev Biol 2003; 254:188-99. [PMID: 12591240 DOI: 10.1016/s0012-1606(02)00039-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone is a major regulator of postnatal brain development, but the precise molecular mechanisms underlying its action in this organ remain poorly understood. We used microarray analysis to identify new target genes in brain. Thyroid hormone treatment of hypothyroid Pax8(-/-) knockout mice, which lack thyroid follicular cells, had a very limited global effect on brain transcripts. This analysis mainly identified cyclin D2 as a new thyroid hormone target gene in the cerebellum of hypothyroid mice. Thyroid hormone receptor (TRalpha and/or TRbeta) knockout mice studies provided further genetic evidence that cyclin D2 is likely to mediate the antiapoptotic effect exerted by thyroid hormone on the cerebellum external granular layer neuroblasts but that this transcriptional activation is not directly exerted by the thyroid hormone receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Lise Poguet
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon UMR CNRS 5665 LA INRA913, 46 Allée d'ltalie 69364 Lyon CEDEX07France
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143
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Zoeller RT. Challenges confronting risk analysis of potential thyroid toxicants. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2003; 23:143-162. [PMID: 12635729 DOI: 10.1111/1539-6924.00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Screening and testing for potential thyroid toxicants using endpoints of thyroid function, including circulating levels of thyroid hormones and thyrotropin, will not capture toxicants that directly interfere with thyroid hormone action at the receptor. The goals of the present review are to provide a critique of the literature focused on thyroid hormone and brain development as it relates to testing and evaluating thyroid toxicants, and to propose possible solutions to this perceived dilemma.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Thomas Zoeller
- Biology Department, Morrill Science Center, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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144
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Nygård M, Wahlström GM, Gustafsson MV, Tokumoto YM, Bondesson M. Hormone-dependent repression of the E2F-1 gene by thyroid hormone receptors. Mol Endocrinol 2003; 17:79-92. [PMID: 12511608 DOI: 10.1210/me.2002-0107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone induces differentiation of many different tissues in mammals, birds, and amphibians. The different tissues all differentiate from proliferating precursor cells, and the normal cell cycle is suspended while cells undergo differentiation. We have investigated how thyroid hormone affects the expression of the E2F-1 protein, a key transcription factor that controls G1- to S-phase transition. We show that during thyroid hormone-induced differentiation of embryonic carcinoma cells and of oligodendrocyte precursor cells, the levels of E2F-1 mRNA and E2F-1 protein decrease. This is caused by the thyroid hormone receptor (TR) regulating the transcription of the E2F-1 gene. The TR binds directly to a negative thyroid hormone response element, called the Z-element, in the E2F-1 promoter. When bound, the TR activates transcription in the absence of ligand but represses transcription in the presence of ligand. In addition, liganded TR represses transcription of the S-phase-specific DNA polymerase alpha, thymidine kinase, and dihydropholate reductase genes. These results suggest that thyroid hormone-induced withdrawal from the cell cycle takes place through the repression of S-phase genes. We suggest that this is an initial and crucial step in thyroid hormone-induced differentiation of precursor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Nygård
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Medical Nobel Institute, Karolinska Institutet, S-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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145
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Guadaño-Ferraz A, Benavides-Piccione R, Venero C, Lancha C, Vennström B, Sandi C, DeFelipe J, Bernal J. Lack of thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 is associated with selective alterations in behavior and hippocampal circuits. Mol Psychiatry 2003; 8:30-8. [PMID: 12556906 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Brain development and function are dependent on thyroid hormone (T3), which acts through nuclear hormone receptors. T3 receptors (TRs) are transcription factors that activate or suppress target gene expression in a hormone-dependent or -independent fashion. Two distinct genes, TRalpha and TRbeta, encode several receptor isoforms with specific functions defined in many tissues but not in the brain. Mutations in the TRbeta gene cause the syndrome of peripheral resistance to thyroid hormone; however, no alterations of the TRalpha gene have been described in humans. Here we demonstrate that mice lacking the TRalpha1 isoform display behavioral abnormalities of hippocampal origin, as shown by the open field and fear conditioning tests. In the open field test mutant mice revealed less exploratory behavior than wild-type mice. In the contextual fear conditioning test mutant mice showed a significantly higher freezing response than wild-type controls when tested 1 week after training. These findings correlated with fewer GABAergic terminals on the CA1 pyramidal neurons in the mutant mice. Our results indicate that TRalpha1 is involved in the regulation of hippocampal structure and function, and raise the possibility that deletions or mutations of this receptor isoform may lead to behavioral changes or even psychiatric syndromes in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Guadaño-Ferraz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
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146
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Billon N, Jolicoeur C, Tokumoto Y, Vennström B, Raff M. Normal timing of oligodendrocyte development depends on thyroid hormone receptor alpha 1 (TRalpha1). EMBO J 2002; 21:6452-60. [PMID: 12456652 PMCID: PMC136965 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/cdf662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The timing of oligodendrocyte development is regulated by thyroid hormone (TH) in vitro and in vivo, but it is still uncertain which TH receptors mediate this regulation. TH acts through nuclear receptors that are encoded by two genes, TRalpha and TRbeta. Here, we provide direct evidence for the involvement of the TRalpha1 receptor isoform in vivo, by showing that the number of oligodendrocytes in the postnatal day 7 (P7) and P14 optic nerve of TRalpha1-/- mice is decreased compared with normal. We demonstrate that TRalpha1 mediates the normal differentiation-promoting effect of TH on oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs): unlike wild-type OPCs, postnatal TRalpha1-/- OPCs fail to stop dividing and differentiate in response to TH in culture. We also show that overexpression of TRalpha1 accelerates oligodendrocyte differentiation in culture, suggesting that the level of TRalpha1 expression is normally limiting for TH-dependent OPC differentiation. Finally, we provide evidence that the inhibitory isoforms of TRalpha are unlikely to play a part in the timing of OPC differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Billon
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology and Cell Biology Unit, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK and
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, S-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden Present address: Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan Corresponding author e-mail:
| | | | - Yasuhito Tokumoto
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology and Cell Biology Unit, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK and
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, S-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden Present address: Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Björn Vennström
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology and Cell Biology Unit, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK and
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, S-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden Present address: Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan Corresponding author e-mail:
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147
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Abstract
1. In addition to its role in cellular metabolic activity, thyroid hormone (TH) is critically involved in growth, development, and function of the central nervous system. In the brain, as in other structures, TH is described to exert its major action by the binding of L-3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3), considered as the bioactive form of the hormone, to nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (TR) that function as ligand-dependent transcription factors. 2. The transcription of numerous brain genes was indeed shown to be positively or negatively regulated by TH, turning these TR-mediated effects one explanation for the physiological effects of TH. In this context, the knowledge from TR-knockout studies provides some surprising results, since neonatal hypothyroidism is associated to more significant abnormalities than is TR deficiency. Some (nonexclusive) hypotheses include a permissive effect of TH, allowing derepression of unliganded-TR effects and non-TR-mediated effects of the hormone, further emphasizing the importance of a controlled accessibility of neural cells to TH. 3. On the other hand, T3 was demonstrated to directly act not only on neuronal but also on glial cells proliferation and differentiation, contributing to the harmonious development of the brain. Interestingly, in addition to these direct actions on neuronal and glial cells, several lines of evidence, notably developped in our laboratory, point out the role of thyroid hormone in neuronal-glial interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra König
- Departamento de Anatomia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21949-590, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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148
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Tinnikov A, Nordström K, Thorén P, Kindblom JM, Malin S, Rozell B, Adams M, Rajanayagam O, Pettersson S, Ohlsson C, Chatterjee K, Vennström B. Retardation of post-natal development caused by a negatively acting thyroid hormone receptor alpha1. EMBO J 2002; 21:5079-87. [PMID: 12356724 PMCID: PMC129045 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/cdf523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2002] [Revised: 08/12/2002] [Accepted: 08/14/2002] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most patients with the syndrome resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH) express a mutant thyroid hormone receptor beta (TRbeta) with transdominant negative transcriptional effects. Since no patient with a mutant TRalpha has been identified, we introduced a point mutation into the mouse thyroid hormone receptor (TRalpha1) locus originally found in the TRbeta gene, that reduces ligand binding 10-fold. Heterozygous 2- to 3-week- old mice exhibit a severe retardation of post-natal development and growth, but only a minor reduction in serum thyroxine levels. Homozygous mice died before 3 weeks of age. Adult heterozygotes overcome most of these defects except for cardiac function abnormalities, suggesting that other factors compensate for the receptor defect. However, the additional deletion of the TRbeta gene in this mouse strain caused a 10-fold increase in serum thyroxine, restored hormonal regulation of target genes for TRs, and rescued the growth retardation. The data demonstrate a novel array of effects mediated by a dominant negative TRalpha1, and may provide important clues for identification of a potentially unrecognized human disorder and its treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Peter Thorén
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Jenny M. Kindblom
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Stephen Malin
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Björn Rozell
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Maria Adams
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Odelia Rajanayagam
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Sven Pettersson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Claes Ohlsson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Krishna Chatterjee
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
| | - Björn Vennström
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology,
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Microbiology and Tumour Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, S-177 71 Stockholm, Department of Internal Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg University, Göteborg, Clinical Research Center and Department of Microbiology, Pathology and Immunology, Division of Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden and Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK Corresponding author e-mail: A.Tinnikov and K.Nordström contributed equally to this work
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149
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Weston AD, Chandraratna RAS, Torchia J, Underhill TM. Requirement for RAR-mediated gene repression in skeletal progenitor differentiation. J Cell Biol 2002; 158:39-51. [PMID: 12105181 PMCID: PMC2173026 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200112029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chondrogenesis is a multistep process culminating in the establishment of a precisely patterned template for bone formation. Previously, we identified a loss in retinoid receptor-mediated signaling as being necessary and sufficient for expression of the chondroblast phenotype (Weston et al., 2000. J. Cell Biol. 148:679-690). Here we demonstrate a close association between retinoic acid receptor (RAR) activity and the transcriptional activity of Sox9, a transcription factor required for cartilage formation. Specifically, inhibition of RAR-mediated signaling in primary cultures of mouse limb mesenchyme results in increased Sox9 expression and activity. This induction is attenuated by the histone deacetylase inhibitor, trichostatin A, and by coexpression of a dominant negative nuclear receptor corepressor-1, indicating an unexpected requirement for RAR-mediated repression in skeletal progenitor differentiation. Inhibition of RAR activity results in activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and protein kinase A (PKA) pathways, indicating their potential role in the regulation of chondrogenesis by RAR repression. Accordingly, activation of RAR signaling, which attenuates differentiation, can be rescued by activation of p38 MAPK or PKA. In summary, these findings demonstrate a novel role for active RAR-mediated gene repression in chondrogenesis and establish a hierarchical network whereby RAR-mediated signaling functions upstream of the p38 MAPK and PKA signaling pathways to regulate emergence of the chondroblast phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea D Weston
- Department of Physiology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5C1
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150
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Liu YY, Tachiki KH, Brent GA. A targeted thyroid hormone receptor alpha gene dominant-negative mutation (P398H) selectively impairs gene expression in differentiated embryonic stem cells. Endocrinology 2002; 143:2664-72. [PMID: 12072400 DOI: 10.1210/endo.143.7.8906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone and retinoic acid (RA) are essential for normal neural development in vivo, yet all in vitro differentiation strategies of embryonic stem (ES) cells use only RA. We developed a novel differentiation strategy of mouse ES cells using T(3). A dominant-negative knock-in point mutation (P398H) was introduced into the thyroid hormone receptor alpha gene to determine the influence of T(3) on ES cell differentiation. Differentiation promoted by T(3) (1 nM), RA (1 microM), or combined T(3)/RA was assessed in wild-type (wt) and mutant (m) ES cells on the basis of neuronal-specific gene expression and cell cycle. T(3) alone stimulated neural differentiation in a similar fashion as that seen with RA in both wtES and mES cells. Expression of neurogranin and Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase IV mRNA (identified in vivo as T(3)-regulated genes), however, was markedly reduced in mES, compared with wtES cells. RA treatment enhanced apoptosis, significantly greater than that seen with T(3) stimulation. T(3) treatment given with RA significantly reduced the apoptotic effects of RA, an effect not seen in mES cells. T(3)-induced ES cell neural differentiation of thyroid hormone alpha mutant and wtES cells provides an in vitro model to study T(3)-dependent gene regulation in neural development. This system could also be used to identify novel T(3)-regulated genes. The modulation of the apoptotic effects of RA by T(3) may have implications for stem cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Yun Liu
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory and Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, 90073, USA
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