Designs, formats and applications of lateral flow assay: A literature review

Lipid-Polymer Hybrids Encapsulating Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles as a Label for Lateral Flow Immunoassays

The feasibility of using Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) encapsulated by lipid–polymer nanoparticles as labels in lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA) was studied. First, nanoparticles were synthesized with average diameters between 4 and 7 (nm) through precipitation in W/O microemulsion and further encapsulated using lipid–polymer nanoparticles. Systems formulated were characterized in terms of size and shape by DLS (Nanozetasizer from Malvern) and TEM. After encapsulation, the average size was around (≈20 and 50 nm). These controlled size agglomerates were tested as labels with a model system based on the biotin–neutravidin interaction. For this purpose, the encapsulated nanoparticles were conjugated to neutravidin using the carbodiimide chemistry, and the LFIA was carried out with a biotin test line. The encapsulated SPIONs showed that they could be promising candidates as labels in LFIA test. They would be useful for immunomagnetic separations, that could improve the limits of detection by means of preconcentration.

Recent advances in gold nanoparticle-based lateral flow immunoassay for the detection of bacterial infection

Diagnosis of bacterial infections (BI) is becoming an increasingly difficult task in clinical practice due to their high prevalence and frequency, as well as the growth of antibiotic resistance worldwide. World Health Organization (WHO) reported antibiotic resistance is a major public health problem. BI becomes difficult or impossible to treat when the bacteria acquire immunity against antibiotics. Thus, there is a need for a quick and accurate technique to detect infection. Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) is an ideal technique for point-of-care testing of a disease or pathological changes inside the human body. In recent years, several LFIA based strips are being used for the detection of BI by targeting specific analytes which may range from the causative bacterium, whole-cell, DNA, or biomarker. Numerous nanoparticles like lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles such as quantum dots, magnetic, ceramic, and metallic nanoparticles (copper, silver gold, iron) are widely being used in the advanced treatment of BI. Out of these gold nanoparticle (AuNPs), is being used for detection BI more effectively than other nanoparticles due to their surface functionalization, extraordinary chemical stability, biorecognition, and signal amplification properties and help to improve in conjugation with capture antibodies, and act as a color marker with unique optical properties on LFIA strips. Herein, a review that provides an overview of the principle of LFIA, how LFIA based strip is developed, and how it is helpful to detect a specific biomarker for bedside detection of the BI.

Multiplex quantitative detection of SARS-CoV-2 specific IgG and IgM antibodies based on DNA-assisted nanopore sensing

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread into a global pandemic. Early and accurate diagnosis and quarantine remain the most effective mitigation strategy. Although reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is the gold standard for COVID-19 diagnosis, recent studies suggest that nucleic acids were undetectable in a significant number of cases with clinical features of COVID-19. Serologic assays that detect human antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 serve as a complementary method to diagnose these cases, as well as to identify asymptomatic cases and qualified convalescent serum donors. However, commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) are laborious and non-quantitative, while point-of-care assays suffer from low detection accuracy. To provide a serologic assay with high performance and portability for potential point-of-care applications, we developed DNA-assisted nanopore sensing for quantification of SARS-CoV-2 related antibodies in human serum. Different DNA structures were used as detection reporters for multiplex quantification of immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies against the nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV-2 in serum specimens from patients with conformed or suspected infection. Comparing to a clinically used point-of-care assay and an ELISA assay, our technology can reliably quantify SARS-CoV-2 antibodies with higher accuracy, large dynamic range, and potential for assay automation.

Lateral flow immunoassay based on gold magnetic nanoparticles for the protein quantitative detection: Prostate-specific antigen

Point-of-care testing (POCT) demands for rapidly obtaining test results by means of portable analytical instruments and auxiliary reagents at the sampling site. It's important for tumor marker to be recognized and detected in early clinical diagnosis. Many studies focused on producing small portable devices that would allow fast, accurate, and on-site detection. This study aimed to report a magnetic quantitative lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) system based on poly (acrylic acid) (PAA)-modified gold magnetic nanoparticles (PGMNs) for detecting prostate-specific antigen (PSA) qualitatively and quantitatively. The result was easily achievable with a portable magnetic reader within 15 min. Under optimal conditions, as low as 0.17 ng/mL PSA could be detected. The method was validated using a well-established Solin electrochemiluminescence immunoassay and showed high consistency in detecting 84 serum samples (R² = 0.98). The quantitative LFIA based on PGMNs established in this study was proven to be rapid, accurate, sensitive, and inexpensive. As a POCT, it can be potentially developed for the quantitative diagnosis of other disease-related protein biomarkers.

Magnetic Lateral Flow Immunoassay for Small Extracellular Vesicles Quantification: Application to Colorectal Cancer Biomarker Detection

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third leading cause of cancer death and the fourth most common cancer in the world. Colonoscopy is the most sensitive test used for detection of CRC; however, their procedure is invasive and expensive for population mass screening. Currently, the fecal occult blood test has been widely used as a screening tool for CRC but displays low specificity. The lack of rapid and simple methods for mass screening makes the early diagnosis and therapy monitoring difficult. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a novel source of biomarkers due to their contents in proteins and miRNAs. Their detection would not require invasive techniques and could be considered as a liquid biopsy. Specifically, it has been demonstrated that the amount of CD147 expressed in circulating EVs is significant higher for CRC cell lines than for normal colon fibroblast cell lines. Moreover, CD147-containing EVs have been used as a biomarker to monitor response to therapy in patients with CRC. Therefore, this antigen could be used as a non-invasive biomarker for the detection and monitoring of CRC in combination with a Point-of-Care platform as, for example, Lateral Flow Immunoassays (LFIAs). Here, we propose the development of a quantitative lateral flow immunoassay test based on the use of magnetic nanoparticles as labels coupled to inductive sensor for the non-invasive detection of CRC by CD147-positive EVs. The results obtained for quantification of CD147 antigen embedded in EVs isolated from plasma sample have demonstrated that this device could be used as a Point-of-Care tool for CRC screening or therapy monitoring thanks to its rapid response and easy operation.

Antibody- and nucleic acid-based lateral flow immunoassay for Listeria monocytogenes detection

Listeria monocytogenes is an invasive opportunistic foodborne pathogen and its routine surveillance is critical for protecting the food supply and public health. The traditional detection methods are time-consuming and require trained personnel. Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA), on the other hand, is an easy-to-perform, rapid point-of-care test and has been widely used as an inexpensive surveillance tool. In recent times, nucleic acid-based lateral flow immunoassays (NALFIA) are also developed to improve sensitivity and specificity. A significant improvement in lateral flow-based assays has been reported in recent years, especially the ligands (antibodies, nucleic acids, aptamers, bacteriophage), labeling molecules, and overall assay configurations to improve detection sensitivity, specificity, and automated interpretation of results. In most commercial applications, LFIA has been used with enriched food/environmental samples to ensure detection of live cells thus prolonging the assay time to 24-48 h; however, with the recent improvement in LFIA sensitivity, results can be obtained in less than 8 h with shortened and improved enrichment practices. Incorporation of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and/or immunomagnetic separation could significantly improve LFIA sensitivity for near-real-time point-of-care detection of L. monocytogenes for food safety and public health applications.

SERS-based test strips: Principles, designs and applications

Test strips represent a class of point-of-care testing (POCT) tools for analysis of a variety of biomarkers towards diagnostics. Conventional test strips offer benefits of simple operation, visualization, and short detection time, along with the drawbacks of relatively low sensitivity and unavailability of quantitative analysis. Recently, the combination of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and test strips have evolved to provide a powerful platform capable of ultrasensitive and multiplex detection of extensive analytes of interest. In this review, we focus on the working principles, design strategies and POCT applications of SERS-based test strips. Initially, both lateral and vertical flow test strips are briefly introduced, followed by presentation of various strategies for reforming SERS-based test strips with better detection performance. Applications of SERS-based test strips in diagnosis of disease biomarkers, nucleic acids and toxins are reviewed, with an emphasis on SERS tag design, sensitivity and analytical applicability. Finally, conclusions are made and perspectives on futuristic research directions are given.

Recent Advances and a Roadmap to Aptamer-Based Sensors for Bloodstream Infections

The present review is intended to describe bloodstream infections (BSIs), the major pathogens responsible for BSIs, conventional tests and their limitations, commercially available methods used, and the aptamer and nanomaterials-based approaches developed so far for the detection of BSIs. The advantages associated with aptamers and the aptamer-based sensors, the comparison between the aptamers and the antibodies, and the various types of aptasensors developed so far for the detection of bloodstream infections have been described in detail in the present review. Also, the future outlook and roadmap toward aptamer-based sensors and the challenges associated with the aptamer development have also been concluded in this review.

Potential contribution of ELISA and LFI assays to assessment of the oxidative stress condition based on 8-oxodG biomarker

Immunoassays have been extensively applied in the medical diagnostic field. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and Lateral Flow Immunochemical Assay (LFIA) are methods that have been well established to analysis of clinical substances such as protein, hormones, drugs, identification of antibodies and in the quantification of antigen. Over the past years, the application of these methods has been extended to assess the clinical oxidative stress condition based on monitoring of the 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) biomarker levels. The present manuscript provides an overview of the current immunoassays based on ELISA and LFIA technologies applied for a quantitative analysis of the 8-oxodG. The discussion focuses on the principles of development, improvement and analytical performance of these assays. The relationship of the molecule 8-oxodG as a clinical biomarker of the assessment of the oxidative stress condition is also discussed. Commercially available products to 8-oxodG analysis are also presented.

Integrating high-performing electrochemical transducers in lateral flow assay

Lateral flow assays (LFAs) are the best-performing and best-known point-of-care tests worldwide. Over the last decade, they have experienced an increasing interest by researchers towards improving their analytical performance while maintaining their robust assay platform. Commercially, visual and optical detection strategies dominate, but it is especially the research on integrating electrochemical (EC) approaches that may have a chance to significantly improve an LFA’s performance that is needed in order to detect analytes reliably at lower concentrations than currently possible. In fact, EC-LFAs offer advantages in terms of quantitative determination, low-cost, high sensitivity, and even simple, label-free strategies. Here, the various configurations of EC-LFAs published are summarized and critically evaluated. In short, most of them rely on applying conventional transducers, e.g., screen-printed electrode, to ensure reliability of the assay, and additional advances are afforded by the beneficial features of nanomaterials. It is predicted that these will be further implemented in EC-LFAs as high-performance transducers. Considering the low cost of point-of-care devices, it becomes even more important to also identify strategies that efficiently integrate nanomaterials into EC-LFAs in a high-throughput manner while maintaining their favorable analytical performance.

Snakebite Envenoming Diagnosis and Diagnostics

Snakebite envenoming is predominantly an occupational disease of the rural tropics, causing death or permanent disability to hundreds of thousands of victims annually. The diagnosis of snakebite envenoming is commonly based on a combination of patient history and a syndromic approach. However, the availability of auxiliary diagnostic tests at the disposal of the clinicians vary from country to country, and the level of experience within snakebite diagnosis and intervention may be quite different for clinicians from different hospitals. As such, achieving timely diagnosis, and thus treatment, is a challenge faced by treating personnel around the globe. For years, much effort has gone into developing novel diagnostics to support diagnosis of snakebite victims, especially in rural areas of the tropics. Gaining access to affordable and rapid diagnostics could potentially facilitate more favorable patient outcomes due to early and appropriate treatment. This review aims to highlight regional differences in epidemiology and clinical snakebite management on a global scale, including an overview of the past and ongoing research efforts within snakebite diagnostics. Finally, the review is rounded off with a discussion on design considerations and potential benefits of novel snakebite diagnostics.

False-positive and false-negative COVID-19 cases: respiratory prevention and management strategies, vaccination, and further perspectives

Introduction: A novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was reported via nucleic acid identification in December, 2019. Accuracy of SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic assays has emerged as a major barrier to COVID-19 diagnosis, particularly in cases requiring urgent or emergent treatment.

Areas covered: In this review, we explore the major reasons for false-positive and false-negative SARS-CoV-2 test results. How clinical characteristics, specific respiratory comorbidities and SARS-CoV-2 vaccination impact on existing diagnostic assays are highlighted. Different COVID-19 management algorithms based on each test and limitations are thoroughly presented.

Expert opinion: The diagnostic accuracy and the capacity of every available assay, which need to be interpreted in the light of the background incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the communities in which they are used, are essential in order to minimize the number of falsely tested cases. Automated testing platforms may enhance diagnostic accuracy by minimizing the potential for human error in assays’ performance. Prior immunization against SARS-CoV-2 impairs the utility of serologic testing of suspected COVID-19 cases. Future avenues of research to evaluate lung tissue innate immune responses hold promise as a target for research to optimize SARS-CoV-2 and future infections’ testing accuracy.

Listeria monocytogenes: review of pathogenesis and virulence determinants-targeted immunological assays

Listeria monocytogenes is one of the most invasive foodborne pathogens and is responsible for numerous outbreaks worldwide. Most of the methods to detect this bacterium in food require selective enrichment using traditional bacterial culture techniques that can be time-consuming and labour-intensive. Moreover, molecular methods are expensive and need specific technical knowledge. In contrast, immunological approaches are faster, simpler, and user-friendly alternatives and have been developed for the detection of L. monocytogenes in food, environmental, and clinical samples. These techniques are dependent on the constitutive expression of L. monocytogenes antigens and the specificity of the antibodies used. Here, updated knowledge on pathogenesis and the key immunogenic virulence determinants of L. monocytogenes that are used for the generation of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for the serological assay development are summarised. In addition, immunological approaches based on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, immunofluorescence, lateral flow immunochromatographic assays, and immunosensors with relevant improvements are highlighted. Though the sensitivity and specificity of the assays were improved significantly, methods still face many challenges that require further validation before use.

Rapid, quantitative, and high-sensitivity detection of anti-phospholipase A2 receptor antibodies using a novel CdSe/ZnS-based fluorescence immunosorbent assay

Autoantibodies against M-type phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) serve as specific biomarkers for idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN), and its quantification helps monitor disease activity. In this study, we describe a rapid and highly sensitive quantum dots-based immunochromatography assay (QD-ICA) for quantifying PLA2R autoantibodies. Serum samples from 135 biopsy-confirmed patients with nephrotic syndrome were analyzed for PLA2R autoantibodies using the novel QD-ICA as well as commercialized enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) of QD-ICA were significantly greater than those of ELISA (91.1% [95% CI 85.9-96.3%] and 83.9% [95% CI 76.5-91.2%] respectively; p < 0.01). The detection sensitivity and specificity of QD-ICA (80.9% [95% CI 69.2-89.0%] and 100% [95% CI 93.2-100.0%], respectively) exceeded those of ELISA (72.1% [95% CI 59.7-81.9%] and 98.5% [95% CI 90.9-100.0%], respectively). The optimum cut-off value of QD-ICA was 18.18 relative units (RU)/mL, and the limit of detection was 2.86 RU/mL. The novel QD-ICA outperforms ELISA in detecting PLA2R autoantibodies, with shorter detection time, fewer steps, smaller equipment size, and broader testing application, suggesting its capability to improve IMN diagnosis and monitor patient response to treatment.

Virus Detection: A Review of the Current and Emerging Molecular and Immunological Methods

Viruses are ubiquitous in the environment. While many impart no deleterious effects on their hosts, several are major pathogens. This risk of pathogenicity, alongside the fact that many viruses can rapidly mutate highlights the need for suitable, rapid diagnostic measures. This review provides a critical analysis of widely used methods and examines their advantages and limitations. Currently, nucleic-acid detection and immunoassay methods are among the most popular means for quickly identifying viral infection directly from source. Nucleic acid-based detection generally offers high sensitivity, but can be time-consuming, costly, and require trained staff. The use of isothermal-based amplification systems for detection could aid in the reduction of results turnaround and equipment-associated costs, making them appealing for point-of-use applications, or when high volume/fast turnaround testing is required. Alternatively, immunoassays offer robustness and reduced costs. Furthermore, some immunoassay formats, such as those using lateral-flow technology, can generate results very rapidly. However, immunoassays typically cannot achieve comparable sensitivity to nucleic acid-based detection methods. Alongside these methods, the application of next-generation sequencing can provide highly specific results. In addition, the ability to sequence large numbers of viral genomes would provide researchers with enhanced information and assist in tracing infections.

Paper-Based Microfluidic Devices: Low-Cost Platforms for Rapid Biochemical Detection

INTRODUCTION

We developed low-cost, portable paper-based diagnostic devices for detection of human immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) in serum without any sample preparation. These devices can be used to help identify presence of diseases, used to provide rapid results (<5 minutes), readily used by untrained personnel, employed in austere environments, configured to obtain multiplexed assays, and easily disposed of.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We successfully accomplished colorimetric detection of human IgG and human IgM using a sandwich-style assay within the microfluidic paper device via vertical flow immunoassay configuration. The reaction zone in the wax printed paper layer is a small circular pattern. Gold nanoparticles conjugated with anti-human IgG and IgM antibodies have been used for colorimetric detection of IgG or IgM by naked eye. Colorimetric signal can be precisely quantified through implementation of image analysis software which can be developed as an app for a smartphone. The size of the device is 2 cm × 2 cm × 1 mm.

RESULTS

Colorimetric detection of human IgG was accomplished at 100 fg/mL concentration using a gold nanoparticle-conjugated anti-human IgG antibody. The developed platform has a dynamic range of IgM and IgG concentrations between 0.1 pg/mL and 100 μg/mL. These devices provided a color readout in <5 minutes using 20 µL of serum. We also demonstrated that the devices show a significant degree of ruggedness and temperature stability as they were able to provide satisfactory results (detection of 0.1 pg/mL IgG) after 14 days of long stability and shelf-life experiment at an elevated temperature of at least 50 ˚C-the shelf life can be as long as 180 days under ambient conditions for detection of 100 µg/mL IgG.

CONCLUSIONS

Because of the inherent simplicity of the device operation and their ease of use, there is no variation between samples and users of the device. This low-cost approach enables multiplexing with >1 measurement performed in parallel at the same time. We anticipate that because of the sensitivity, specificity, ease of use, and overall reliability, this approach will become a standard for diagnosis of diseases and health conditions.

Development and Troubleshooting in Lateral Flow Immunochromatography Assays

The development of Lateral Flow Immunochromatography Assay can be divided into two levels; standardizing membrane characteristics and optimizing molecular level immunoassay reaction between analyte and detector molecules. In the preliminary phase the reaction specificity of capture and detector antibodies with the analyte has to be checked with other techniques like ELISA. Molarity and pH of conjugation buffer have prime importance in the immunoreaction among analyte and antibodies. Epitope mapping of the capture and detector antibodies is also recommended to confirm the specificity of the assay. Standardization of membrane characteristics directly relates to the sensitivity of the assay through its porosity, hydrophobicity, protein holding/releasing capacity and wicking rate. Under optimised condition a perfect Lateral Flow Immunochromatography Assay should have high on-rate (target binding efficiency), low off-rate (target releasing efficiency) and low Cross-reactivity. In this manuscript, we share our experience, especially on developmental strategies and troubleshooting, that we have experienced during Lateral Flow Immunochromatography Assay kit development.

SERS Based Lateral Flow Immunoassay for Point-of-Care Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Clinical Samples

The current scenario, an ongoing pandemic of COVID-19, places a dreadful burden on the healthcare system worldwide. Subsequently, there is a need for a rapid, user-friendly, and inexpensive on-site monitoring system for diagnosis. The early and rapid diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 plays an important role in combating the outbreak. Although conventional methods such as PCR, RT-PCR, and ELISA, etc., offer a gold-standard solution to manage the pandemic, they cannot be implemented as a point-of-care (POC) testing arrangement. Moreover, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) having a high enhancement factor provides quantitative results with high specificity, sensitivity, and multiplex detection ability but lacks in POC setup. In contrast, POC devices such as lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) offer rapid, simple-to-use, cost-effective, reliable platform. However, LFIA has limitations in quantitative and sensitive analyses of SARS-CoV-2 detection. To resolve these concerns, herein we discuss a unique modality that is an integration of SERS with LFIA for quantitative analyses of SARS-CoV-2. The miniaturization ability of SERS-based devices makes them promising in biosensor application and has the potential to make a better alternative of conventional diagnostic methods. This review also demonstrates the commercially available and FDA/ICMR approved LFIA kits for on-site diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2.

Nucleic Acid-Based Lateral Flow Biosensor for Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi: A Detection in Stool Samples of Suspected Carriers

A multiplex rapid detection system, based on a PCR-lateral flow biosensor (mPCR-LFB) was developed to identify Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi A from suspected carriers. The lower detection limit for S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A was 0.16 and 0.08 ng DNA equivalent to 10 and 10² CFU/mL, respectively. Lateral flow biosensor was used for visual detection of mPCR amplicons (stgA, SPAint, ompC, internal amplification control) by labeling forward primers with fluorescein-isothiocyanate (FITC), Texas Red, dinitrophenol (DNP) and digoxigenin (DIG) and reverse primers with biotin. Binding of streptavidin-colloidal gold conjugate with the amplicons resulted in formation of a red color dots on the strip after 15-20 min of sample exposure. The nucleic acid lateral flow analysis of the mPCR-LFB was better in sensitivity and more rapid than the conventional agarose gel electrophoresis. Moreover, the mPCR-LFB showed 100% sensitivity and specificity when evaluated with stools spiked with 100 isolates of Salmonella genus and other bacteria. A prospective cohort study on stool samples of 1176 food handlers in outbreak areas (suspected carriers) resulted in 23 (2%) positive for S. Typhi. The developed assay has potential to be used for rapid detection of typhoid carriers in surveillance program.

A Microflow Cytometry-Based Agglutination Immunoassay for Point-of-Care Quantitative Detection of SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG

A rapid, sensitive and simple microflow cytometry-based agglutination immunoassay (MCIA) was developed for point-of-care (POC) quantitative detection of SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG antibodies. The antibody concentration was determined by using the transit time of beads aggregates. A linear relationship was established between the average transit time and the concentration of SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG, respectively. The limit of detection (LOD) of SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG by the MCIA measurement are 0.06 mg/L and 0.10 mg/L, respectively. The 10 µL sample consumption, 30 min assay time and the compact setup make this technique suitable for POC quantitative detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies.

Carbohydrate binding module-fused antibodies improve the performance of cellulose-based lateral flow immunoassays

Since the pandemic outbreak of Covid-19 in December 2019, several lateral flow assay (LFA) devices were developed to enable the constant monitoring of regional and global infection processes. Additionally, innumerable lateral flow test devices are frequently used for determination of different clinical parameters, food safety, and environmental factors. Since common LFAs rely on non-biodegradable nitrocellulose membranes, we focused on their replacement by cellulose-composed, biodegradable papers. We report the development of cellulose paper-based lateral flow immunoassays using a carbohydrate-binding module-fused to detection antibodies. Studies regarding the protein binding capacity and potential protein wash-off effects on cellulose paper demonstrated a 2.7-fold protein binding capacity of CBM-fused antibody fragments compared to the sole antibody fragment. Furthermore, this strategy improved the spatial retention of CBM-fused detection antibodies to the test area, which resulted in an enhanced sensitivity and improved overall LFA-performance compared to the naked detection antibody. CBM-assisted antibodies were validated by implementation into two model lateral flow test devices (pregnancy detection and the detection of SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies). The CBM-assisted pregnancy LFA demonstrated sensitive detection of human gonadotropin (hCG) in synthetic urine and the CBM-assisted Covid-19 antibody LFA was able to detect SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies present in serum. Our findings pave the way to the more frequent use of cellulose-based papers instead of nitrocellulose in LFA devices and thus potentially improve the sustainability in the field of POC diagnostics.

Nanomaterial-enhanced 3D-printed sensor platform for simultaneous detection of atrazine and acetochlor

The widespread use of herbicides in agriculture and gardening causes environmental and safety issues such as water pollution. Thus, efficient and convenient analysis of the levels of herbicide residues is of significant importance. Here, we employed 3D-printing to design a multiplex immunosensor for simultaneous detection of two widely used herbicides, atrazine and acetochlor. Multiplexing was achieved through customization of a lateral flow immunoassay, and then integrated with an electrochemical analyzer for ultrasensitive detection. Quantification of herbicide residues was realized through the detection of a novel nanomaterial label, the mesoporous core-shell palladium@platium nanoparticle (Pd@Pt NP), for its outstanding peroxidase-like property. During the electrochemical analysis, the catalytic activity of Pd@Pt NPs on the redox reaction between thionin acetate and hydrogen peroxide provided an electrochemically driven signal that accurately indicated the level of herbicide residues. Using this Nanomaterial-enhanced multiplex electrochemical immunosensing (NEMEIS) system, simultaneous detection of atrazine and acetochlor was realized with a limit of detection of 0.24 ppb and 3.2 ppb, respectively. To further evaluate the feasibility, the optimized NEMEIS was employed for detection in atrazine and acetochlor residue-containing spiked samples, and an overall recovery with 90.8% - 117% range was obtained. The NEMEIS constructed with the aid of 3D-printing provides a rapid, precise, economical, and portable detection device for herbicides, and its success suggests potential broad applications in chemical analysis, biosensors and point-of-care monitoring.

Trends in sensor development toward next-generation point-of-care testing for mercury

Mercury is one of the most common heavy metals and a major environmental pollutant that affects ecosystems. Since mercury and its compounds are toxic to humans, even at low concentrations, it is very important to monitor mercury contamination in water and foods. Although conventional mercury detection methods, including inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, exhibit excellent sensitivity and accuracy, they require operation by an expert in a sophisticated and fully controlled laboratory environment. To overcome these limitations and realize point-of-care testing, many novel methods for direct sample analysis in the field have recently been developed by improving the speed and simplicity of detection. Commonly, these unconventional sensors rely on colorimetric, fluorescence, or electrochemical mechanisms to transduce signals from mercury. In the case of colorimetric and fluorescent sensors, benchtop methods have gradually evolved through technology convergence to give standalone platforms, such as paper-based assays and lab-on-a-chip systems, and portable measurement devices, such as smartphones. Electrochemical sensors that use screen-printed electrodes with carbon or metal nanomaterials or hybrid materials to improve sensitivity and stability also provide promising detection platforms. This review summarizes the current state of sensor platforms for the on-field detection of mercury with a focus on key features and recent developments. Furthermore, trends for next-generation mercury sensors are suggested based on a paradigm shift to the active integration of cutting-edge technologies, such as drones, systems based on artificial intelligence, machine learning, and three-dimensional printing, and high-quality smartphones.

Ultrasensitive and Highly Specific Lateral Flow Assays for Point-of-Care Diagnosis

Lateral flow assays (LFAs) are paper-based point-of-care (POC) diagnostic tools that are widely used because of their low cost, ease of use, and rapid format. Unfortunately, traditional commercial LFAs have significantly poorer sensitivities (μM) and specificities than standard laboratory tests (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA: pM-fM; polymerase chain reaction, PCR: aM), thus limiting their impact in disease control. In this Perspective, we review the evolving efforts to increase the sensitivity and specificity of LFAs. Recent work to improve the sensitivity through assay improvement includes optimization of the assay kinetics and signal amplification by either reader systems or additional reagents. Together, these efforts have produced LFAs with ELISA-level sensitivities (pM-fM). In addition, sample preamplification can be applied to both nucleic acids (direct amplification) and other analytes (indirect amplification) prior to LFA testing, which can lead to PCR-level (aM) sensitivity. However, these amplification strategies also increase the detection time and assay complexity, which inhibits the large-scale POC use of LFAs. Perspectives to achieve future rapid (<30 min), ultrasensitive (PCR-level), and "sample-to-answer" POC diagnostics are also provided. In the case of LFA specificity, recent research efforts have focused on high-affinity molecules and assay optimization to reduce nonspecific binding. Furthermore, novel highly specific molecules, such as CRISPR/Cas systems, can be integrated into diagnosis with LFAs to produce not only ultrasensitive but also highly specific POC diagnostics. In summary, with continuing improvements, LFAs may soon offer performance at the POC that is competitive with laboratory techniques while retaining a rapid format.

Comparison of Diagnostic Tests for Detection of Bovine Rotavirus a in Calf Feces

Bovine rotavirus A (BRVA) is a frequent causative agent of diarrhea in neonatal calves. Accurate and rapid diagnosis is crucial to prevent calf mortality from BRVA induced diarrhea. Currently, variety of diagnostic methods are being used to detect BRVA from calves’ feces: antibody-based rapid test and ELISA, and molecular-based RT-PCR and RT-qPCR. The aim of the study was to evaluate the accuracy (sensitivity and specificity) of the rapid test (Immunochromatography), ELISA, and RT-PCR assays, using RT-qPCR as the gold standard, in detection of BRVA in diarrheic calves’ fecal samples. One hundred (n=100) clinically diarrheic fecal samples were tested with four different diagnostic tools. The percent of samples positive by rapid test, ELISA, RT-PCR and RT-qPCR was 10%, 16%, 17%, and 33%, respectively. The agreement between different assays was 75% to 99%. The highest agreement was observed between ELISA and RT-PCR assay (99%). The lowest agreement was recorded (75%) between rapid test and RT-qPCR. The sensitivity of the rapid test, ELISA, and RT-PCR were 30%, 49%, and 52%, respectively when compared to the reference test (RT-qPCR), whereas specificity was 100% for all assays. In conclusion, none of the frequently used diagnostic tests showed a satisfactory level of sensitivity to identify BRVA in calves’ feces. Therefore, the use of a more sensitive rapid test should be used to identify infected calves in field conditions in order to prevent calf mortality from rotaviral diarrhea.

Pocket MUSE: an affordable, versatile and high-performance fluorescence microscope using a smartphone

Smartphone microscopes can be useful tools for a broad range of imaging applications. This manuscript demonstrates the first practical implementation of Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation (MUSE) in a compact smartphone microscope called Pocket MUSE, resulting in a remarkably effective design. Fabricated with parts from consumer electronics that are readily available at low cost, the small optical module attaches directly over the rear lens in a smartphone. It enables high-quality multichannel fluorescence microscopy with submicron resolution over a 10× equivalent field of view. In addition to the novel optical configuration, Pocket MUSE is compatible with a series of simple, portable, and user-friendly sample preparation strategies that can be directly implemented for various microscopy applications for point-of-care diagnostics, at-home health monitoring, plant biology, STEM education, environmental studies, etc.

Au-Ag assembled on silica nanoprobes for visual semiquantitative detection of prostate-specific antigen

Background

Blood prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels are widely used as diagnostic biomarkers for prostate cancer. Lateral-flow immunoassay (LFIA)-based PSA detection can overcome the limitations associated with other methods. LFIAbased PSA detection in clinical samples enables prognosis and early diagnosis owing to the use of high-performance signal reporters.

Results

Here, a semiquantitative LFIA platform for PSA detection in blood was developed using Au–Ag nanoparticles (NPs) assembled on silica NPs (SiO2@Au–Ag NPs) that served as signal reporters. Synthesized SiO2@Au–Ag NPs exhibited a high absorbance at a wide wavelength range (400–800 nm), with a high scattering on nitrocellulose membrane test strips. In LFIA, the color intensity of the test line on the test strip differed depending on the PSA concentration (0.30–10.00 ng/mL), and bands for the test line on the test strip could be used as a standard. When clinical samples were assessed using this LFIA, a visual test line with particular color intensity observed on the test strip enabled the early diagnosis and prognosis of patients with prostate cancer based on PSA detection. In addition, the relative standard deviation of reproducibility was 1.41%, indicating high reproducibility, and the signal reporter showed good stability for 10 days.

Conclusion

These characteristics of the signal reporter demonstrated the reliability of the LFIA platform for PSA detection, suggesting potential applications in clinical sample analysis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-00817-4.

Technical considerations to development of serological tests for SARS-CoV-2

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a devastating impact worldwide and has brought clinical assays both for acute diagnosis and prior exposure determination to the forefront. Serological testing intended for point-of-care or laboratory use can be used to determine more accurate individual and population assessments of prior exposure to SARS-CoV-2; improve our understanding of the degree to which immunity is conveyed to subsequent exposures; and quantify immune response to future vaccines. In response to this pandemic, initially more than 90 companies deployed serology assays to the U.S. market, many of which made overstated claims for their accuracy, regulatory approval status, and utility for intended purpose. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration subsequently instituted an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) procedure requiring that manufacturers submit validation data, but allowing newly developed serological tests to be marketed without the usual approval process during this crisis. Although this rapid deployment was intended to benefit public health, the incomplete understanding of immune response to the virus and lack of assay vetting resulted in quality issues with some of these tests, and thus many were withdrawn after submission. Common assay platforms include lateral flow assays which can serve an important niche of low cost, rapid turnaround, and increased accessibility whereas established laboratory-based platforms based on ELISAs and chemiluminescence expand existing technologies to SARS-CoV-2 and can provide throughput and quantification capabilities. While most of the currently EUA assays rely on these well-established platforms, despite their apparent technical simplicity, there are numerous practical challenges both for manufacturers in developing and for end-users in running and interpreting such assays. Within are discussed technical challenges to serology development for SARS-CoV-2, with an emphasis on lateral flow assay technology.

Accuracy of serological testing for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies: First results of a large mixed-method evaluation study

BACKGROUND

Serological immunoassays that can identify protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2 are needed to adapt quarantine measures, assess vaccination responses, and evaluate donor plasma. To date, however, the utility of such immunoassays remains unclear. In a mixed-design evaluation study, we compared the diagnostic accuracy of serological immunoassays that are based on various SARS-CoV-2 proteins and assessed the neutralizing activity of antibodies in patient sera.

METHODS

Consecutive patients admitted with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection were prospectively followed alongside medical staff and biobank samples from winter 2018/2019. An in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay utilizing recombinant receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein was developed and compared to three commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) targeting the nucleoprotein (N), the S1 domain of the spike protein (S1), and a lateral flow immunoassay (LFI) based on full-length spike protein. Neutralization assays with live SARS-CoV-2 were performed.

RESULTS

One thousand four hundred and seventy-seven individuals were included comprising 112 SARS-CoV-2 positives (defined as a positive real-time PCR result; prevalence 7.6%). IgG seroconversion occurred between day 0 and day 21. While the ELISAs showed sensitivities of 88.4% for RBD, 89.3% for S1, and 72.9% for N protein, the specificity was above 94% for all tests. Out of 54 SARS-CoV-2 positive individuals, 96.3% showed full neutralization of live SARS-CoV-2 at serum dilutions ≥ 1:16, while none of the 6 SARS-CoV-2-negative sera revealed neutralizing activity.

CONCLUSIONS

ELISAs targeting RBD and S1 protein of SARS-CoV-2 are promising immunoassays which shall be further evaluated in studies verifying diagnostic accuracy and protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2.

Microfluidic devices for multiplexed detection of foodborne pathogens

The global burden of foodborne diseases is substantial and foodborne pathogens are the major cause for human illnesses. In order to prevent the spread of foodborne pathogens, detection methods are constantly being updated towards rapid, portable, inexpensive, and multiplexed on-site detection. Due to the nature of the small size and low volume, microfluidics has been applied to rapid, time-saving, sensitive, and portable devices to meet the requirements of on-site detection. Simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens is another key parameter to ensure food safety. Multiplexed detection technology, including microfluidic chip design, offers a new opportunity to achieve this goal. In this review, we introduced several sample preparation and corresponding detection methods on microfluidic devices for multiplexed detection of foodborne pathogens. In the sample preparation section, methods of cell capture and enrichment, as well as nucleic acid sample preparation, were described in detail, and in the section of detection methods, amplification, immunoassay, surface plasmon resonance and impedance spectroscopy were exhaustively illustrated. The limitations and advantages of all available experimental options were also summarized and discussed in order to form a comprehensive understanding of cutting-edge technologies and provide a comparative assessment for future investigation and in-field application.

Monitoring hepatitis B by using point-of-care testing: biomarkers, current technologies, and perspectives

Introduction: Liver diseases caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) are pandemic infectious diseases that seriously endanger human health, conventional diagnosis methods can not meet the requirements in resource-limited areas. The point of acre detection methods can easily resolve those problems. Herein, we review the most recent advances in POC-based hepatitis B detection methods and present some recommendations for future development. It aims to provide ideas for future research.Areas covered: Epidemiological data on Hepatitis B, conventional diagnostic methods for hepatitis B detection, some latest point of care detection methods for hepatitis B detection and list out the recommendations for future development.Expert opinion: This manuscript summarized traditional biomarkers of different hepatitis B stages and recent-developed POCT platforms (including microfluidic platforms and lateral-flow strips) and discuss the challenges associated with their use. Some emerging biomarkers that can be used in hepatitis B diagnosis are also listed. This manuscript has certain guiding significance to the development of hepatitis B detection.

Immunochromatographic assay based on time-resolved fluorescent nanobeads for the rapid detection of sulfamethazine in egg, honey, and pork

BACKGROUND

Sulfamethazine (SMZ), a veterinary drug widely used in animal husbandry, is harmful to human health when excess residues are present in food. In this study, a fast, reliable, and sensitive immunochromatographic assay (ICA) was developed on the basis of the competitive format by using time-resolved fluorescent nanobeads (TRFN) as label for the detection of SMZ in egg, honey, and pork samples.

RESULTS

Under optimized working conditions, this method had limits of detection of 0.016, 0.049, and 0.029 ng mL^-1 and corresponding linear ranges of 0.05 to 1.00, 0.05 to 5.00, and 0.05 to 1.00 ng mL^-1 in egg, honey, and pork samples, respectively. The recovery experiments showed that the average recoveries ranged from 90.5% to 113.9%, 82.4% to 112.0%, and 79.8% to 93.4% with corresponding coefficients of variation of 4.1% to 11.7%, 7.5% to 11.5%, and 4.8% to 8.7% for egg, honey, and pork samples, respectively. The developed TRFN-ICA was also systematically compared with high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) by analyzing 45 actual samples from egg, honey, and pork.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the developed TRFN-ICA had high reliability and excellent potential for the ultrasensitive detection of SMZ for food safety monitoring, also providing a universal platform for the on-site detection of other targets. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Can microRNA become next-generation tools in molecular diagnostics and therapeutics? A systematic review

Background

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) represent a novel class of single-stranded RNA molecules of 18–22 nucleotides that serve as powerful tools in the regulation of gene expression. They are important regulatory molecules in several biological processes.

Main body

Alteration in the expression profiles of miRNAs have been found in several diseases. It is anticipated that miRNA expression profiling can become a novel diagnostic tool in the future.

Hence, this review evaluates the implications of miRNAs in various diseases and the recent advances in miRNA expression level detection and their target identification. A systematic approach to review existing literature available on databases such as Medline, PubMed, and EMBASE was conducted to have a better understanding of mechanisms mediating miRNA-dependent gene regulation and their role as diagnostic markers and therapeutic agents.

Conclusion

A clear understanding of the complex multilevel regulation of miRNA expression is a prerequisite to explicate the origin of a wide variety of diseases. It is understandable that miRNAs offer potential targets both in diagnostics and therapeutics of a multitude of diseases. The inclusion of specific miRNA expression profiles as biomarkers may lead to crucial advancements in facilitating disease diagnosis and classification, monitoring its prognosis, and treatment. However, standardization of methods has a pivotal role in the success of extensive use of miRNA expression profiling in routine clinical settings.

Self-Assembling Allochroic Nanocatalyst for Improving Nanozyme-Based Immunochromatographic Assays

Paper-based rapid diagnostic tests, such as immunochromatographic assays, namely lateral flow immunoassay (LFA), are valuable alternatives for biomarker detection compared to traditional laboratory-based tests, but these assays need further refinement to consolidate their biosensing capabilities. Nanozyme integration into LFA systems may provide a reliable means of improving the analytic sensitivity of LFA tests. Due to the involvement of multiple liquid-handling steps, the quantitative accuracy is compromised, hence hindering the use of untrained personnel point-of-care use. Self-assembling allochroic nanocatalyst (SAN) assemblies satisfy these LFA quality measures by optimizing analyte-antibody reporting performance and by intrinsically catalyzing chromogen activation, thereby reducing the number of liquid handling steps involved during sample analysis. In SANs, the hydrophobic chromogens serve as peroxidase substrates that self-assemble into nanoparticles at high loading fractions. These features demonstrate the potential for SAN-LFAs to be a valuable patient point-of-care (POC) test. Herein, we describe the SAN fabrication process and employ SAN-LFAs to detect cardiac troponin I-troponin C (cTnI-TnC) and myoglobin (Myo) levels present in plasma samples. Using SAN-LFAs, the limits of detection for cTnI-TnC and Myo were 0.012 ng/mL and 0.2 ng/mL respectively. We also demonstrate SAN compatibility with blood samples and stability under long-term storage conditions. The successful utlization of SANs in LFA-based biomarker detection may inspire these nanocatalysts to be integrated into similar immunochromatographic testing methods.

Fully integrated rapid microfluidic device translated from conventional 96-well ELISA kit

In this work, a fully integrated active microfluidic device transforming a conventional 96-well kit into point-of-care testing (POCT) device was implemented to improve the performance of traditional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). ELISA test by the conventional method often requires the collection of 96 samples for its operation as well as longer incubation time from hours to overnight, whereas our proposed device conducts ELISA immediately individualizing a 96-well for individual patients. To do that, a programmable and disposable on-chip pump and valve were integrated on the device for precise control and actuation of microfluidic reagents, which regulated a reaction time and reagent volume to support the optimized protocols of ELISA. Due to the on-chip pump and valve, ELISA could be executed with reduced consumption of reagents and shortening the assay time, which are crucial for conventional ELISA using 96-well microplate. To demonstrate highly sensitive detection and easy-to-use operation, this unconventional device was successfully applied for the quantification of cardiac troponin I (cTnI) of 4.88 pg/mL using a minimum sample volume of 30 µL with a shorter assay time of 15 min for each ELISA step. The limit of detection (LOD) thus obtained was significantly improved than the conventional 96-well platform.

Highly sensitive detection of Cronobacter sakazakii based on immunochromatography coupled with surface-enhanced Raman scattering

The presence of Cronobacter sakazakii must be controlled in infant powder plants, because it may cause infectious disease in infants, with high mortality. Testing for C. sakazakii in powdered infant formula should be performed before delivery, and it requires rapid and specific detection methods. In this study, we established a surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) immunochromatographic test strip for the quantitative determination of C. sakazakii in powdered infant formula. Monoclonal antibodies for C. sakazakii were labeled with p-aminothiophenol-bound colloidal gold nanoparticles. Color change in the test line indicated the presence of C. sakazakii. A highly sensitive and quantitative test method was developed based on the Raman signal produced by the p-aminothiophenol bonding on gold nanoparticles. The SERS immunochromatographic test strip assay required a short analysis time (12 min) and exhibited a linearity range from 10² to 10⁷ cfu/mL. The limit of detection was 201 cfu/mL without preculture. The SERS immunochromatographic test strip assay is a promising tool for the simple and rapid quantitative analysis of C. sakazakii and other pathogenic bacteria.

Eliminating viscosity bias in lateral flow tests

Despite the widespread application of point-of-care lateral flow tests, the viscosity dependence of these assay results remains a significant challenge. Here, we employ centrifugal microfluidic flow control through the nitrocellulose membrane of the strip to eliminate the viscosity bias. The key feature is the balancing of the sample flow into the cassette of the lateral flow test with the air flow out of the cassette. A viscosity-independent flow rate of 3.01 ± 0.18 µl/min (±6%) is demonstrated for samples with viscosities ranging from 1.1 mPas to 24 mPas, a factor greater than 20. In a model human IgG lateral flow assay, signal-intensity shifts caused by varying the sample viscosity from 1.1 mPas to 2.3 mPas could be reduced by more than 84%.

Improving the sensitivity of cellulose fiber-based lateral flow assay by incorporating a water-dissolvable polyvinyl alcohol dam

Lateral flow assay (LFA) is an important point-of-care (POC) test platform due to the associated portability, on-site testing, and low cost for diagnosis of pathogen infections and disease biomarkers. However, compared to high-end analyzers in hospitals, LFA devices, in particular, paper- based LFA tests, fall short in accuracy. This study focuses on two ways to improve LFAs: (1) using cellulose fibers, rather than glass fibers for a sample pad, and (2) incorporating a one-step simple, facile, and low cost PVA dam into the LFA. Both strategies (cellulose fiber as a sample pad and water dissolvable PVA dam) contributed to delaying the controlled biomolecule's flow through the nitrocellulose membrane's capillary channels resulting in increased bio-recognition time, thus contributing to the enhancement of LFA sensitivity. PVA modified cellulose fiber-based LFA demonstrated 10 times higher sensitivity than the cellulose fiber-based unmodified LFA, whereas 2 times enhancement was obtained in the cellulose fiber-based sample pad LFA compared to the glass fiber-based sample pad LFA. Ultimately, 20 times increase in sensitivity was achieved in the modified LFA device. This study shows that PVA and eco-friendly cellulose fibers could be incorporated into other paper based POC testing devices for future development.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10570-021-04083-3.

Advances in Colorimetric Strategies for Mycotoxins Detection: Toward Rapid Industrial Monitoring

Mycotoxins contamination is a global public health concern. Therefore, highly sensitive and selective techniques are needed for their on-site monitoring. Several approaches are conceivable for mycotoxins analysis, among which colorimetric methods are the most attractive for commercialization purposes thanks to their visual read-out, easy operation, cost-effectiveness, and rapid response. This review covers the latest achievements in the last five years for the development of colorimetric methods specific to mycotoxins analysis, with a particular emphasis on their potential for large-scale applications in food industries. Gathering all types of (bio)receptors, main colorimetric methods are critically discussed, including enzyme-linked assays, lateral flow-assays, microfluidic devices, and homogenous in-solution strategies. This special focus on colorimetry as a versatile transduction method for mycotoxins analysis is comprehensively reviewed for the first time.

Point of Care Diagnostics in the Age of COVID-19

The recent outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its associated serious respiratory disease, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), poses a major threat to global public health. Owing to the lack of vaccine and effective treatments, many countries have been overwhelmed with an exponential spread of the virus and surge in the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases. Current standard diagnostic methods are inadequate for widespread testing as they suffer from prolonged turn-around times (>12 h) and mostly rely on high-biosafety-level laboratories and well-trained technicians. Point-of-care (POC) tests have the potential to vastly improve healthcare in several ways, ranging from enabling earlier detection and easier monitoring of disease to reaching remote populations. In recent years, the field of POC diagnostics has improved markedly with the advent of micro- and nanotechnologies. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, POC technologies have been rapidly innovated to address key limitations faced in existing standard diagnostic methods. This review summarizes and compares the latest available POC immunoassay, nucleic acid-based and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats- (CRISPR)-mediated tests for SARS-CoV-2 detection that we anticipate aiding healthcare facilities to control virus infection and prevent subsequent spread.

Recent trends in rapid diagnostic techniques for dermatophytosis

Dermatophytosis is a common contagious disease of both humans and animals. It is caused by a group of filamentous fungi known as dermatophytes, including several genera and various species. An accurate diagnosis of dermatophytes as a causative agent of a skin lesion requires up to one month of conventional laboratory diagnostics. The conventional gold standard diagnostic method is a direct microscopic examination followed by 3 to 4 weeks of Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) culturing, and it may require further post-culturing identification through biochemical tests or microculture technique application. The laborious, exhaustive, and time-consuming gold standard method was a real challenge facing all dermatologists to achieve a rapid, accurate dermatophytosis diagnosis. Various studies developed more rapid, accurate, reliable, sensitive, and specific diagnostic tools. All developed techniques showed more rapidity than the classical method but variable specificities and sensitivities. An extensive bibliography is included and discussed through this review, showing recent variable dermatophytes diagnostic categories with an illustration of weaknesses, strengths, and prospects.

Facile biosensors for rapid detection of COVID-19

Currently the world is being challenged by a public health emergency caused by the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19). Extensive efforts in testing for coronavirus infection, combined with isolating infected cases and quarantining those in contact, have proven successful in bringing the epidemic under control. Rapid and facile screening of this disease is in high demand. This review summarises recent advances in strategies reported by international researchers and engineers concerning how to tackle COVID-19 via rapid testing, mainly through nucleic acid- and antibody- testing. The roles of biosensors as powerful analytical tools are emphasized for the detection of viral RNAs, surface antigens, whole viral particles, antibodies and other potential biomarkers in human specimen. We critically review in depth newly developed biosensing methods especially for in-field and point-of-care detection of SARS-CoV-2. Additionally, this review describes possible future strategies for virus rapid detection. It helps researchers working on novel sensor technologies to tailor their technologies in a way to address the challenge for effective detection of COVID-19.

Ultrasensitive Detection Platform of Disease Biomarkers Based on Recombinase Polymerase Amplification with H-Sandwich Aptamers

The detection of trace protein biomarkers is essential in the diagnostic field. Protein detection systems ranging from widely used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to simple, inexpensive approaches, such as lateral flow immunoassays, play critical roles in medical and drug research. Despite continuous progress, current systems are insufficient for the diagnosis of diseases that require high sensitivity. In this study, we developed a heterogeneous sandwich-type sensing platform based on recombinase polymerase amplification using DNA aptamers specific to the target biomarker. Only the DNA bound to the target in the form of a heterogeneous sandwich was selectively amplified, and the fluorescence signal of an intercalating dye added before the amplification reaction was detected, thereby enabling high specificity and sensitivity. We applied this method for the detection of protein biomarkers for various infectious diseases including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and observed attomolar-level detection of biomarkers and low cross-reactivity between different viruses. We also confirmed detection efficiency of the proposed method using clinical samples. These results demonstrate that the proposed sensing platform can be used to diagnose various diseases requiring high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy.

Rapid point-of-care testing methods/devices for meat species identification: A review

The authentication of animal species is an important issue due to an increasing trend of adulteration and mislabeling of animal species in processed meat products. Polymerase chain reaction is the most sensitive and specific technique for nucleic acid-based animal species detection. However, it is a time-consuming technique that requires costly thermocyclers and sophisticated labs. In recent times, there is a need of on-site detection by point-of-care (POC) testing methods and devices under low-resource settings. These POC devices must be affordable, sensitive, specific, user-friendly, rapid and robust, equipment free, and delivered to the end users. POC devices should also confirm the concept of micro total analysis system. This review discusses POC testing methods and devices that have been developed for meat species identification. Recent developments in lateral flow assay-based devices for the identification of animal species in meat products are also reviewed. Advancements in increasing the efficiency of lateral flow detection are also discussed.

Isothermal SARS-CoV-2 Diagnostics: Tools for Enabling Distributed Pandemic Testing as a Means of Supporting Safe Reopenings

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, poses grave threats to both the global economy and health. The predominant diagnostic screens in use for SARS-CoV-2 detection are molecular techniques such as nucleic acid amplification tests. In this Review, we compare current and emerging isothermal diagnostic methods for COVID-19. We outline the molecular and serological techniques currently being used to detect SARS-CoV-2 infection, past or present, in patients. We also discuss ongoing research on isothermal techniques, CRISPR-mediated detection assays, and point-of-care diagnostics that have potential for use in SARS-CoV-2 detection. Large-scale viral testing during a global pandemic presents unique challenges, chief among them the simultaneous need for testing supplies, durable equipment, and personnel in many regions worldwide, with each of these regions possessing testing needs that vary as the pandemic progresses. The low-cost isothermal technologies described in this Review provide a promising means by which to address these needs and meet the global need for testing of symptomatic individuals as well as provide a possible means for routine testing of asymptomatic individuals, providing a potential means of safely enabling reopenings and early monitoring of outbreaks.

Switching from Multiplex to Multimodal Colorimetric Lateral Flow Immunosensor

Multiplex lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) is largely used for point-of-care testing to detect different pathogens or biomarkers in a single device. The increasing demand for multitargeting diagnostics requires multi-informative single tests. In this study, we demonstrated three strategies to upgrade standard multiplex LFIA to multimodal capacity. As a proof-of-concept, we applied the strategies to the differential diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection, a widespread pathogen, for which conventional multiplex LFIA testing is well-established. In the new two-parameter LFIA (x2LFIA), we exploited color encoding, in which the binding of multiple targets occurs in one reactive band and the color of the probe reveals which one is present in the sample. By combining the sequential alignment of several reactive zones along the membrane of the LFIA strip and gold nanoparticles and gold nanostars for the differential visualization, in this demonstration, the x2LFIA can furnish information on HIV serotype and stage of infection in a single device. Three immunosensors were designed. The use of bioreagents as the capturing ligand anchored onto the membrane or as the detection ligand labelled with gold nanomaterials affected the performance of the x2LFIA. Higher detectability was achieved by the format involving the HIV-specific antigens as capturing agent and labelled secondary bioligands (anti-human immunoglobulins M and protein G) as the probes.

Development of Diagnostic Tests for Detection of SARS-CoV-2

One of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is to develop accurate and rapid diagnostic tests. There are a number of molecular, serological, and imaging methods that are used to diagnose this infection in hospitals and clinical settings. The purpose of this review paper is to present the available approaches for detecting SARS-CoV-2 and address the advantages and limitations of each detection method. This work includes studies from recent literature publications along with information from the manufacturer's manuals of commercially available SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic products. Furthermore, supplementary information from the Food & Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and World Health Organization (WHO) is cited. The viral components targeted for virus detection, the principles of each diagnostic technique, and the detection efficiency of each approach are discussed. The potential of using diagnostic tests that were originally developed for previous epidemic viruses is also presented.