401
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Androuin A, Abada YS, Ly M, Santin M, Petiet A, Epelbaum S, Bertrand A, Delatour B. Activity-induced MEMRI cannot detect functional brain anomalies in the APPxPS1-Ki mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1140. [PMID: 30718666 PMCID: PMC6361936 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37980-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia. Aside neuropathological lesions, abnormal neuronal activity and brain metabolism are part of the core symptoms of the disease. Activity-induced Manganese-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MEMRI) has been proposed as a powerful approach to visualize evoked brain activity in rodents. Here, we evaluated the relevance of MEMRI in measuring neuronal (dys-)function in the APPxPS1 knocked-in (KI) mouse model of AD. Brain anomalies were firstly demonstrated in APPxPS1-Ki mice using cognitive testing (memory impairment) and histological mapping of immediate early gene products (decreased density of fos-positive neurons). Paradoxically, MEMRI analyses were not able to confirm the occurrence of neuronal hypoactivities in vivo. We then performed a neuropathological analysis that highlighted an abnormal increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in APPxPS1-Ki mice. We hypothesized that diffuse weakening of the BBB results in an uncontrolled diffusion of the MR contrast agent and a lack of correlation between manganese accumulation and neuronal activity. These results bring to light a limitation of the activity-induced MEMRI approach when applied to the APPxPS1-Ki mouse model as well as other mouse models harboring a compromised BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Androuin
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Yah-Se Abada
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Myriam Ly
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France.,Institut Roche, Boulogne-Billancourt, France
| | - Mathieu Santin
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France.,Center for Neuroimaging Research, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Paris, France
| | - Alexandra Petiet
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France.,Center for Neuroimaging Research, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Epelbaum
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France.,Centre des Maladies Cognitives et Comportementales, Sorbonne Universités, Hôpital de la Salpêtrière, Paris, France.,Aramis Project Team, Inria Research Center of Paris, Paris, France
| | - Anne Bertrand
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France.,Aramis Project Team, Inria Research Center of Paris, Paris, France
| | - Benoît Delatour
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France.
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402
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Kimura I, Dohgu S, Takata F, Matsumoto J, Kawahara Y, Nishihira M, Sakada S, Saisho T, Yamauchi A, Kataoka Y. Activation of the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor upregulates blood-brain barrier function through increased claudin-5 and occludin expression in rat brain endothelial cells. Neurosci Lett 2019; 694:9-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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403
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Michael J, Marschallinger J, Aigner L. The leukotriene signaling pathway: a druggable target in Alzheimer’s disease. Drug Discov Today 2019; 24:505-516. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2018.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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404
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Phan TX, Malkani RG. Sleep and circadian rhythm disruption and stress intersect in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Stress 2019; 10:100133. [PMID: 30937343 PMCID: PMC6279965 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) was discovered and the pathological hallmarks were revealed more than a century ago. Subsequently, many remarkable discoveries and breakthroughs provided us with mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis of AD. The identification of the molecular underpinning of the disease not only provided the framework of AD pathogenesis but also targets for therapeutic inventions. Despite all the initial successes, no effective treatment for AD has emerged yet as all the late stages of clinical trials have failed. Many factors ranging from genetic to environmental factors have been critically appraised as the potential causes of AD. In particular, the role of stress on AD has been intensively studied while the relationship between sleep and circadian rhythm disruption (SCRD) and AD have recently emerged. SCRD has always been thought to be a corollary of AD pathologies until recently, multiple lines of evidence converge on the notion that SCRD might be a contributing factor in AD pathogenesis. More importantly, how stress and SCRD intersect and make their concerted contributions to AD phenotypes has not been reviewed. The goal of this literature review is to examine at multiple levels - molecular, cellular (e.g. microglia, gut microbiota) and holistic - how the interaction between stress and SCRD bi-directionally and synergistically exacerbate AD pathologies and cognitive impairment. AD, in turn, worsens stress and SCRD and forms the vicious cycle that perpetuates and amplifies AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trongha X. Phan
- Department of Neurology, Division of Sleep Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Center for Circadian and Sleep Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Roneil G. Malkani
- Department of Neurology, Division of Sleep Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Center for Circadian and Sleep Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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405
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Jairani PS, Aswathy PM, Krishnan D, Menon RN, Verghese J, Mathuranath PS, Gopala S. Apolipoprotein E Polymorphism and Oxidative Stress in Peripheral Blood-Derived Macrophage-Mediated Amyloid-Beta Phagocytosis in Alzheimer's Disease Patients. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2019; 39:355-369. [PMID: 30694418 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-019-00651-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/06/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral blood-derived macrophages isolated from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients have earlier been reported to demonstrate ineffective phagocytosis of amyloid-beta compared to the age-matched control subjects. However, the mechanisms causing unsuccessful phagocytosis remain unclear. Oxidative stress and the presence of ApoEε4 allele has been reported to play a major role in the pathogenesis of AD, but the contribution of oxidative stress and ApoEε4 in macrophage dysfunction leading to ineffective Aβ phagocytosis needs to be analyzed. Aβ phagocytosis assay has been performed using FITC-labeled Aβ and analyzed using flow cytometry and confocal imaging in patient samples and in THP-1 cells. Oxidative stress in patient-derived macrophages was analyzed by assessing the DNA damage using comet assay. ApoE polymorphism was analyzed using sequence-specific PCR and Hixson & Vernier Restriction isotyping protocol. In this study, we have analyzed the patterns of phagocytic inefficiency of macrophages in Indian population with a gradual decline in the phagocytic potential from mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to AD patients. Further, we have shown that the presence of ApoEε4 allele might also have a possible effect on the phagocytosis efficiency of the macrophages. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that oxidative stress could affect the amyloid-beta phagocytic potential of macrophages and hence by alleviating oxidative stress using curcumin, an anti-oxidant could enhance the amyloid-beta phagocytic efficacy of macrophages of patients with AD and MCI, although the responsiveness to curcumin might depends on the presence or absence of APOEε4 allele. Oxidative stress contributes significantly to decreased phagocytosis of Aβ by macrophages. Moreover, the phagocytic inefficiency of macrophages was correlated to the presence of ApoEε4 allele. This study also found that the Aβ-phagocytic potential of macrophage gets significantly enhanced in curcumin-treated patient-derived macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Jairani
- Cognition & Behavioral Neurology Section, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - P M Aswathy
- Cognition & Behavioral Neurology Section, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Dhanya Krishnan
- Department of Biochemistry, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695011, India
| | - Ramsekhar N Menon
- Cognition & Behavioral Neurology Section, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Joe Verghese
- Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - P S Mathuranath
- Cognition & Behavioral Neurology Section, Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.,Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore, India
| | - Srinivas Gopala
- Department of Biochemistry, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 695011, India.
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406
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Mechanisms Associated with Type 2 Diabetes as a Risk Factor for Alzheimer-Related Pathology. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:5815-5834. [PMID: 30684218 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-1475-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Current evidence suggests dementia and pathology in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) are both dependent and independent of amyloid processing and can be induced by multiple 'hits' on vital neuronal functions. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) poses the most important risk factor for developing AD after ageing and dysfunctional IR/PI3K/Akt signalling is a major contributor in both diseases. We developed a model of T2D, coupling subdiabetogenic doses of streptozotocin (STZ) with a human junk food (HJF) diet to more closely mimic the human condition. Over 35 weeks, this induced classic signs of T2D (hyperglycemia and insulin dysfunction) and a modest, but stable deficit in spatial recognition memory, with very little long-term modification of proteins in or associated with IR/PI3K/Akt signalling in CA1 of the hippocampus. Intracerebroventricular infusion of soluble amyloid beta 42 (Aβ42) to mimic the early preclinical rise in Aβ alone induced a more severe, but short-lasting deficits in memory and deregulation of proteins. Infusion of Aβ on the T2D phenotype exacerbated and prolonged the memory deficits over approximately 4 months, and induced more severe aberrant regulation of proteins associated with autophagy, inflammation and glucose uptake from the periphery. A mild form of environmental enrichment transiently rescued memory deficits and could reverse the regulation of some, but not all protein changes. Together, these data identify mechanisms by which T2D could create a modest dysfunctional neuronal milieu via multiple and parallel inputs that permits the development of pathological events identified in AD and memory deficits when Aβ levels are transiently effective in the brain.
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407
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Zanotti-Fregonara P, Veronese M, Pascual B, Rostomily RC, Turkheimer F, Masdeu JC. The validity of 18F-GE180 as a TSPO imaging agent. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2019; 46:1205-1207. [PMID: 30656358 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-019-4268-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Zanotti-Fregonara
- Nantz National Alzheimer Center and Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Ave, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Mattia Veronese
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK
| | - Belen Pascual
- Nantz National Alzheimer Center and Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Ave, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Robert C Rostomily
- Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Hospital and Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Federico Turkheimer
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK
| | - Joseph C Masdeu
- Nantz National Alzheimer Center and Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Ave, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
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408
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Lazic D, Sagare AP, Nikolakopoulou AM, Griffin JH, Vassar R, Zlokovic BV. 3K3A-activated protein C blocks amyloidogenic BACE1 pathway and improves functional outcome in mice. J Exp Med 2019; 216:279-293. [PMID: 30647119 PMCID: PMC6363429 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20181035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
3K3A-activated protein C (APC), a cell-signaling analogue of endogenous blood serine protease APC, exerts vasculoprotective, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities in rodent models of stroke, brain injury, and neurodegenerative disorders. 3K3A-APC is currently in development as a neuroprotectant in patients with ischemic stroke. Here, we report that 3K3A-APC inhibits BACE1 amyloidogenic pathway in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We show that a 4-mo daily treatment of 3-mo-old 5XFAD mice with murine recombinant 3K3A-APC (100 µg/kg/d i.p.) prevents development of parenchymal and cerebrovascular amyloid-β (Aβ) deposits by 40-50%, which is mediated through NFκB-dependent transcriptional inhibition of BACE1, resulting in blockade of Aβ generation in neurons overexpressing human Aβ-precursor protein. Consistent with reduced Aβ deposition, 3K3A-APC normalized hippocampus-dependent behavioral deficits and cerebral blood flow responses, improved cerebrovascular integrity, and diminished neuroinflammatory responses. Our data suggest that 3K3A-APC holds potential as an effective anti-Aβ prevention therapy for early-stage AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divna Lazic
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.,Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.,Department of Neurobiology, Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
| | - Abhay P Sagare
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.,Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Angeliki M Nikolakopoulou
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.,Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - John H Griffin
- The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA
| | - Robert Vassar
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA .,Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
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409
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Nation DA, Sweeney MD, Montagne A, Sagare AP, D'Orazio LM, Pachicano M, Sepehrband F, Nelson AR, Buennagel DP, Harrington MG, Benzinger TLS, Fagan AM, Ringman JM, Schneider LS, Morris JC, Chui HC, Law M, Toga AW, Zlokovic BV. Blood-brain barrier breakdown is an early biomarker of human cognitive dysfunction. Nat Med 2019; 25:270-276. [PMID: 30643288 PMCID: PMC6367058 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-018-0297-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 941] [Impact Index Per Article: 188.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Nation
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Melanie D Sweeney
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Axel Montagne
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Abhay P Sagare
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Lina M D'Orazio
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Maricarmen Pachicano
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Farshid Sepehrband
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Amy R Nelson
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Tammie L S Benzinger
- Department of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,The Hope Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Anne M Fagan
- The Hope Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,The Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - John M Ringman
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Lon S Schneider
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - John C Morris
- The Hope Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Helena C Chui
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Meng Law
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Radiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Arthur W Toga
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. .,Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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410
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Khan AM, Korzeniowska B, Gorshkov V, Tahir M, Schrøder H, Skytte L, Rasmussen KL, Khandige S, Møller-Jensen J, Kjeldsen F. Silver nanoparticle-induced expression of proteins related to oxidative stress and neurodegeneration in an in vitro human blood-brain barrier model. Nanotoxicology 2019; 13:221-239. [DOI: 10.1080/17435390.2018.1540728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Asif Manzoor Khan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Barbara Korzeniowska
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Vladimir Gorshkov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Muhammad Tahir
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Henrik Schrøder
- Department of Pathology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Lilian Skytte
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Kaare Lund Rasmussen
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Surabhi Khandige
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Jakob Møller-Jensen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Frank Kjeldsen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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411
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Morris G, Berk M, Maes M, Puri BK. Could Alzheimer's Disease Originate in the Periphery and If So How So? Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:406-434. [PMID: 29705945 PMCID: PMC6372984 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1092-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The classical amyloid cascade model for Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been challenged by several findings. Here, an alternative molecular neurobiological model is proposed. It is shown that the presence of the APOE ε4 allele, altered miRNA expression and epigenetic dysregulation in the promoter region and exon 1 of TREM2, as well as ANK1 hypermethylation and altered levels of histone post-translational methylation leading to increased transcription of TNFA, could variously explain increased levels of peripheral and central inflammation found in AD. In particular, as a result of increased activity of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM-2), the presence of the apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) isoform, and changes in ANK1 expression, with subsequent changes in miR-486 leading to altered levels of protein kinase B (Akt), mechanistic (previously mammalian) target of rapamycin (mTOR) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), all of which play major roles in microglial activation, proliferation and survival, there is activation of microglia, leading to the subsequent (further) production of cytokines, chemokines, nitric oxide, prostaglandins, reactive oxygen species, inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, and other mediators of inflammation and neurotoxicity. These changes are associated with the development of amyloid and tau pathology, mitochondrial dysfunction (including impaired activity of the electron transport chain, depleted basal mitochondrial potential and oxidative damage to key tricarboxylic acid enzymes), synaptic dysfunction, altered glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) activity, mTOR activation, impairment of autophagy, compromised ubiquitin-proteasome system, iron dyshomeostasis, changes in APP translation, amyloid plaque formation, tau hyperphosphorylation and neurofibrillary tangle formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerwyn Morris
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Deakin University, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michael Berk
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Deakin University, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, Level 1 North, Main Block, Royal Melbourne Hospital, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, Kenneth Myer Building, University of Melbourne, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, 35 Poplar Rd, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michael Maes
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Deakin University, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Basant K Puri
- Department of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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412
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Kelly SC, McKay EC, Beck JS, Collier TJ, Dorrance AM, Counts SE. Locus Coeruleus Degeneration Induces Forebrain Vascular Pathology in a Transgenic Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 70:371-388. [PMID: 31177220 PMCID: PMC6929678 DOI: 10.3233/jad-190090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC) neuron loss is a significant feature of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The LC is the primary source of norepinephrine in the forebrain, where it modulates attention and memory in vulnerable cognitive regions such as prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus. Furthermore, LC-mediated norepinephrine signaling is thought to play a role in blood-brain barrier (BBB) maintenance and neurovascular coupling, suggesting that LC degeneration may impact the high comorbidity of cerebrovascular disease and AD. However, the extent to which LC projection system degeneration influences vascular pathology is not fully understood. To address this question in vivo, we stereotactically lesioned LC projection neurons innervating the PFC of six-month-old Tg344-19 AD rats using the noradrenergic immunotoxin, dopamine-β-hydroxylase IgG-saporin (DBH-sap), or an untargeted control IgG-saporin (IgG-sap). DBH-sap-lesioned animals performed significantly worse than IgG-sap animals on the Barnes maze task in measures of both spatial and working memory. DBH-sap-lesioned rats also displayed increased amyloid and inflammation pathology compared to IgG-sap controls. However, we also discovered prominent parenchymal albumin extravasation with DBH-sap lesions indicative of BBB breakdown. Moreover, microvessel wall-to-lumen ratios were increased in the PFC of DBH-sap compared to IgG-sap rats, suggesting that LC deafferentation results in vascular remodeling. Finally, we noted an early emergence of amyloid angiopathy in the DBH-sap-lesioned Tg344-19 AD rats. Taken together, these data indicate that LC projection system degeneration is a nexus lesion that compromises both vascular and neuronal function in cognitive brain areas during the prodromal stages of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Kelly
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Erin C. McKay
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - John S. Beck
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Timothy J. Collier
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Anne M. Dorrance
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Scott E. Counts
- Department of Translational Science and Molecular Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Department of Family Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Hauenstein Neurosciences Center, Mercy Health Saint Mary’s Hospital, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Michigan Alzheimer’s Disease Core Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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413
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Nanowired delivery of cerebrolysin with neprilysin and p-Tau antibodies induces superior neuroprotection in Alzheimer's disease. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2019; 245:145-200. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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414
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Sharma A, Castellani RJ, Smith MA, Muresanu DF, Dey PK, Sharma HS. 5-Hydroxytryptophan: A precursor of serotonin influences regional blood-brain barrier breakdown, cerebral blood flow, brain edema formation, and neuropathology. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2019; 146:1-44. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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415
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Sweeney MD, Montagne A, Sagare AP, Nation DA, Schneider LS, Chui HC, Harrington MG, Pa J, Law M, Wang DJJ, Jacobs RE, Doubal FN, Ramirez J, Black SE, Nedergaard M, Benveniste H, Dichgans M, Iadecola C, Love S, Bath PM, Markus HS, Al-Shahi Salman R, Allan SM, Quinn TJ, Kalaria RN, Werring DJ, Carare RO, Touyz RM, Williams SCR, Moskowitz MA, Katusic ZS, Lutz SE, Lazarov O, Minshall RD, Rehman J, Davis TP, Wellington CL, González HM, Yuan C, Lockhart SN, Hughes TM, Chen CLH, Sachdev P, O'Brien JT, Skoog I, Pantoni L, Gustafson DR, Biessels GJ, Wallin A, Smith EE, Mok V, Wong A, Passmore P, Barkof F, Muller M, Breteler MMB, Román GC, Hamel E, Seshadri S, Gottesman RF, van Buchem MA, Arvanitakis Z, Schneider JA, Drewes LR, Hachinski V, Finch CE, Toga AW, Wardlaw JM, Zlokovic BV. Vascular dysfunction-The disregarded partner of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2019; 15:158-167. [PMID: 30642436 PMCID: PMC6338083 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 444] [Impact Index Per Article: 88.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence recognizes Alzheimer's disease (AD) as a multifactorial and heterogeneous disease with multiple contributors to its pathophysiology, including vascular dysfunction. The recently updated AD Research Framework put forth by the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association describes a biomarker-based pathologic definition of AD focused on amyloid, tau, and neuronal injury. In response to this article, here we first discussed evidence that vascular dysfunction is an important early event in AD pathophysiology. Next, we examined various imaging sequences that could be easily implemented to evaluate different types of vascular dysfunction associated with, and/or contributing to, AD pathophysiology, including changes in blood-brain barrier integrity and cerebral blood flow. Vascular imaging biomarkers of small vessel disease of the brain, which is responsible for >50% of dementia worldwide, including AD, are already established, well characterized, and easy to recognize. We suggest that these vascular biomarkers should be incorporated into the AD Research Framework to gain a better understanding of AD pathophysiology and aid in treatment efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie D Sweeney
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Axel Montagne
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Abhay P Sagare
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Daniel A Nation
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Lon S Schneider
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of Psychiatry and the Behavioral Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Helena C Chui
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Judy Pa
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI), Stevens Institute for Neuroimaging and Informatics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Meng Law
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of Radiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Danny J J Wang
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI), Stevens Institute for Neuroimaging and Informatics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Russell E Jacobs
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Fergus N Doubal
- Neuroimaging Sciences and Brain Research Imaging Center, Division of Neuroimaging Sciences, Center for Clinical Brain Sciences, UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Joel Ramirez
- LC Campbell Cognitive Neurology Research Unit, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Heart and Stroke Foundation Canadian Partnership for Stroke Recovery, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sandra E Black
- Department of Medicine (Neurology), Hurvitz Brain Sciences Program, Canadian Partnership for Stroke Recovery, and LC Campbell Cognitive Neurology Research Unit, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto Dementia Research Alliance, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Maiken Nedergaard
- Section for Translational Neuroscience, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Division of Glia Disease and Therapeutics, Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Rochester Medical School, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Helene Benveniste
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Martin Dichgans
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), Ludwing-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Costantino Iadecola
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Seth Love
- Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Bristol, School of Medicine, Level 2 Learning and Research, Southmead Hospital, Bristol, UK
| | - Philip M Bath
- Stroke Trials Unit, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Nottingham, City Hospital Campus, Nottingham, UK; Stroke, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, City Hospital Campus, Nottingham, UK
| | - Hugh S Markus
- Stroke Research Group, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rustam Al-Shahi Salman
- Neuroimaging Sciences and Brain Research Imaging Center, Division of Neuroimaging Sciences, Center for Clinical Brain Sciences, UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Stuart M Allan
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Terence J Quinn
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Rajesh N Kalaria
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - David J Werring
- Stroke Research Centre, Department of Brain Repair and Rehabilitation, UCL Institute of Neurology and the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - Roxana O Carare
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Rhian M Touyz
- British Heart Foundation, Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Steve C R Williams
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Michael A Moskowitz
- Stroke and Neurovascular Regulation Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zvonimir S Katusic
- Department of Anesthesiology and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Sarah E Lutz
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Orly Lazarov
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Richard D Minshall
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jalees Rehman
- Department of Pharmacology, The Center for Lung and Vascular Biology, The University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Medicine, The Center for Lung and Vascular Biology, The University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Thomas P Davis
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Cheryl L Wellington
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hector M González
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Chun Yuan
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Samuel N Lockhart
- Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Timothy M Hughes
- Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Christopher L H Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore; Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Memory Aging and Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Perminder Sachdev
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, Australia
| | - John T O'Brien
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ingmar Skoog
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Leonardo Pantoni
- "L. Sacco" Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Deborah R Gustafson
- Department of Neurology, State University of New York-Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Geert Jan Biessels
- Department of Neurology, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anders Wallin
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenberg, Sweden
| | - Eric E Smith
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Vincent Mok
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, Therese Pei Fong Chow Research Centre for Prevention of Dementia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, Lui Che Woo Institute of Innovative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Adrian Wong
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, Therese Pei Fong Chow Research Centre for Prevention of Dementia, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Peter Passmore
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Frederick Barkof
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Institutes of Neurology and Healthcare Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - Majon Muller
- Section of Geriatrics, Department of Internal Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Monique M B Breteler
- Department of Population Health Sciences, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany; Institute for Medical Biometry, Informatics and Epidemiology (IMBIE), Faculty of Medicine, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gustavo C Román
- Department of Neurology, Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Edith Hamel
- Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Research, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Sudha Seshadri
- The Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, USA; Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rebecca F Gottesman
- Departments of Neurology and Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mark A van Buchem
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Zoe Arvanitakis
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA; Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Julie A Schneider
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA; Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Lester R Drewes
- Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular Biology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School Duluth, Duluth, MN, USA
| | - Vladimir Hachinski
- Division of Neurology, Department of Clinical Neurological Sciences, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Caleb E Finch
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, Dornsife College, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Arthur W Toga
- Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI), Stevens Institute for Neuroimaging and Informatics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Joanna M Wardlaw
- Neuroimaging Sciences and Brain Research Imaging Center, Division of Neuroimaging Sciences, Center for Clinical Brain Sciences, UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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416
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Sweeney MD, Zhao Z, Montagne A, Nelson AR, Zlokovic BV. Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back. Physiol Rev 2019; 99:21-78. [PMID: 30280653 PMCID: PMC6335099 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00050.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1207] [Impact Index Per Article: 241.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents neurotoxic plasma components, blood cells, and pathogens from entering the brain. At the same time, the BBB regulates transport of molecules into and out of the central nervous system (CNS), which maintains tightly controlled chemical composition of the neuronal milieu that is required for proper neuronal functioning. In this review, we first examine molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the establishment of the BBB. Then, we focus on BBB transport physiology, endothelial and pericyte transporters, and perivascular and paravascular transport. Next, we discuss rare human monogenic neurological disorders with the primary genetic defect in BBB-associated cells demonstrating the link between BBB breakdown and neurodegeneration. Then, we review the effects of genes underlying inheritance and/or increased susceptibility for Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) on BBB in relation to other pathologies and neurological deficits. We next examine how BBB dysfunction relates to neurological deficits and other pathologies in the majority of sporadic AD, PD, and ALS cases, multiple sclerosis, other neurodegenerative disorders, and acute CNS disorders such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, and epilepsy. Lastly, we discuss BBB-based therapeutic opportunities. We conclude with lessons learned and future directions, with emphasis on technological advances to investigate the BBB functions in the living human brain, and at the molecular and cellular level, and address key unanswered questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie D Sweeney
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California ; and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Zhen Zhao
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California ; and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Axel Montagne
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California ; and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Amy R Nelson
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California ; and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California ; and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California
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417
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Page S, Patel R, Raut S, Al-Ahmad A. Neurological diseases at the blood-brain barrier: Stemming new scientific paradigms using patient-derived induced pluripotent cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1866:165358. [PMID: 30593893 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a component of the neurovascular unit formed by specialized brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) surrounded by a specific basement membrane interacting with astrocytes, neurons, and pericytes. The BBB plays an essential function in the maintenance of brain homeostasis, by providing a physical and chemical barrier against pathogens and xenobiotics. Although the disruption of the BBB occurs with several neurological disorders, the scarcity of patient material source and lack of reliability of current in vitro models hindered our ability to model the BBB during such neurological conditions. The development of novel in vitro models based on patient-derived stem cells opened new venues in modeling the human BBB in vitro, by being more accurate than existing in vitro models, but also bringing such models closer to the in vivo setting. In addition, patient-derived models of the BBB opens the avenue to address the contribution of genetic factors commonly associated with certain neurological diseases on the BBB pathophysiology. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the BBB, the current development of stem cell-based models in the field, the current challenges and limitations of such models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyanne Page
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America
| | - Ronak Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America
| | - Snehal Raut
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America
| | - Abraham Al-Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America.
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418
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Kant S, Stopa EG, Johanson CE, Baird A, Silverberg GD. Choroid plexus genes for CSF production and brain homeostasis are altered in Alzheimer's disease. Fluids Barriers CNS 2018; 15:34. [PMID: 30541599 PMCID: PMC6291926 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-018-0120-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The roles of the choroid plexus (CP) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) production have drawn increasing attention in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) research. Specifically, studies document markedly decreased CSF production and turnover in moderate-to-severe AD. Moreover, reduced CP function and CSF turnover lead to impaired clearance of toxic metabolites, likely promote neuroinflammation, and may facilitate neuronal death during AD progression. We analyzed CP gene expression in AD compared with control subjects, specifically considering those genes involved with CSF production and CP structural integrity. Methods The Brown-Merck Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database (CP transcripts) was mined to examine changes in gene expression in AD compared to controls with a focus on assorted genes thought to play a role in CSF production. Specifically, genes coding for ion transporters in CP epithelium (CPE) and associated enzymes like Na–K-ATPase and carbonic anhydrase, aquaporins, mitochondrial transporters/enzymes, blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) stability proteins, and pro-inflammatory mediators were selected for investigation. Data were analyzed using t test p-value and fold-change analysis conducted by the GEO2R feature of the GEO database. Results Significant expression changes for several genes were observed in AD CP. These included disruptions to ion transporters (e.g., the solute carrier gene SLC4A5, p = 0.004) and associated enzyme expressions (e.g., carbonic anhydrase CA4, p = 0.0001), along with decreased expression of genes involved in BCSFB integrity (e.g., claudin CLDN5, p = 0.039) and mitochondrial ATP synthesis (e.g., adenosine triphosphate ATP5L, p = 0.0004). Together all changes point to disrupted solute transport at the blood–CSF interface in AD. Increased expression of pro-inflammatory (e.g., interleukin IL1RL1, p = 0.00001) and potential neurodegenerative genes (e.g., amyloid precursor APBA3, p = 0.002) also implicate disturbed CP function. Conclusions Because the altered expression of numerous transcripts in AD-CP help explain decreased CSF production in AD, these findings represent a first step towards identifying novel therapeutic targets in AD. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12987-018-0120-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn Kant
- Department of Pathology (Neuropathology Division), Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, 02903, USA
| | - Edward G Stopa
- Department of Pathology (Neuropathology Division), Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, 02903, USA
| | - Conrad E Johanson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, 02903, USA
| | - Andrew Baird
- Department of Surgery, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Gerald D Silverberg
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, 710 Frenchmans Rd, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
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419
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Antioxidant Properties and the Formation of Iron Coordination Complexes of 8-Hydroxyquinoline. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19123917. [PMID: 30544490 PMCID: PMC6321042 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19123917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The alkaloid 8-hydroxyquinoline (8HQ) is well-known for various biological activities, including antioxidant effects and especially for the formation of coordination complexes with various transition metals, such as iron, amongst others. Therefore, 8HQ was extensively explored as a promising antineurodegenerative agent. However, other authors noted pro-oxidant effects of 8HQ. Here, we explore the pro- and antioxidant properties of 8HQ, especially in context of coordination complexes with iron (II) and iron (III). Methods: Nano-electrospray−mass spectrometry, differential pulse voltammetry, deoxyribose degradation, iron (II) autoxidation, and brine shrimp mortality assays were used. Results: 8HQ formed a complex mixture of coordination complexes with iron (II) and iron (III). Furthermore, 8HQ showed antioxidant effects but no pro-oxidant ones. In the brine shrimp mortality assay, 8HQ demonstrated toxicity that decreased in the presence of iron (III). Conclusions: 8HQ is a potent antioxidant whose effects depend not only on the formation of the coordination complexes with iron ions, but surely on the scavenging activities due to the redox properties of the 8-hydroxyl group. No pro-oxidant effects were observed in the set of the used assays.
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420
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Lukiw WJ, Cong L, Jaber V, Zhao Y. Microbiome-Derived Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Selectively Inhibits Neurofilament Light Chain (NF-L) Gene Expression in Human Neuronal-Glial (HNG) Cells in Primary Culture. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:896. [PMID: 30568571 PMCID: PMC6289986 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The remarkable co-localization of highly pro-inflammatory lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD)-affected neuronal nuclei suggests that there may be some novel pathogenic contribution of this heat stable neurotoxin to neuronal activity and neuron-specific gene expression. In this communication we show for the first time: (i) the association and envelopment of sporadic AD neuronal nuclei with LPS in multiple AD neocortical tissue samples; and (ii) a selective repression in the output of neuron-specific neurofilament light (NF-L) chain messenger RNA (mRNA), perhaps as a consequence of this association. The down-regulation of NF-L mRNA and protein is a characteristic attribute of AD brain and accompanies neuronal atrophy and an associated loss of neuronal architecture with synaptic deficits. To study this phenomenon further, human neuronal-glial (HNG) cells in primary culture were incubated with LPS, and DNA arrays, Northern, Western, and ELISA analyses were used to quantify transcription patterns for the three member neuron-specific intermediate filament-gene family NF-H, NF-M, and NF-L. As in sporadic AD limbic-regions, down-regulated transcription products for the NF-L intermediate filament protein was significant. These results support our novel hypothesis: (i) that internally sourced, microbiome-derived neurotoxins such as LPS contribute to a progressive disruption in the read-out of neuron-specific genetic-information; (ii) that the presence of LPS-enveloped neuronal nuclei is associated with a down-regulation in NF-L expression, a key neuron-specific cytoskeletal component; and (iii) this may have a bearing on progressive neuronal atrophy, loss of synaptic-contact and disruption of neuronal architecture, all of which are characteristic pathological features of sporadic-AD brain. This is the first report that provides evidence for a neuron-specific effect of a human GI-tract microbiome-derived neurotoxin on decreased NF-L abundance in both sporadic AD temporal lobe neocortex in vivo and in LPS-stressed HNG cells in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter J. Lukiw
- Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Department of Neurology, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Department of Ophthalmology, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Lin Cong
- Department of Neurology, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Vivian Jaber
- Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Yuhai Zhao
- Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
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421
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Gustafsson S, Gustavsson T, Roshanbin S, Hultqvist G, Hammarlund-Udenaes M, Sehlin D, Syvänen S. Blood-brain barrier integrity in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease with or without acute 3D6 immunotherapy. Neuropharmacology 2018; 143:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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422
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Ma Q, Zhao Z, Sagare AP, Wu Y, Wang M, Owens NC, Verghese PB, Herz J, Holtzman DM, Zlokovic BV. Blood-brain barrier-associated pericytes internalize and clear aggregated amyloid-β42 by LRP1-dependent apolipoprotein E isoform-specific mechanism. Mol Neurodegener 2018; 13:57. [PMID: 30340601 PMCID: PMC6194676 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-018-0286-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clearance at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays an important role in removal of Alzheimer's amyloid-β (Aβ) toxin from brain both in humans and animal models. Apolipoprotein E (apoE), the major genetic risk factor for AD, disrupts Aβ clearance at the BBB. The cellular and molecular mechanisms, however, still remain unclear, particularly whether the BBB-associated brain capillary pericytes can contribute to removal of aggregated Aβ from brain capillaries, and whether removal of Aβ aggregates by pericytes requires apoE, and if so, is Aβ clearance on pericytes apoE isoform-specific. METHODS We performed immunostaining for Aβ and pericyte biomarkers on brain capillaries (< 6 μm in diameter) on tissue sections derived from AD patients and age-matched controls, and APPSwe/0 mice and littermate controls. Human Cy3-Aβ42 uptake by pericytes was studied on freshly isolated brain slices from control mice, pericyte LRP1-deficient mice (Lrplox/lox;Cspg4-Cre) and littermate controls. Clearance of aggregated Aβ42 by mouse pericytes was studied on multi-spot glass slides under different experimental conditions including pharmacologic and/or genetic inhibition of the low density lipoprotein receptor related protein 1 (LRP1), an apoE receptor, and/or silencing mouse endogenous Apoe in the presence and absence of human astrocyte-derived lipidated apoE3 or apoE4. Student's t-test and one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-hoc test were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS First, we found that 35% and 60% of brain capillary pericytes accumulate Aβ in AD patients and 8.5-month-old APPSw/0 mice, respectively, compared to negligible uptake in controls. Cy3-Aβ42 species were abundantly taken up by pericytes on cultured mouse brain slices via LRP1, as shown by both pharmacologic and genetic inhibition of LRP1 in pericytes. Mouse pericytes vigorously cleared aggregated Cy3-Aβ42 from multi-spot glass slides via LRP1, which was inhibited by pharmacologic and/or genetic knockdown of mouse endogenous apoE. Human astrocyte-derived lipidated apoE3, but not apoE4, normalized Aβ42 clearance by mouse pericytes with silenced mouse apoE. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that BBB-associated pericytes clear Aβ aggregates via an LRP1/apoE isoform-specific mechanism. These data support the role of LRP1/apoE interactions on pericytes as a potential therapeutic target for controlling Aβ clearance in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyi Ma
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
- Lawrence D. Longo, MD Center for Neonatal Biology, Division of Pharmacology, Department of Basic Sciences, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350 USA
| | - Zhen Zhao
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
| | - Abhay P Sagare
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
| | - Yingxi Wu
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
| | - Min Wang
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
| | - Nelly Chuqui Owens
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
| | | | - Joachim Herz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics and Center for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute and Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA
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423
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Hladky SB, Barrand MA. Elimination of substances from the brain parenchyma: efflux via perivascular pathways and via the blood-brain barrier. Fluids Barriers CNS 2018; 15:30. [PMID: 30340614 PMCID: PMC6194691 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-018-0113-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
This review considers efflux of substances from brain parenchyma quantified as values of clearances (CL, stated in µL g-1 min-1). Total clearance of a substance is the sum of clearance values for all available routes including perivascular pathways and the blood-brain barrier. Perivascular efflux contributes to the clearance of all water-soluble substances. Substances leaving via the perivascular routes may enter cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or lymph. These routes are also involved in entry to the parenchyma from CSF. However, evidence demonstrating net fluid flow inwards along arteries and then outwards along veins (the glymphatic hypothesis) is still lacking. CLperivascular, that via perivascular routes, has been measured by following the fate of exogenously applied labelled tracer amounts of sucrose, inulin or serum albumin, which are not metabolized or eliminated across the blood-brain barrier. With these substances values of total CL ≅ 1 have been measured. Substances that are eliminated at least partly by other routes, i.e. across the blood-brain barrier, have higher total CL values. Substances crossing the blood-brain barrier may do so by passive, non-specific means with CLblood-brain barrier values ranging from < 0.01 for inulin to > 1000 for water and CO2. CLblood-brain barrier values for many small solutes are predictable from their oil/water partition and molecular weight. Transporters specific for glucose, lactate and many polar substrates facilitate efflux across the blood-brain barrier producing CLblood-brain barrier values > 50. The principal route for movement of Na+ and Cl- ions across the blood-brain barrier is probably paracellular through tight junctions between the brain endothelial cells producing CLblood-brain barrier values ~ 1. There are large fluxes of amino acids into and out of the brain across the blood-brain barrier but only small net fluxes have been observed suggesting substantial reuse of essential amino acids and α-ketoacids within the brain. Amyloid-β efflux, which is measurably faster than efflux of inulin, is primarily across the blood-brain barrier. Amyloid-β also leaves the brain parenchyma via perivascular efflux and this may be important as the route by which amyloid-β reaches arterial walls resulting in cerebral amyloid angiopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen B. Hladky
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PD UK
| | - Margery A. Barrand
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PD UK
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424
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Abstract
Endothelins were discovered more than thirty years ago as potent vasoactive compounds. Beyond their well-documented cardiovascular properties, however, the contributions of the endothelin pathway have been demonstrated in several neuroinflammatory processes and the peptides have been reported as clinically relevant biomarkers in neurodegenerative diseases. Several studies report that endothelin-1 significantly contributes to the progression of neuroinflammatory processes, particularly during infections in the central nervous system (CNS), and is associated with a loss of endothelial integrity at the blood brain barrier level. Because of the paucity of clinical trials with endothelin-1 antagonists in several infectious and non-infectious neuroinflammatory diseases, it remains an open question whether the 21 amino acid peptide is a mediator/modulator rather than a biomarker of the progression of neurodegeneration. This review focuses on the potential roles of endothelins in the pathology of neuroinflammatory processes, including infectious diseases of viral, bacterial or parasitic origin in which the synthesis of endothelins or its pharmacology have been investigated from the cell to the bedside in several cases, as well as in non-infectious inflammatory processes such as neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimers Disease or central nervous system vasculitis.
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425
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Sweeney MD, Kisler K, Montagne A, Toga AW, Zlokovic BV. The role of brain vasculature in neurodegenerative disorders. Nat Neurosci 2018; 21:1318-1331. [PMID: 30250261 PMCID: PMC6198802 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-018-0234-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 565] [Impact Index Per Article: 94.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Adequate supply of blood and structural and functional integrity of blood vessels are key to normal brain functioning. On the other hand, cerebral blood flow shortfalls and blood-brain barrier dysfunction are early findings in neurodegenerative disorders in humans and animal models. Here we first examine molecular definition of cerebral blood vessels, as well as pathways regulating cerebral blood flow and blood-brain barrier integrity. Then we examine the role of cerebral blood flow and blood-brain barrier in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis. We focus on Alzheimer's disease as a platform of our analysis because more is known about neurovascular dysfunction in this disease than in other neurodegenerative disorders. Finally, we propose a hypothetical model of Alzheimer's disease biomarkers to include brain vasculature as a factor contributing to the disease onset and progression, and we suggest a common pathway linking brain vascular contributions to neurodegeneration in multiple neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie D Sweeney
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kassandra Kisler
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Axel Montagne
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Arthur W Toga
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Stevens Institute for Neuroimaging and Informatics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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426
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Mullane K, Williams M. Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapeutics - 2: Beyond amyloid - Re-defining AD and its causality to discover effective therapeutics. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 158:376-401. [PMID: 30273552 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Compounds targeted for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) have consistently failed in clinical trials despite evidence for target engagement and pharmacodynamic activity. This questions the relevance of compounds acting at current AD drug targets - the majority of which reflect the seminal amyloid and, to a far lesser extent, tau hypotheses - and limitations in understanding AD causality as distinct from general dementia. The preeminence of amyloid and tau led to many alternative approaches to AD therapeutics being ignored or underfunded to the extent that their causal versus contributory role in AD remains unknown. These include: neuronal network dysfunction; cerebrovascular disease; chronic, local or systemic inflammation involving the innate immune system; infectious agents including herpes virus and prion proteins; neurotoxic protein accumulation associated with sleep deprivation, circadian rhythm and glymphatic/meningeal lymphatic system and blood-brain-barrier dysfunction; metabolic related diseases including diabetes, obesity hypertension and hypocholesterolemia; mitochondrial dysfunction and environmental factors. As AD has become increasingly recognized as a multifactorial syndrome, a single treatment paradigm is unlikely to work in all patients. However, the biomarkers required to diagnose patients and parse them into mechanism/disease-based sub-groups remain rudimentary and unvalidated as do non-amyloid, non-tau translational animal models. The social and economic impact of AD is also discussed in the context of new FDA regulatory draft guidance and a proposed biomarker-based Framework (re)-defining AD and its stages as part of the larger landscape of treating dementia via the 2013 G8 initiative to identify a disease-modifying therapy for dementia/AD by 2025.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Mullane
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Michael Williams
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.
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427
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Beishon LC, Panerai RB, Robinson TG, Subramaniam H, Haunton VJ. The Assessment of Cerebrovascular Response to a Language Task from the Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination in Cognitive Impairment: A Feasibility Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography Study. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2018; 2:153-164. [PMID: 30480258 PMCID: PMC6218154 DOI: 10.3233/adr-180068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The incidence of dementia is predicted to rise rapidly, but sensitive diagnostic tests remain elusive. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFv) can occur at an early stage of cognitive decline, and can be measured by transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (TCD). Objective: The aim of this study was to characterize the CBFv changes that occur in healthy older adults (HC), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD), in response to a language task from the Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination (ACE-III). Methods: Participants underwent bilateral TCD, continuous heart rate (ECG), end-tidal CO2 (capnography, ETCO2), and beat-to-beat blood pressure (Finometer, MAP), monitoring, during a 5-minute baseline, followed by cognitive tasks from the ACE-III. Data are presented for a language task (repeating words and phrases aloud), as peak percentage change in CBFv, HR, MAP, and ETCO2 from a normalized baseline. Results: 30 participants (mean age 73.2 years, 20% female) were recruited; HC (n = 10), MCI (n = 10), AD (n = 10). Language scores did not differ between groups (p = 0.16). Peak percentage change in CBFv differed between groups with the language task (HC: 15.9 (7.5)%, MCI: 6.7 (4.5)%, AD: 0.1 (7.1)%; p < 0.005). However, changes in MAP (HC: 7.9 (4.6)%, MCI: –0.1 (0.9)%, AD: 0.9 (4.4)%; p < 0.005), HR (HC: 8.8 (8.2)%, MCI: 0.7 (4.3)%, AD: –0.5 (5.6)%; p = 0.005), and ETCO2 (HC: –0.9 (3.2)%, MCI: 0.9 (3.2)%, AD: –5.2 (5.7)%; p = 0.006), also occurred. Conclusions: TCD measured CBFv changes to a language task from the ACE-III was feasible in a cognitively impaired population, further work is required in a larger population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy C Beishon
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Ronney B Panerai
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.,NIHR Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, British Heart Foundation Cardiovascular Research Centre, Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
| | - Thompson G Robinson
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.,NIHR Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, British Heart Foundation Cardiovascular Research Centre, Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
| | - Hari Subramaniam
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.,Leicestershire Partnership Trust, Evington Centre, Gwendolen Road, Leicester, UK
| | - Victoria J Haunton
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.,NIHR Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, British Heart Foundation Cardiovascular Research Centre, Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
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428
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Canet G, Dias C, Gabelle A, Simonin Y, Gosselet F, Marchi N, Makinson A, Tuaillon E, Van de Perre P, Givalois L, Salinas S. HIV Neuroinfection and Alzheimer's Disease: Similarities and Potential Links? Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:307. [PMID: 30254568 PMCID: PMC6141679 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental factors such as chemicals, stress and pathogens are now widely believed to play important roles in the onset of some brain diseases, as they are associated with neuronal impairment and acute or chronic inflammation. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by progressive synaptic dysfunction and neurodegeneration that ultimately lead to dementia. Neuroinflammation also plays a prominent role in AD and possible links to viruses have been proposed. In particular, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can pass the blood-brain barrier and cause neuronal dysfunction leading to cognitive dysfunctions called HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). Similarities between HAND and HIV exist as numerous factors involved in AD such as members of the amyloid and Tau pathways, as well as stress-related pathways or blood brain barrier (BBB) regulators, seem to be modulated by HIV brain infection, leading to the accumulation of amyloid plaques or neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) in some patients. Here, we summarize findings regarding how HIV and some of its proteins such as Tat and gp120 modulate signaling and cellular pathways also impaired in AD, suggesting similarities and convergences of these two pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Canet
- Molecular Mechanisms in Neurodegenerative Dementia, INSERM, University of Montpellier/EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - Chloé Dias
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France
| | - Audrey Gabelle
- Memory Research and Resources Center, CHU Montpellier, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Yannick Simonin
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France
| | - Fabien Gosselet
- Laboratoire de la Barrière Hémato-Encéphalique, Université d'Artois, Lens, France
| | - Nicola Marchi
- Cerebrovascular Mechanisms of Brain Disorders, Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Functional Genomics, CNRS, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Alain Makinson
- Department of Infectious Diseases CHU Montpellier, INSERM, IRD, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Edouard Tuaillon
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France.,Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Philippe Van de Perre
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France.,Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Laurent Givalois
- Molecular Mechanisms in Neurodegenerative Dementia, INSERM, University of Montpellier/EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - Sara Salinas
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Etablissement français du Sang, Montpellier, France
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429
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Salminen A, Kaarniranta K, Kauppinen A. The potential importance of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:3099-3120. [PMID: 29779041 PMCID: PMC11105369 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2844-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The exact cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is still unknown, but the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and chronic inflammation indicates that immune disturbances are involved in AD pathogenesis. Recent genetic studies have revealed that many candidate genes are expressed in both microglia and myeloid cells which infiltrate into the AD brains. Invading myeloid cells controls the functions of resident microglia in pathological conditions, such as AD pathology. AD is a neurologic disease with inflammatory component where the immune system is not able to eliminate the perpetrator, while, concurrently, it should prevent neuronal injuries induced by inflammation. Recent studies have indicated that AD brains are an immunosuppressive microenvironment, e.g., microglial cells are hyporesponsive to Aβ deposits and anti-inflammatory cytokines enhance Aβ deposition. Immunosuppression is a common element in pathological disorders involving chronic inflammation. Studies on cancer-associated inflammation have demonstrated that myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) have a crucial role in the immune escape of tumor cells. Immunosuppression is not limited to tumors, since MDSCs can be recruited into chronically inflamed tissues where inflammatory mediators enhance the proliferation and activation of MDSCs. AD brains express a range of chemokines and cytokines which could recruit and expand MDSCs in inflamed AD brains and thus generate an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Several neuroinflammatory disorders, e.g., the early phase of AD pathology, have been associated with an increase in the level of circulating MDSCs. We will elucidate the immunosuppressive armament of MDSCs and present evidences in support of the crucial role of MDSCs in the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antero Salminen
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211, Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Kai Kaarniranta
- Department of Ophthalmology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211, Kuopio, Finland
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kuopio University Hospital, P.O. Box 100, 70029 KYS, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Anu Kauppinen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211, Kuopio, Finland
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430
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Effect of tryptase on mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells via protease-activated receptor 2. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:248. [PMID: 30170602 PMCID: PMC6119285 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1287-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mast cells (MCs), the ‘first responders’ in brain injury, are able to disrupt the blood–brain barrier (BBB), but the underlying mechanism is not well understood. Tryptase is the most abundant MC secretory product. Protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR-2) has been identified as a specific receptor for tryptase, which is abundantly expressed in brain microvascular endothelial cells. The BBB comprises brain microvascular endothelial cells that display specialised molecular properties essential for BBB function and integrity. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of tryptase on mouse brain microvascular endothelial cell line bEnd3 and its potential mechanisms of action. Methods Induction of mouse brain microvascular endothelial cell activation by tryptase was examined. Then, mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells were pretreated with a PAR-2 antagonist and stimulated with tryptase. Cellular activation, proinflammatory cytokine production, expression of PAR-2, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) phosphorylation were assessed. Results Tryptase upregulated the production of VCAM-1, MMPs (MMP9 and MMP2), TLR4 and TNF-α and downregulated the expression of the tight junction proteins occludin and claudin-5 in mouse brain microvascular endothelial cell. Among the MAPK and NF-kappa B pathway, ERK and NF-kappa B were activated by tryptase. All of these effects could be eliminated by the PAR-2 inhibitor. Conclusion Based on our findings, we conclude that tryptase can trigger brain microvascular endothelial cell activation and proinflammatory mediator release. These findings may further clarify the involvement and mechanism of tryptase in BBB disruption.
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431
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Li X, Bai Y, Cheng X, Kalds PGT, Sun B, Wu Y, Lv H, Xu K, Zhang Z. Efficient SSA-mediated precise genome editing using CRISPR/Cas9. FEBS J 2018; 285:3362-3375. [PMID: 30085411 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
CRISPR/Cas9 has been emerging as a main player in genome editing field since its advent. However, CRISPR/Cas9-induced precise gene editing remains challenging since it requires no scar left after editing. Among the few reports regarding two-step 'pop in & out' technologies for precise gene editing, the combination of CRISPR/Cas9 with Cre/LoxP demonstrates a higher efficiency, but leaves behind a 34-base pair of tag sequence due to its inherent property. Another method utilizes piggyBac transposon for removing the selection cassette, and its disadvantage is the difficulty in controlling its random reintegration after releasing. Here, we report a novel two-step precise gene-editing method by leveraging the SSA-mediated repair mechanism into the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene-editing system. An integrating cassette was developed with positive and negative selection markers, which was flanked by direct repeat sequences with desired mutations as SSA arms. After the targeted integration of the cassette mediated by CRISPR/Cas9-induced homologous-directed repair, cell clones were first selected through the positive selection. In the second round targeting, the selection cassette was removed by the SSA-mediated DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair without any scar left behind. The novel seamless genome editing technique was tested on CCR5 and APP loci, and finally demonstrated, respectively, up to 45.83% and 68% of precise genome editing efficiency. This study provides a new efficient approach for precise genome editing and gene correction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Yichun Bai
- Institute of Lung and Molecular Therapy, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Xinzhen Cheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Peter Girgis Tawfek Kalds
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Department of Animal and Poultry Production, Faculty of Environmental Agricultural Sciences, Arish University, El-Arish, Egypt
| | - Bing Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Yun Wu
- College of Biology and Agriculture Science, Zunyi Normal University, China
| | - Huijiao Lv
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Kun Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Zhiying Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
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432
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Selective permeability of mouse blood-aqueous barrier as determined by 15N-heavy isotope tracing and mass spectrometry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:9032-9037. [PMID: 30127000 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1807982115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-aqueous barrier plays a key role in regulating aqueous humor homeostasis by selectively restricting passage of proteins into the eye. The kinetics of aqueous flow are traditionally measured using artificial markers; however, these marker molecules do not address the barrier's selective permeability to plasma proteins. Here we applied stable isotope labeling of all serum proteins with nitrogen-15 (15N) atoms. Following systemic injection of this "heavy" serum in mice, the 15N-to-endogenous nitrogen-14 (14N) ratio of each protein in aqueous was measured by mass spectrometry. By monitoring the kinetic changes in these ratios, we determined the permeability profiles of hundreds of serum proteins. Meanwhile, we subjected one of the eyes to neoangiogenic wound healing by inflicting injury to the corneal limbus and compared the 15N proteomes between the normal eyes and the recovering eyes at 2 weeks after injury. In the injured eye, we detected markedly enhanced permeability to inhibitory complement regulator proteins, such as Cfh, Cfhr, Cfb, Cfi, Cfd, and Vtn. Many of the proteins in this group are implicated in age-related macular degeneration associated with leakage of the blood-retinal barrier due to inflammation. To rule out the possibility that the observed leakage was due simply to physical damage of the blood vessels, we separately created a neovascularization model using an alkali burn of the avascular cornea. In this latter model, elevated levels of Cfh and Cfb were evident. These findings suggest that ocular neovascularization is associated with enhanced permeability to serum complement regulators.
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433
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Peña-Bautista C, Vigor C, Galano JM, Oger C, Durand T, Ferrer I, Cuevas A, López-Cuevas R, Baquero M, López-Nogueroles M, Vento M, Hervás D, García-Blanco A, Cháfer-Pericás C. Plasma lipid peroxidation biomarkers for early and non-invasive Alzheimer Disease detection. Free Radic Biol Med 2018; 124:388-394. [PMID: 29969716 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alzheimer Disease (AD) standard diagnosis is based on evaluations and biomarkers that are non-specific, expensive, or requires invasive sampling. Therefore, an early, and non-invasive diagnosis is required. As regards molecular mechanisms, recent research has shown that lipid peroxidation plays an important role. METHODS Well-defined participants groups were recruited. Lipid peroxidation compounds were determined in plasma using a validated analytical method. Statistical studies consisted of an elastic-net-penalized logistic regression adjustment. RESULTS The regression model fitted to the data included six variables (lipid peroxidation biomarkers) as potential predictors of early AD. This model achieved an apparent area under the receiver operating characteristics (AUC-ROCs) of 0.883 and a bootstrap-validated AUC-ROC of 0.817. Calibration of the model showed very low deviations from real probabilities. CONCLUSION A satisfactory early diagnostic model has been obtained from plasma levels of 6 lipid peroxidation compounds, indicating the individual probability of suffering from early AD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Claire Vigor
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, IBMM, University of Montpellier, CNRS ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Marie Galano
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, IBMM, University of Montpellier, CNRS ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Camille Oger
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, IBMM, University of Montpellier, CNRS ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Thierry Durand
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, IBMM, University of Montpellier, CNRS ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Inés Ferrer
- Neurology Unit, University and Polytechnic Hospital La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ana Cuevas
- Neurology Unit, University and Polytechnic Hospital La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Miguel Baquero
- Neurology Unit, University and Polytechnic Hospital La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Máximo Vento
- Neonatal Research Unit, Health Research Institute La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | - David Hervás
- Biostatistical Unit, Health Research Institute La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ana García-Blanco
- Neonatal Research Unit, Health Research Institute La Fe, Valencia, Spain.
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434
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Liu CY, Yang Y, Ju WN, Wang X, Zhang HL. Emerging Roles of Astrocytes in Neuro-Vascular Unit and the Tripartite Synapse With Emphasis on Reactive Gliosis in the Context of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:193. [PMID: 30042661 PMCID: PMC6048287 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes, which are five-fold more numerous than neurons in the central nervous system (CNS), are traditionally viewed to provide simple structural and nutritional supports for neurons and to participate in the composition of the blood brain barrier (BBB). In recent years, the active roles of astrocytes in regulating cerebral blood flow (CBF) and in maintaining the homeostasis of the tripartite synapse have attracted increasing attention. More importantly, astrocytes have been associated with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a major cause of dementia in the elderly. Although microglia-induced inflammation is considered important in the development and progression of AD, inflammation attributable to astrogliosis may also play crucial roles. A1 reactive astrocytes induced by inflammatory stimuli might be harmful by up-regulating several classical complement cascade genes thereby leading to chronic inflammation, while A2 induced by ischemia might be protective by up-regulating several neurotrophic factors. Here we provide a concise review of the emerging roles of astrocytes in the homeostasis maintenance of the neuro-vascular unit (NVU) and the tripartite synapse with emphasis on reactive astrogliosis in the context of AD, so as to pave the way for further research in this area, and to search for potential therapeutic targets of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai-Yun Liu
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yu Yang
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wei-Na Ju
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Hong-Liang Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- Department of Life Sciences, The National Natural Science Foundation of China, Beijing, China
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435
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Abstract
This review by O'Brown et al. discusses the cellular nature of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and the conservation and variation of BBB function across taxa. It compares the BBB across organisms in order to provide insight into the human BBB both under normal physiological conditions and in neurological diseases. The blood–brain barrier (BBB) restricts free access of molecules between the blood and the brain and is essential for regulating the neural microenvironment. Here, we describe how the BBB was initially characterized and how the current field evaluates barrier properties. We next detail the cellular nature of the BBB and discuss both the conservation and variation of BBB function across taxa. Finally, we examine our current understanding of mouse and zebrafish model systems, as we expect that comparison of the BBB across organisms will provide insight into the human BBB under normal physiological conditions and in neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha M O'Brown
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Sarah J Pfau
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Chenghua Gu
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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436
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Hane FT, Li T, Plata JA, Hassan A, Granberg K, Albert MS. Inhaled Xenon Washout as a Biomarker of Alzheimer's Disease. Diagnostics (Basel) 2018; 8:E41. [PMID: 29882765 PMCID: PMC6023430 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics8020041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomarkers have the potential to aid in the study of Alzheimer’s disease (AD); unfortunately, AD biomarker values often have a high degree of overlap between healthy and AD individuals. This study investigates the potential utility of a series of novel AD biomarkers, the sixty second 129Xe retention time, and the xenon washout parameter, based on the washout of hyperpolarized 129Xe from the brain of AD participants following inhalation. The xenon washout parameter is influenced by cerebral perfusion, T1 relaxation of xenon, and the xenon partition coefficient, all factors influenced by AD. Participants with AD (n = 4) and healthy volunteers (n = 4) were imaged using hyperpolarized 129Xe magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to determine the amount of retained xenon in the brain. At 60 s after the breath hold, AD patients retained significantly higher amounts of 129Xe compared to healthy controls. Data was fit to a pharmacokinetic model and the xenon washout parameter was extracted. Xenon washout in white and grey matter occurs at a slower rate in Alzheimer’s participants (129Xe half-life time of 42 s and 43 s, respectively) relative to controls (20 s and 16 s, respectively). Following larger scale clinical trials for validation, the xenon washout parameter has the potential to become a useful biomarker for the support of AD diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis T Hane
- Department of Chemistry, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
- Thunder Bay Regional Health Research Institute, 980 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Chemistry, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
| | - Jennifer-Anne Plata
- Department of Chemistry, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
| | - Ayman Hassan
- Thunder Bay Regional Health Sciences Centre, 980 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
| | - Karl Granberg
- Thunder Bay Regional Health Sciences Centre, 980 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
| | - Mitchell S Albert
- Department of Chemistry, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
- Thunder Bay Regional Health Research Institute, 980 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
- Northern Ontario School of Medicine, 955 Oliver Rd, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada.
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437
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Kisler K, Lazic D, Sweeney MD, Plunkett S, Khatib ME, Vinogradov SA, Boas DA, Sakadžić S, Zlokovic BV. In vivo imaging and analysis of cerebrovascular hemodynamic responses and tissue oxygenation in the mouse brain. Nat Protoc 2018; 13:1377-1402. [PMID: 29844521 PMCID: PMC6402338 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2018.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cerebrovascular dysfunction has an important role in the pathogenesis of multiple brain disorders. Measurement of hemodynamic responses in vivo can be challenging, particularly as techniques are often not described in sufficient detail and vary between laboratories. We present a set of standardized in vivo protocols that describe high-resolution two-photon microscopy and intrinsic optical signal (IOS) imaging to evaluate capillary and arteriolar responses to a stimulus, regional hemodynamic responses, and oxygen delivery to the brain. The protocol also describes how to measure intrinsic NADH fluorescence to understand how blood O2 supply meets the metabolic demands of activated brain tissue, and to perform resting-state absolute oxygen partial pressure (pO2) measurements of brain tissue. These methods can detect cerebrovascular changes at far higher resolution than MRI techniques, although the optical nature of these techniques limits their achievable imaging depths. Each individual procedure requires 1-2 h to complete, with two to three procedures typically performed per animal at a time. These protocols are broadly applicable in studies of cerebrovascular function in healthy and diseased brain in any of the existing mouse models of neurological and vascular disorders. All these procedures can be accomplished by a competent graduate student or experienced technician, except the two-photon measurement of absolute pO2 level, which is better suited to a more experienced, postdoctoral-level researcher.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kassandra Kisler
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
| | - Divna Lazic
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
| | - Melanie D. Sweeney
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
| | - Shane Plunkett
- Departments of Biochemistry and Biophysics and of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Mirna El Khatib
- Departments of Biochemistry and Biophysics and of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Sergei A. Vinogradov
- Departments of Biochemistry and Biophysics and of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - David A. Boas
- Optics Division, MGH/HMS/MIT Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 149 13th Street, Charlestown, MA 02129
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Sava Sakadžić
- Optics Division, MGH/HMS/MIT Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 149 13th Street, Charlestown, MA 02129
| | - Berislav V. Zlokovic
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
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438
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Dai M, Lin Y, El-Amouri SS, Kohls M, Pan D. Comprehensive evaluation of blood-brain barrier-forming micro-vasculatures: Reference and marker genes with cellular composition. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197379. [PMID: 29763456 PMCID: PMC5953434 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary brain microvessels (BrMV) maintain the cellular characters and molecular signatures as displayed in vivo, and serve as a vital tool for biomedical research of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the development/optimization of brain drug delivery. The variations of relative purities or cellular composition among different BrMV samples may have significant consequences in data interpretation and research outcome, especially for experiments with high-throughput genomics and proteomics technologies. In this study, we aimed to identify suitable reference gene (RG) for accurate normalization of real-time RT-qPCR analysis, and determine the proper marker genes (MG) for relative purity assessment in BrMV samples. Out of five housekeeping genes, β-actin was selected as the most suitable RG that was validated by quantifying mRNA levels of alpha-L-iduronidase in BrMV isolated from mice with one or two expressing alleles. Four marker genes highly/selectively expressed in BBB-forming capillary endothelial cells were evaluated by RT-qPCR for purity assessment, resulting in Cldn5 and Pecam1 as most suitable MGs that were further confirmed by immunofluorescent analysis of cellular components. Plvap proved to be an indicator gene for the presence of fenestrated vessels in BrMV samples. This study may contribute to the building blocks toward overarching research needs on the blood-brain barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Dai
- Division of Experimental Hematology & Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Yi Lin
- Division of Experimental Hematology & Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Salim S. El-Amouri
- Division of Experimental Hematology & Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Mara Kohls
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Dao Pan
- Division of Experimental Hematology & Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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439
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Petersen MA, Ryu JK, Akassoglou K. Fibrinogen in neurological diseases: mechanisms, imaging and therapeutics. Nat Rev Neurosci 2018; 19:283-301. [PMID: 29618808 PMCID: PMC6743980 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2018.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The blood coagulation protein fibrinogen is deposited in the brain in a wide range of neurological diseases and traumatic injuries with blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. Recent research has uncovered pleiotropic roles for fibrinogen in the activation of CNS inflammation, induction of scar formation in the brain, promotion of cognitive decline and inhibition of repair. Such diverse roles are possible in part because of the unique structure of fibrinogen, which contains multiple binding sites for cellular receptors and proteins expressed in the nervous system. The cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of fibrinogen are beginning to be elucidated, providing insight into its involvement in neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer disease and traumatic CNS injury. Selective drug targeting to suppress the damaging functions of fibrinogen in the nervous system without affecting its beneficial effects in haemostasis opens a new fibrinogen therapeutics pipeline for neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Petersen
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA USA
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Katerina Akassoglou
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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440
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Zhao Y, Lukiw WJ. Bacteroidetes Neurotoxins and Inflammatory Neurodegeneration. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:9100-9107. [PMID: 29637444 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1015-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The gram-negative facultative anaerobe Bacteroides fragilis (B. fragilis) constitutes an appreciable proportion of the human gastrointestinal (GI)-tract microbiome. As is typical of most gram-negative bacilli, B. fragilis secretes an unusually complex mixture of neurotoxins including the extremely pro-inflammatory lipopolysaccharide BF-LPS. LPS (i) has recently been shown to associate with the periphery of neuronal nuclei in sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain and (ii) promotes the generation of the inflammatory transcription factor NF-kB (p50/p65 complex) in human neuronal-glial cells in primary-culture. In turn, the NF-kB (p50/p65 complex) strongly induces the transcription of a small family of pro-inflammatory microRNAs (miRNAs) including miRNA-9, miRNA-34a, miRNA-125b, miRNA-146a, and miRNA-155. These ultimately bind with the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of several target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and thereby reduce their expression. Down-regulated mRNAs include those encoding complement factor-H (CFH), an SH3-proline-rich multi-domain-scaffolding protein of the postsynaptic density (SHANK3), and the triggering receptor expressed in myeloid/microglial cells (TREM2), as is observed in sporadic AD brain. Hence, a LPS normally confined to the GI tract is capable of driving a NF-kB-miRNA-mediated deficiency in gene expression that contributes to alterations in synaptic-architecture and synaptic-deficits, amyloidogenesis, innate-immune defects, and progressive inflammatory signaling, all of which are characteristics of AD-type neurodegeneration. This article will review the most recent research which supports the idea that bacterial components of the GI tract microbiome such as BF-LPS can transverse biophysical barriers and contribute to AD-type change. For the first-time, these results indicate that specific GI tract microbiome-derived neurotoxins have a strong pathogenic role in eliciting alterations in NF-kB-miRNA-directed gene expression that drives the AD process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhai Zhao
- LSU Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 2020 Gravier Street, Suite 904, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA.,Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 2020 Gravier Street, Suite 904, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Walter J Lukiw
- LSU Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 2020 Gravier Street, Suite 904, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA. .,Department of Neurology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 2020 Gravier Street, Suite 904, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA. .,Departments of Ophthalmology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 2020 Gravier Street, Suite 904, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA.
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441
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Zhao Y, Lukiw WJ. Microbiome-Mediated Upregulation of MicroRNA-146a in Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurol 2018; 9:145. [PMID: 29615954 PMCID: PMC5867462 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The first indication of a potential mechanistic link between the pathobiology of the human gastrointestinal (GI)-tract microbiome and its contribution to the pathogenetic mechanisms of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) came a scant 4 years ago (1). Ongoing research continues to strengthen the hypothesis that neurotoxic microbial-derived components of the GI tract microbiome can cross aging GI tract and blood-brain barriers and contribute to progressive proinflammatory neurodegeneration, as exemplified by the AD-process. Of central interest in these recent investigations are the pathological roles played by human GI tract resident Gram-negative anaerobic bacteria and neurotropic viruses-two prominent divisions of GI tract microbiome-derived microbiota-which harbor considerable pathogenic potential. It is noteworthy that the first two well-studied microbiota-the GI tract abundant Gram-negative bacteria Bacteroides fragilis and the neurotropic herpes simplex virus-1 both share a final common pathway of NF-κB (p50/p65) activation and microRNA-146a induction with ensuing pathogenic stimulation of innate-immune and neuroinflammatory pathways. These appear to strongly contribute to the inflammation-mediated amyloidogenic neuropathology of AD. This communication: (i) will review recent research contributions that have expanded our understanding of the nature of the translocation of microbiome-derived neurotoxins-across biophysiological barriers; (ii) will assess multiple-recent investigations of the induction of the proinflammatory pathogenic microRNA-146a by these two prominent classes of human microbiota; and (iii) will discuss the role of molecular neurobiology and mechanistic contribution of polymicrobial infections to AD-type neuropathological change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhai Zhao
- LSU Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Walter J. Lukiw
- LSU Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Department of Ophthalmology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Department of Neurology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, United States
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442
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D'Arrigo JS. Targeting Early Dementia: Using Lipid Cubic Phase Nanocarriers to Cross the Blood⁻Brain Barrier. Biomimetics (Basel) 2018; 3:E4. [PMID: 31105226 PMCID: PMC6352688 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics3010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decades, a frequent co-morbidity of cerebrovascular pathology and Alzheimer's disease has been observed. Numerous published studies indicate that the preservation of a healthy cerebrovascular endothelium can be an important therapeutic target. By incorporating the appropriate drug(s) into biomimetic (lipid cubic phase) nanocarriers, one obtains a multitasking combination therapeutic, which targets certain cell surface scavenger receptors, mainly class B type I (i.e., SR-BI), and crosses the blood⁻brain barrier. This targeting allows for various cell types related to Alzheimer's to be simultaneously searched out for localized drug treatment in vivo.
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443
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Liebner S, Dijkhuizen RM, Reiss Y, Plate KH, Agalliu D, Constantin G. Functional morphology of the blood-brain barrier in health and disease. Acta Neuropathol 2018; 135:311-336. [PMID: 29411111 PMCID: PMC6781630 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-018-1815-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 520] [Impact Index Per Article: 86.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The adult quiescent blood-brain barrier (BBB), a structure organised by endothelial cells through interactions with pericytes, astrocytes, neurons and microglia in the neurovascular unit, is highly regulated but fragile at the same time. In the past decade, there has been considerable progress in understanding not only the molecular pathways involved in BBB development, but also BBB breakdown in neurological diseases. Specifically, the Wnt/β-catenin, retinoic acid and sonic hedgehog pathways moved into the focus of BBB research. Moreover, angiopoietin/Tie2 signalling that is linked to angiogenic processes has gained attention in the BBB field. Blood vessels play an essential role in initiation and progression of many diseases, including inflammation outside the central nervous system (CNS). Therefore, the potential influence of CNS blood vessels in neurological diseases associated with BBB alterations or neuroinflammation has become a major focus of current research to understand their contribution to pathogenesis. Moreover, the BBB remains a major obstacle to pharmaceutical intervention in the CNS. The complications may either be expressed by inadequate therapeutic delivery like in brain tumours, or by poor delivery of the drug across the BBB and ineffective bioavailability. In this review, we initially describe the cellular and molecular components that contribute to the steady state of the healthy BBB. We then discuss BBB alterations in ischaemic stroke, primary and metastatic brain tumour, chronic inflammation and Alzheimer's disease. Throughout the review, we highlight common mechanisms of BBB abnormalities among these diseases, in particular the contribution of neuroinflammation to BBB dysfunction and disease progression, and emphasise unique aspects of BBB alteration in certain diseases such as brain tumours. Moreover, this review highlights novel strategies to monitor BBB function by non-invasive imaging techniques focussing on ischaemic stroke, as well as novel ways to modulate BBB permeability and function to promote treatment of brain tumours, inflammation and Alzheimer's disease. In conclusion, a deep understanding of signals that maintain the healthy BBB and promote fluctuations in BBB permeability in disease states will be key to elucidate disease mechanisms and to identify potential targets for diagnostics and therapeutic modulation of the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Liebner
- Institute of Neurology, Goethe University Clinic, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Systems (ECCPS), Partner site Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
| | - Rick M Dijkhuizen
- Center for Image Sciences, University Medical Center Utrecht and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Yvonne Reiss
- Institute of Neurology, Goethe University Clinic, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Systems (ECCPS), Partner site Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Karl H Plate
- Institute of Neurology, Goethe University Clinic, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Systems (ECCPS), Partner site Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dritan Agalliu
- Departments of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Departments of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Departments of Pharmacology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Departments of Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Gabriela Constantin
- Department of Medicine, Section of General Pathology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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444
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Sweeney MD, Sagare AP, Zlokovic BV. Blood-brain barrier breakdown in Alzheimer disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Nat Rev Neurol 2018; 14:133-150. [PMID: 29377008 PMCID: PMC5829048 DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1700] [Impact Index Per Article: 283.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a continuous endothelial membrane within brain microvessels that has sealed cell-to-cell contacts and is sheathed by mural vascular cells and perivascular astrocyte end-feet. The BBB protects neurons from factors present in the systemic circulation and maintains the highly regulated CNS internal milieu, which is required for proper synaptic and neuronal functioning. BBB disruption allows influx into the brain of neurotoxic blood-derived debris, cells and microbial pathogens and is associated with inflammatory and immune responses, which can initiate multiple pathways of neurodegeneration. This Review discusses neuroimaging studies in the living human brain and post-mortem tissue as well as biomarker studies demonstrating BBB breakdown in Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, Huntington disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, HIV-1-associated dementia and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. The pathogenic mechanisms by which BBB breakdown leads to neuronal injury, synaptic dysfunction, loss of neuronal connectivity and neurodegeneration are described. The importance of a healthy BBB for therapeutic drug delivery and the adverse effects of disease-initiated, pathological BBB breakdown in relation to brain delivery of neuropharmaceuticals are briefly discussed. Finally, future directions, gaps in the field and opportunities to control the course of neurological diseases by targeting the BBB are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie D Sweeney
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, 1501 San Pablo Street, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
| | - Abhay P Sagare
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, 1501 San Pablo Street, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, 1501 San Pablo Street, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
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445
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Zhan X, Stamova B, Sharp FR. Lipopolysaccharide Associates with Amyloid Plaques, Neurons and Oligodendrocytes in Alzheimer's Disease Brain: A Review. Front Aging Neurosci 2018. [PMID: 29520228 PMCID: PMC5827158 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
This review proposes that lipopolysaccharide (LPS, found in the wall of all Gram-negative bacteria) could play a role in causing sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This is based in part upon recent studies showing that: Gram-negative E. coli bacteria can form extracellular amyloid; bacterial-encoded 16S rRNA is present in all human brains with over 70% being Gram-negative bacteria; ultrastructural analyses have shown microbes in erythrocytes of AD patients; blood LPS levels in AD patients are 3-fold the levels in control; LPS combined with focal cerebral ischemia and hypoxia produced amyloid-like plaques and myelin injury in adult rat cortex. Moreover, Gram-negative bacterial LPS was found in aging control and AD brains, though LPS levels were much higher in AD brains. In addition, LPS co-localized with amyloid plaques, peri-vascular amyloid, neurons, and oligodendrocytes in AD brains. Based upon the postulate LPS caused oligodendrocyte injury, degraded Myelin Basic Protein (dMBP) levels were found to be much higher in AD compared to control brains. Immunofluorescence showed that the dMBP co-localized with β amyloid (Aβ) and LPS in amyloid plaques in AD brain, and dMBP and other myelin molecules were found in the walls of vesicles in periventricular White Matter (WM). These data led to the hypothesis that LPS acts on leukocyte and microglial TLR4-CD14/TLR2 receptors to produce NFkB mediated increases of cytokines which increase Aβ levels, damage oligodendrocytes and produce myelin injury found in AD brain. Since Aβ1–42 is also an agonist for TLR4 receptors, this could produce a vicious cycle that accounts for the relentless progression of AD. Thus, LPS, the TLR4 receptor complex, and Gram-negative bacteria might be treatment or prevention targets for sporadic AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinhua Zhan
- Department of Neurology, MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Boryana Stamova
- Department of Neurology, MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Frank R Sharp
- Department of Neurology, MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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446
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Saji N, Tone S, Murotani K, Yagita Y, Kimura K, Sakurai T. Cilostazol May Decrease Plasma Inflammatory Biomarkers in Patients with Recent Small Subcortical Infarcts: A Pilot Study. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2018; 27:1639-1645. [PMID: 29454567 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2018.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Revised: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mechanism of progressive neurological deficit in patients with recent small subcortical infarcts has not yet been clarified. Inflammatory biomarkers and the use of cilostazol may be associated with this phenomenon. METHODS Between May 2013 and April 2014, we evaluated consecutive first-ever patients with stroke due to recent small subcortical infarcts within 48 hours of onset. We divided patients into 2 groups according to the use of antiplatelet agents (cilostazol with or without aspirin versus aspirin alone). Plasma biomarkers such as matrix metalloproteinase-9, interleukin-6, high sensitive C-reactive protein, and amyloid β precursor protein (APP770, indicating endothelial dysfunction) were measured twice: (1) within 24 hours; and (2) 1 week after their admission. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify the variables independently associated with progressive neurological deficit and poor functional outcome. RESULTS We analyzed 41 patients (male: 63.4%, mean age: 70.8 years). Most of the patients (90%) who were treated with cilostazol were concomitantly treated with aspirin. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 and high sensitive C-reactive protein were higher in patients with progressive neurological deficit compared with those without. APP770 were more likely to be decreased in cilostazol group compared with aspirin group. Multivariable analyses show that traditional risk factors such as age and National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale scores were independently associated with both progressive neurological deficit and poor functional outcome. CONCLUSIONS Inflammatory biomarkers may be associated with progressive neurological deficit. Early initiation of cilostazol may decrease the levels of plasma biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Saji
- Department of Stroke Medicine, Kawasaki Medical School, Japan; Center for Comprehensive Care and Research on Memory Disorders, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Japan.
| | - Shigenobu Tone
- Department of Biochemistry, Kawasaki Medical School, Japan; Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Denki University, Japan
| | - Kenta Murotani
- Division of Biostatistics, Clinical Research Center, Aichi Medical University, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Yagita
- Department of Stroke Medicine, Kawasaki Medical School, Japan
| | - Kazumi Kimura
- Department of Neurological Science, Nippon Medical School Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Takashi Sakurai
- Center for Comprehensive Care and Research on Memory Disorders, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Japan
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447
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Fu BM. Transport Across the Blood-Brain Barrier. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1097:235-259. [PMID: 30315549 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-96445-4_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a dynamic barrier essential for maintaining the microenvironment of the brain. Although the special anatomical features of the BBB determine its protective role for the central nervous system (CNS) from blood-borne neurotoxins, however, the BBB extremely limits the therapeutic efficacy of drugs into the CNS, which greatly hinders the treatment of major brain diseases. This chapter summarized the unique structures of the BBB; described a variety of in vivo and in vitro experimental methods for determining the transport properties of the BBB and the permeability of the BBB to water, ions, and solutes including nutrients, therapeutic agents, and drug carriers; and presented recently developed mathematical models which quantitatively correlate the anatomical structures of the BBB with its barrier functions. Recent findings for modulation of the BBB permeability by chemical and physical stimuli were described. Finally, drug delivery strategies through specific trans-BBB routes were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingmei M Fu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of the City University of New York, New York, NY, USA.
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448
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Raikwar SP, Thangavel R, Dubova I, Ahmed ME, Selvakumar PG, Kempuraj D, Zaheer S, Iyer S, Zaheer A. Neuro-Immuno-Gene- and Genome-Editing-Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease: Are We There Yet? J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 65:321-344. [PMID: 30040732 PMCID: PMC6130335 DOI: 10.3233/jad-180422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a highly complex neurodegenerative disorder and the current treatment strategies are largely ineffective thereby leading to irreversible and progressive cognitive decline in AD patients. AD continues to defy successful treatment despite significant advancements in the field of molecular medicine. Repeatedly, early promising preclinical and clinical results have catapulted into devastating setbacks leading to multi-billion dollar losses not only to the top pharmaceutical companies but also to the AD patients and their families. Thus, it is very timely to review the progress in the emerging fields of gene therapy and stem cell-based precision medicine. Here, we have made sincere efforts to feature the ongoing progress especially in the field of AD gene therapy and stem cell-based regenerative medicine. Further, we also provide highlights in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying AD pathogenesis and describe novel AD therapeutic targets and strategies for the new drug discovery. We hope that the quantum leap in the scientific advancements and improved funding will bolster novel concepts that will propel the momentum toward a trajectory leading to a robust AD patient-specific next generation precision medicine with improved cognitive function and excellent life quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhanshu P. Raikwar
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran’s Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Ramasamy Thangavel
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran’s Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Iuliia Dubova
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Mohammad Ejaz Ahmed
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran’s Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Pushpavathi Govindhasamy Selvakumar
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran’s Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Duraisamy Kempuraj
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran’s Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Smita Zaheer
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Shankar Iyer
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran’s Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Asgar Zaheer
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veteran’s Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA
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449
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Ardura-Fabregat A, Boddeke EWGM, Boza-Serrano A, Brioschi S, Castro-Gomez S, Ceyzériat K, Dansokho C, Dierkes T, Gelders G, Heneka MT, Hoeijmakers L, Hoffmann A, Iaccarino L, Jahnert S, Kuhbandner K, Landreth G, Lonnemann N, Löschmann PA, McManus RM, Paulus A, Reemst K, Sanchez-Caro JM, Tiberi A, Van der Perren A, Vautheny A, Venegas C, Webers A, Weydt P, Wijasa TS, Xiang X, Yang Y. Targeting Neuroinflammation to Treat Alzheimer's Disease. CNS Drugs 2017; 31:1057-1082. [PMID: 29260466 PMCID: PMC5747579 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-017-0483-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Over the past few decades, research on Alzheimer's disease (AD) has focused on pathomechanisms linked to two of the major pathological hallmarks of extracellular deposition of beta-amyloid peptides and intra-neuronal formation of neurofibrils. Recently, a third disease component, the neuroinflammatory reaction mediated by cerebral innate immune cells, has entered the spotlight, prompted by findings from genetic, pre-clinical, and clinical studies. Various proteins that arise during neurodegeneration, including beta-amyloid, tau, heat shock proteins, and chromogranin, among others, act as danger-associated molecular patterns, that-upon engagement of pattern recognition receptors-induce inflammatory signaling pathways and ultimately lead to the production and release of immune mediators. These may have beneficial effects but ultimately compromise neuronal function and cause cell death. The current review, assembled by participants of the Chiclana Summer School on Neuroinflammation 2016, provides an overview of our current understanding of AD-related immune processes. We describe the principal cellular and molecular players in inflammation as they pertain to AD, examine modifying factors, and discuss potential future therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Ardura-Fabregat
- grid.5963.9Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - E. W. G. M. Boddeke
- 0000 0004 0407 1981grid.4830.fDepartment of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - A. Boza-Serrano
- 0000 0001 0930 2361grid.4514.4Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Biomedical Centrum (BMC), Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - S. Brioschi
- grid.5963.9Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - S. Castro-Gomez
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - K. Ceyzériat
- grid.457334.2Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Département de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Institut de biologie François Jacob, MIRCen, 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ,0000 0001 2171 2558grid.5842.bNeurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199, F-92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - C. Dansokho
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - T. Dierkes
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany ,0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dBiomedical Centre, Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospital Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - G. Gelders
- 0000 0001 0668 7884grid.5596.fDepartment of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Michael T. Heneka
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany ,0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - L. Hoeijmakers
- 0000000084992262grid.7177.6Center for Neuroscience (SILS-CNS), Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A. Hoffmann
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - L. Iaccarino
- grid.15496.3fVita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy ,0000000417581884grid.18887.3eIn Vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - S. Jahnert
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - K. Kuhbandner
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - G. Landreth
- 0000 0001 2287 3919grid.257413.6Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202 USA
| | - N. Lonnemann
- 0000 0001 1090 0254grid.6738.aDepartment of Cellular Neurobiology, Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | - R. M. McManus
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - A. Paulus
- 0000 0001 0930 2361grid.4514.4Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Biomedical Centrum (BMC), Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - K. Reemst
- 0000000084992262grid.7177.6Center for Neuroscience (SILS-CNS), Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J. M. Sanchez-Caro
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - A. Tiberi
- grid.6093.cBio@SNS Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - A. Van der Perren
- 0000 0001 0668 7884grid.5596.fDepartment of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - A. Vautheny
- grid.457334.2Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Département de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Institut de biologie François Jacob, MIRCen, 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ,0000 0001 2171 2558grid.5842.bNeurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199, F-92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - C. Venegas
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - A. Webers
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - P. Weydt
- 0000 0000 8786 803Xgrid.15090.3dDepartment of Neurodegenerative Disease and Gerontopsychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Sigmund-Freud Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - T. S. Wijasa
- 0000 0004 0438 0426grid.424247.3German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Sigmund Freud Str. 27, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - X. Xiang
- 0000 0004 1936 973Xgrid.5252.0Biomedical Center (BMC), Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany ,0000 0004 1936 973Xgrid.5252.0Graduate School of Systemic Neuroscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, 82152 Munich, Germany
| | - Y. Yang
- 0000 0001 0930 2361grid.4514.4Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Biomedical Centrum (BMC), Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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