Parvalbumin, calbindin, or calretinin in cortically projecting and GABAergic, cholinergic, or glutamatergic basal forebrain neurons of the rat

Parvalbumin-expressing basal forebrain neurons mediate learning from negative experience

Parvalbumin (PV)-expressing GABAergic neurons of the basal forebrain (BFPVNs) were proposed to serve as a rapid and transient arousal system, yet their exact role in awake behaviors remains unclear. We performed bulk calcium measurements and electrophysiology with optogenetic tagging from the horizontal limb of the diagonal band of Broca (HDB) while male mice were performing an associative learning task. BFPVNs responded with a distinctive, phasic activation to punishment, but showed slower and delayed responses to reward and outcome-predicting stimuli. Optogenetic inhibition during punishment impaired the formation of cue-outcome associations, suggesting a causal role of BFPVNs in associative learning. BFPVNs received strong inputs from the hypothalamus, the septal complex and the median raphe region, while they synapsed on diverse cell types in key limbic structures, where they broadcasted information about aversive stimuli. We propose that the arousing effect of BFPVNs is recruited by aversive stimuli to serve crucial associative learning functions.

Chronic Astrocytic TNFα Production in the Preoptic-Basal Forebrain Causes Aging-like Sleep-Wake Disturbances in Young Mice

Sleep disruption is a frequent problem of advancing age, often accompanied by low-grade chronic central and peripheral inflammation. We examined whether chronic neuroinflammation in the preoptic and basal forebrain area (POA-BF), a critical sleep-wake regulatory structure, contributes to this disruption. We developed a targeted viral vector designed to overexpress tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), specifically in astrocytes (AAV5-GFAP-TNFα-mCherry), and injected it into the POA of young mice to induce heightened neuroinflammation within the POA-BF. Compared to the control (treated with AAV5-GFAP-mCherry), mice with astrocytic TNFα overproduction within the POA-BF exhibited signs of increased microglia activation, indicating a heightened local inflammatory milieu. These mice also exhibited aging-like changes in sleep-wake organization and physical performance, including (a) impaired sleep-wake functions characterized by disruptions in sleep and waking during light and dark phases, respectively, and a reduced ability to compensate for sleep loss; (b) dysfunctional VLPO sleep-active neurons, indicated by fewer neurons expressing c-fos after suvorexant-induced sleep; and (c) compromised physical performance as demonstrated by a decline in grip strength. These findings suggest that inflammation-induced dysfunction of sleep- and wake-regulatory mechanisms within the POA-BF may be a critical component of sleep-wake disturbances in aging.

Functional neuroanatomy of basal forebrain projections to the basolateral amygdala: Transmitters, receptors, and neuronal subpopulations

The projections of the basal forebrain (BF) to the hippocampus and neocortex have been extensively studied and shown to be important for higher cognitive functions, including attention, learning, and memory. Much less is known about the BF projections to the basolateral nuclear complex of the amygdala (BNC), although the cholinergic innervation of this region by the BF is actually far more robust than that of cortical areas. This review will focus on light and electron microscopic tract-tracing and immunohistochemical (IHC) studies, many of which were published in the last decade, that have analyzed the relationship of BF inputs and their receptors to specific neuronal subtypes in the BNC in order to better understand the anatomical substrates of BF-BNC circuitry. The results indicate that BF inputs to the BNC mainly target the basolateral nucleus of the BNC (BL) and arise from cholinergic, GABAergic, and perhaps glutamatergic BF neurons. Cholinergic inputs mainly target dendrites and spines of pyramidal neurons (PNs) that express muscarinic receptors (MRs). MRs are also expressed by cholinergic axons, as well as cortical and thalamic axons that synapse with PN dendrites and spines. BF GABAergic axons to the BL also express MRs and mainly target BL interneurons that contain parvalbumin. It is suggested that BF-BL circuitry could be very important for generating rhythmic oscillations known to be critical for emotional learning. BF cholinergic inputs to the BNC might also contribute to memory formation by activating M1 receptors located on PN dendritic shafts and spines that also express NMDA receptors.

Cognitive Aging and the Primate Basal Forebrain Revisited: Disproportionate GABAergic Vulnerability Revealed

Basal forebrain (BF) projections to the hippocampus and cortex are anatomically positioned to influence a broad range of cognitive capacities that are known to decline in normal aging, including executive function and memory. Although a long history of research on neurocognitive aging has focused on the role of the cholinergic basal forebrain system, intermingled GABAergic cells are numerically as prominent and well positioned to regulate the activity of their cortical projection targets, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. The effects of aging on noncholinergic BF neurons in primates, however, are largely unknown. In this study, we conducted quantitative morphometric analyses in brains from young adult (6 females, 2 males) and aged (11 females, 5 males) rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) that displayed significant impairment on standard tests that require the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Cholinergic (ChAT+) and GABAergic (GAD67+) neurons were quantified through the full rostrocaudal extent of the BF. Total BF immunopositive neuron number (ChAT+ plus GAD67+) was significantly lower in aged monkeys compared with young, largely because of fewer GAD67+ cells. Additionally, GAD67+ neuron volume was greater selectively in aged monkeys without cognitive impairment compared with young monkeys. These findings indicate that the GABAergic component of the primate BF is disproportionally vulnerable to aging, implying a loss of inhibitory drive to cortical circuitry. Moreover, adaptive reorganization of the GABAergic circuitry may contribute to successful neurocognitive outcomes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A long history of research has confirmed the role of the basal forebrain in cognitive aging. The majority of that work has focused on BF cholinergic neurons that innervate the cortical mantle. Codistributed BF GABAergic populations are also well positioned to influence cognitive function, yet little is known about this prominent neuronal population in the aged brain. In this unprecedented quantitative comparison of both cholinergic and GABAergic BF neurons in young and aged rhesus macaques, we found that neuron number is significantly reduced in the aged BF compared with young, and that this reduction is disproportionately because of a loss of GABAergic neurons. Together, our findings encourage a new perspective on the functional organization of the primate BF in neurocognitive aging.

Neuronal PAS domain 1 identifies a major subpopulation of wakefulness-promoting GABAergic neurons in basal forebrain

Here we describe a novel group of basal forebrain (BF) neurons expressing neuronal PAS domain 1 (Npas1), a developmental transcription factor linked to neuropsychiatric disorders. Immunohistochemical staining in Npas1-cre-2A-TdTomato mice revealed BF Npas1 + neurons are distinct from well-studied parvalbumin or cholinergic neurons. Npas1 staining in GAD67-GFP knock-in mice confirmed that the vast majority of Npas1 + neurons are GABAergic, with minimal colocalization with glutamatergic neurons in vGlut1-cre-tdTomato or vGlut2-cre-tdTomato mice. The density of Npas1 + neurons was high, 5-6 times that of neighboring cholinergic, parvalbumin or glutamatergic neurons. Anterograde tracing identified prominent projections of BF Npas1 + neurons to brain regions involved in sleep-wake control, motivated behaviors and olfaction such as the lateral hypothalamus, lateral habenula, nucleus accumbens shell, ventral tegmental area and olfactory bulb. Chemogenetic activation of BF Npas1 + neurons in the light (inactive) period increased the amount of wakefulness and the latency to sleep for 2-3 hr, due to an increase in long wake bouts and short NREM sleep bouts. Non-REM slow-wave (0-1.5 Hz) and sigma (9-15 Hz) power, as well as sleep spindle density, amplitude and duration, were reduced, reminiscent of findings in several neuropsychiatric disorders. Together with previous findings implicating BF Npas1 + neurons in stress responsiveness, the anatomical projections of BF Npas1 + neurons and the effect of activating them suggest a possible role for BF Npas1 + neurons in motivationally-driven wakefulness and stress-induced insomnia. Identification of this major subpopulation of BF GABAergic neurons will facilitate studies of their role in sleep disorders, dementia and other neuropsychiatric conditions involving BF.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

We characterize a group of basal forebrain (BF) neurons in the mouse expressing neuronal PAS domain 1 (Npas1), a developmental transcription factor linked to neuropsychiatric disorders. BF Npas1 + neurons are a major subset of GABAergic neurons distinct and more numerous than cholinergic, parvalbumin or glutamate neurons. BF Npas1 + neurons target brain areas involved in arousal, motivation and olfaction. Activation of BF Npas1 + neurons in the light (inactive) period increased wakefulness and the latency to sleep due to increased long wake bouts. Non-REM sleep slow waves and spindles were reduced reminiscent of findings in several neuropsychiatric disorders. Identification of this major subpopulation of BF GABAergic wake-promoting neurons will allow studies of their role in insomnia, dementia and other conditions involving BF.

Plastic rearrangement of basal forebrain parvalbumin-immunoreactive neurons in the kainite model of epilepsy

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most prevalent form of epilepsy, through the neuronal mechanisms of this syndrome remain elusive. In addition to the temporal lobe structures, it was found that the basal forebrain cholinergic cells are also involved in epileptogenesis. However, little is known about the involvement of the basal forebrain GABAergic neurons in epilepsy; despite this, they largely project to the temporal lobe and are crucial for the regulation of the hippocampal circuitry. In this study, we assessed epilepsy-induced changes in parvalbumin (PARV) immunoreactive neurons of the medial septum (MS) and of the magnocellular preoptic nucleus (MCPO) using the kainic acid (KA) model in rats. In addition, we estimated the respective changes in the cholinergic varicosities in the MS, where we observed a significant reduction in the PARV cell number (12849 ± 2715 vs. 9372 ± 1336, p = .029) and density (16.2 ± 2.62 vs. 10.5 ± 1.00 per .001 mm3, p =.001), and an increase in the density of cholinergic varicosities (47.9 ± 11.1 vs. 69.4 ± 17.8 per 30,000 µm2, p =.036) in KA-treated animals. In the MCPO, these animals showed a significant increase in somatic volume (827.9 ± 235.2 µm3 vs. 469.9 ± 79.6 µm3, p = .012) and total cell number (2268.6 ± 707.1 vs. 1362.4 ± 262.0, p =.028). These results show that the basal forebrain GABAergic cell populations undergo numerical and morphological changes in epileptic animals, which may contribute to an increased vulnerability of brain circuits to epilepsy and epilepsy-related functional impairments.

The Co-Expression Pattern of Calcium-Binding Proteins with γ-Aminobutyric Acid and Glutamate Transporters in the Amygdala of the Guinea Pig: Evidence for Glutamatergic Subpopulations

The amygdala has large populations of neurons utilizing specific calcium-binding proteins such as parvalbumin (PV), calbindin (CB), or calretinin (CR). They are considered specialized subsets of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) interneurons; however, many of these cells are devoid of GABA or glutamate decarboxylase. The neurotransmitters used by GABA-immunonegative cells are still unknown, but it is suggested that a part may use glutamate. Thus, this study investigates in the amygdala of the guinea pig relationships between PV, CB, or CR-containing cells and GABA transporter (VGAT) or glutamate transporter type 2 (VGLUT2), markers of GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons, respectively. The results show that although most neurons using PV, CB, and CR co-expressed VGAT, each of these populations also had a fraction of VGLUT2 co-expressing cells. For almost all neurons using PV (~90%) co-expressed VGAT, while ~1.5% of them had VGLUT2. The proportion of neurons using CB and VGAT was smaller than that for PV (~80%), while the percentage of cells with VGLUT2 was larger (~4.5%). Finally, only half of the neurons using CR (~53%) co-expressed VGAT, while ~3.5% of them had VGLUT2. In conclusion, the populations of neurons co-expressing PV, CB, and CR are in the amygdala, primarily GABAergic. However, at least a fraction of neurons in each of them co-express VGLUT2, suggesting that these cells may use glutamate. Moreover, the number of PV-, CB-, and CR-containing neurons that may use glutamate is probably larger as they can utilize VGLUT1 or VGLUT3, which are also present in the amygdala.

Differential role of GABAergic and cholinergic ventral pallidal neurons in behavioral despair, conditioned fear memory and active coping

The ventral pallidum (VP), a major component of the reward circuit, is well-associated with appetitive behaviors. Recent evidence suggests that this basal forebrain nucleus may have an overarching role in affective processing, including behavioral responses to aversive stimuli. We investigated this by utilizing selective immunotoxin lesions and a series of behavioral tests in adult male Wistar rats. We made bilateral GAT1-Saporin, 192-IgG-Saporin or PBS (vehicle) injections into the VP to respectively eliminate GABAergic and cholinergic neurons, and tested the animals in the forced swim test (FST), open field test (OFT), elevated plus maze (EPM), Morris water maze (MWM) and cued fear conditioning. Both GAT1-Saporin and 192-IgG-Saporin injections reduced behavioral despair without altering general locomotor activity. During the acquisition phase of cued fear conditioning, this antidepressant effect was accompanied by reduced freezing and increased darting in the 192-IgG-Saporin group, and increased jumping in the GAT1-Saporin group. In the extinction phase, cholinergic lesions impaired fear memory irrespective of the context, while GABAergic lesions reduced memory durability only during the early phases of extinction in a novel context. In line with this, selective cholinergic, but not GABAergic, lesions impaired spatial memory in the MWM. We observed no consistent effect in anxiety-like behavior assessed in the OFT and EPM. These findings indicate that both the GABAergic and cholinergic neuronal groups of the VP may contribute to emotion regulation through modulation of behavioral despair and acquired fear by suppressing active coping and promoting species-specific passive behaviors.

Age-related changes in basal forebrain afferent activation in response to food paired stimuli

The basal forebrain contains a phenotypically-diverse assembly of neurons, including those using acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter. This basal forebrain cholinergic system projects to the entire neocortical mantle as well as subcortical limbic structures that include the hippocampus and amygdala. Basal forebrain pathology, including cholinergic dysfunction, is thought to underlie the cognitive impairments associated with several age-related neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer's disease. Basal forebrain dysfunction may stem, in part, from a failure of normal afferent regulation of cholinergic and other neurons in this area. However, little is understood regarding how aging, alone, affects the functional regulation of basal forebrain afferents in the context of motivated behavior. Here, we used neuronal tract-tracing combined with motivationally salient stimuli in an aged rodent model to examine how aging alters activity in basal forebrain inputs arising from several cortical, limbic and brainstem structures. Young rats showed greater stimulus-associated activation of basal forebrain inputs arising from prelimbic cortex, nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area compared with aged rats. Aged rats also showed increased latency to respond to palatable food presentation compared to young animals. Changes in activation of intrinsic basal forebrain cell populations or afferents were also observed as a function of age or experimental condition. These data further demonstrate that age-related changes in basal forebrain activation and related behavioral and cognitive functions reflect a failure of afferent regulation of this important brain region.

Usmarapride (SUVN-D4010), a 5-HT4 receptor partial agonist for the potential treatment of Alzheimer's disease: Behavioural, neurochemical and pharmacological profiling

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder which affects cognitive functions with negative impact on day to day activities and an ultimate loss of independent living. Current standard of care (SOC) for AD, viz. donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine, memantine etc. either alone or in combination show modest efficacy without changing the course of the disease. On prolonged treatment, side effects are more common with an eventual loss of efficacy. Aducanumab, a monoclonal antibody is a disease modifying therapeutic agent targeting the toxic amyloid beta (Aβ) proteins for its clearance. However, it is found to have only modest efficacy in AD patients and its approval by FDA is controversial. Alternate, effective and safe therapeutics are need of the hour, as AD cases are expected to be doubled by 2050. Recently, 5-HT₄ receptors have been envisioned as target for alleviating AD associated cognitive impairment with potential disease modifying ability impacting disease progression. Usmarapride is a 5-HT₄ receptor partial agonist, being developed for the possible treatment of AD with symptomatic and disease modifying potential. Usmarapride demonstrated promising effects in ameliorating cognitive deficits in diverse animal models of episodic, working, social, and emotional memories. Usmarapride produced elevation in cortical acetylcholine in rats. Furthermore, usmarapride increased levels of soluble amyloid precursor protein alpha, a potential mechanism to reverse toxic Aβ peptide pathology. Usmarapride also potentiated the pharmacological effects of donepezil in animal models. To conclude, usmarapride may be a promising intervention for alleviating the cognitive dysfunction in AD patients with disease modifying potential.

Ventral pallidal regulation of motivated behaviors and reinforcement

The interconnected nuclei of the ventral basal ganglia have long been identified as key regulators of motivated behavior, and dysfunction of this circuit is strongly implicated in mood and substance use disorders. The ventral pallidum (VP) is a central node of the ventral basal ganglia, and recent studies have revealed complex VP cellular heterogeneity and cell- and circuit-specific regulation of reward, aversion, motivation, and drug-seeking behaviors. Although the VP is canonically considered a relay and output structure for this circuit, emerging data indicate that the VP is a central hub in an extensive network for reward processing and the regulation of motivation that extends beyond classically defined basal ganglia borders. VP neurons respond temporally faster and show more advanced reward coding and prediction error processing than neurons in the upstream nucleus accumbens, and regulate the activity of the ventral mesencephalon dopamine system. This review will summarize recent findings in the literature and provide an update on the complex cellular heterogeneity and cell- and circuit-specific regulation of motivated behaviors and reinforcement by the VP with a specific focus on mood and substance use disorders. In addition, we will discuss mechanisms by which stress and drug exposure alter the functioning of the VP and produce susceptibility to neuropsychiatric disorders. Lastly, we will outline unanswered questions and identify future directions for studies necessary to further clarify the central role of VP neurons in the regulation of motivated behaviors. Significance: Research in the last decade has revealed a complex cell- and circuit-specific role for the VP in reward processing and the regulation of motivated behaviors. Novel insights obtained using cell- and circuit-specific interrogation strategies have led to a major shift in our understanding of this region. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the VP in which we integrate novel findings with the existing literature and highlight the emerging role of the VP as a linchpin of the neural systems that regulate motivation, reward, and aversion. In addition, we discuss the dysfunction of the VP in animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Evaluation of eGFP expression in the ChAT-eGFP transgenic mouse brain

BACKGROUND

A historically definitive marker for cholinergic neurons is choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), a synthesizing enzyme for acetylcholine, (ACh), which can be found in high concentrations in cholinergic neurons, both in the central and peripheral nervous systems. ChAT, is produced in the body of the neuron, transported to the nerve terminal (where its concentration is highest), and catalyzes the transfer of an acetyl group from the coenzyme acetyl-CoA to choline, yielding ACh. The creation of bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) transgenic mice that express promoter-specific fluorescent reporter proteins (green fluorescent protein-[GFP]) provided an enormous advantage for neuroscience. Both in vivo and in vitro experimental methods benefited from the transgenic visualization of cholinergic neurons. Mice were created by adding a BAC clone into the ChAT locus, in which enhanced GFP (eGFP) is inserted into exon 3 at the ChAT initiation codon, robustly and supposedly selectively expressing eGFP in all cholinergic neurons and fibers in the central and peripheral nervous systems as well as in non-neuronal cells.

METHODS

This project systematically compared the exact distribution of the ChAT-eGFP expressing neurons in the brain with the expression of ChAT by immunohistochemistry using mapping and also made comparisons with in situ hybridization (ISH).

RESULTS

We qualitatively described the distribution of ChAT-eGFP neurons in the mouse brain by comparing it with the distribution of immunoreactive neurons and ISH data, paying special attention to areas where the expression did not overlap, such as the cortex, striatum, thalamus and hypothalamus. We found a complete overlap between the transgenic expression of eGFP and the immunohistochemical staining in the areas of the cholinergic basal forebrain. However, in the cortex and hippocampus, we found small neurons that were only labeled with the antibody and not expressed eGFP or vice versa. Most importantly, we found no transgenic expression of eGFP in the lateral dorsal, ventral and dorsomedial tegmental nuclei cholinergic cells.

CONCLUSION

While the majority of the forebrain ChAT expression was aligned in the transgenic animals with immunohistochemistry, other areas of interest, such as the brainstem should be considered before choosing this particular transgenic mouse line.

Transient neurochemical features of the perigeniculate neurons during early postnatal development of the cat

The thalamic reticular nucleus receives axons from the thalamic sensory nuclei and the cerebral cortex. The visual part of this nucleus in carnivores is the perigeniculate nucleus located dorsal to the lateral geniculate nucleus. The perigeniculate nucleus participates in the modulation of visual processing and in the transition of synchronized slow rhythmicity during sleep into desynchronized high-frequency activity during arousal and consists of inhibitory neurons. The main neurochemical markers for perigeniculate neurons are glutamic acid decarboxylase and Ca²⁺ -binding protein parvalbumin. Previous studies of postnatal development focused on the morphological features of the perigeniculate nucleus; however, its neurochemistry remains poorly understood. In this study, we focused on the postnatal development of perigeniculate neurons using immunohistochemical labeling of parvalbumin, two related Ca²⁺ -binding proteins (calretinin and calbindin), glutamic acid decarboxylase, and a common neuronal protein, NeuN, in kittens that were 0-123 days old and in adult cats. In parallel with the well-known dominant neuronal populations expressing parvalbumin and GAD67 and persisting until adulthood, transient populations expressing calretinin and calbindin were observed. The calbindin-positive neurons were similar to the main perigeniculate population and showed close morphological features and parvalbumin coexpression. In contrast, the calretinin-positive neurons differed in their morphological characteristics and did not express GAD67, thus distinguishing them from the majority of perigeniculate neurons. A possible link between these populations was revealed, and the development of thalamocortical processing is discussed.

Huygens synchronization of medial septal pacemaker neurons generates hippocampal theta oscillation

Episodic learning and memory retrieval are dependent on hippocampal theta oscillation, thought to rely on the GABAergic network of the medial septum (MS). To test how this network achieves theta synchrony, we recorded MS neurons and hippocampal local field potential simultaneously in anesthetized and awake mice and rats. We show that MS pacemakers synchronize their individual rhythmicity frequencies, akin to coupled pendulum clocks as observed by Huygens. We optogenetically identified them as parvalbumin-expressing GABAergic neurons, while MS glutamatergic neurons provide tonic excitation sufficient to induce theta. In accordance, waxing and waning tonic excitation is sufficient to toggle between theta and non-theta states in a network model of single-compartment inhibitory pacemaker neurons. These results provide experimental and theoretical support to a frequency-synchronization mechanism for pacing hippocampal theta, which may serve as an inspirational prototype for synchronization processes in the central nervous system from Nematoda to Arthropoda to Chordate and Vertebrate phyla.

GABAergic and Glutamatergic Phenotypes of Neurons Expressing Calcium-Binding Proteins in the Preoptic Area of the Guinea Pig

The mammalian preoptic area (POA) has large populations of calbindin (CB), calretinin (CR) and parvalbumin (PV) neurons, but phenotypes of these cells are unknown. Therefore, the question is whether neurons expressing CB, CR, and/or PV are GABAergic or glutamatergic. Double-immunofluorescence staining followed by epifluorescence and confocal microscopy was used to determine the coexpression patterns of CB, CR and PV expressing neurons with vesicular GABA transporters (VGAT) as specific markers of GABAergic neurons and vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUT 2) as specific markers of glutamatergic neurons. The guinea pig was adopted as, like humans, it has a reproductive cycle with a true luteal phase and a long gestation period. The results demonstrated that in the guinea pig POA of both sexes, ~80% of CB+ and ~90% of CR+ neurons coexpress VGAT; however, one-fifth of CB+ neurons and one-third of CR+ cells coexpress VGLUT. About two-thirds of PV+ neurons express VGAT, and similar proportion of them coexpress VGLUT. Thus, many CB+, CR+ and PV+ neurons may be exclusively GABAergic (VGAT-expressing cells) or glutamatergic (VGLUT-expressing cells); however, at least a small fraction of CR+ cells and at least one-third of PV+ cells are likely neurons with a dual GABA/glutamate phenotype that may coexpress both transporters.

The brain of the tree pangolin (Manis tricuspis). IX. The pallial telencephalon

A cyto‐, myelo‐, and chemoarchitectonic analysis of the pallial telencephalon of the tree pangolin is provided. As certain portions of the pallial telencephalon have been described previously (olfactory pallium, hippocampal formation, and amygdaloid complex), we focus on the claustrum and endopiriform nuclear complex, the white matter and white matter interstitial cells, and the areal organization of the cerebral cortex. Our analysis indicates that the organization of the pallial telencephalon of the tree pangolin is similar to that observed in many other mammals, and specifically quite similar to the closely related carnivores. The claustrum of the tree pangolin exhibits a combination of insular and laminar architecture, while the endopiriform nuclear complex contains three nuclei, both reminiscent of observations made in other mammals. The population of white matter interstitial cells resembles that observed in other mammals, while a distinct laminated organization of the intracortical white matter was revealed with parvalbumin immunostaining. The cerebral cortex of the tree pangolin presented with indistinct laminar boundaries as well as pyramidalization of the neurons in both layers 2 and 4. All cortical regions typically found in mammals were present, with the cortical areas within these regions often corresponding to what has been reported in carnivores. Given the similarity of the organization of the pallial telencephalon of the tree pangolin to that observed in other mammals, especially carnivores, it would be reasonable to assume that the neural processing afforded the tree pangolin by these structures does not differ dramatically to that of other mammals.

Outcome-Locked Cholinergic Signaling Suppresses Prefrontal Encoding of Stimulus Associations

Acetylcholine (ACh) is thought to control arousal, attention, and learning by slowly modulating cortical excitability and plasticity. Recent studies, however, discovered that cholinergic neurons emit precisely timed signals about the aversive outcome at millisecond precision. To investigate the functional relevance of such phasic cholinergic signaling, we manipulated and monitored cholinergic terminals in the mPFC while male mice associated a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) with mildly aversive eyelid shock (US) over a short temporal gap. Optogenetic inhibition of cholinergic terminals during the US promoted the formation of the CS-US association. On the contrary, optogenetic excitation of cholinergic terminals during the US blocked the association formation. The bidirectional behavioral effects paralleled the corresponding change in the expression of an activity-regulated gene, c-Fos in the mPFC. In contrast, optogenetic inhibition of cholinergic terminals during the CS impaired associative learning, whereas their excitation had marginal effects. In parallel, photometric recording from cholinergic terminals in the mPFC revealed strong innate phasic responses to the US. With subsequent CS-US pairings, cholinergic terminals weakened the responses to the US while developing strong responses to the CS. The across-session changes in the CS- and US-evoked terminal responses were correlated with associative memory strength. These findings suggest that phasic cholinergic signaling in the mPFC exerts opposite effects on aversive associative learning depending on whether it is emitted by the outcome or the cue.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Drugs compensating for the decline of acetylcholine (ACh) are used for cognitive impairment, such as Alzheimer's disease. However, their beneficial effects are limited, demanding new strategies based on better understandings of how ACh modulates cognition. Here, we report that by manipulating ACh signals in the mPFC, we can control the strength of aversive associative learning in mice. Specifically, the suppression of ACh signals during an aversive outcome facilitated its association with a preceding cue. In contrast, the suppression of ACh signals during the cue impaired learning. Considering that this paradigm depends on the brain regions affected in Alzheimer's disease, our findings indicate that precisely timed control of ACh signals is essential to refine ACh-based strategies for cognitive enhancement.

Basal Forebrain Cholinergic Neurons Selectively Drive Coordinated Motor Learning in Mice

Motor control requires precise temporal and spatial encoding across distinct motor centers that is refined through the repetition of learning. The recruitment of motor regions requires modulatory input to shape circuit activity. Here, we identify a role for the baso-cortical cholinergic pathway in the acquisition of a coordinated motor skill in mice. Targeted depletion of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons results in significant impairments in training on the rotarod task of coordinated movement. Cholinergic neuromodulation is required during training sessions as chemogenetic inactivation of cholinergic neurons also impairs task acquisition. Rotarod learning is known to drive refinement of corticostriatal neurons arising in both medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and motor cortex, and we have found that cholinergic input to both motor regions is required for task acquisition. Critically, the effects of cholinergic neuromodulation are restricted to the acquisition stage, as depletion of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons after learning does not affect task execution. Our results indicate a critical role for cholinergic neuromodulation of distant cortical motor centers during coordinated motor learning.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Acetylcholine release from basal forebrain cholinergic neuron terminals rapidly modulates neuronal excitability, circuit dynamics, and cortical coding; all processes required for processing complex sensory information, cognition, and attention. We found that depletion or transient silencing of cholinergic inputs to anatomically isolated motor areas, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and motor cortex, selectively led to significant impairments on coordinated motor learning; disrupting this baso-cortical network after acquisition elicited no effect on task execution. Our results indicate a pivotal role for cholinergic neuromodulation of distant cortical motor centers during coordinated motor learning. These findings support the concept that cognitive components (such as attention) are indispensable in the adjustment of motor output and training-induced improvements in motor performance.

Closed-loop stimulation of the medial septum terminates epileptic seizures

Temporal lobe epilepsy with distributed hippocampal seizure foci is often intractable and its secondary generalization might lead to sudden death. Early termination through spatially extensive hippocampal intervention is not feasible directly, because of the large size and irregular shape of the hippocampus. In contrast, the medial septum is a promising target to govern hippocampal oscillations through its divergent connections to both hippocampi. Combining this 'proxy intervention' concept and precisely timed stimulation, we report here that closed-loop medial septum electrical stimulation can quickly terminate intrahippocampal seizures and suppress secondary generalization in a rat kindling model. Precise stimulus timing governed by internal seizure rhythms was essential. Cell type-specific stimulation revealed that the precisely timed activation of medial septum GABAergic neurons underlaid the effects. Our concept of time-targeted proxy stimulation for intervening pathological oscillations can be extrapolated to other neurological and psychiatric disorders, and has potential for clinical translation.

The distribution, number, and certain neurochemical identities of infracortical white matter neurons in the brains of a southern lesser galago, a black-capped squirrel monkey, and a crested macaque

In the current study, we examined the number, distribution, and aspects of the neurochemical identities of infracortical white matter neurons, also termed white matter interstitial cells (WMICs), in the brains of a southern lesser galago (Galago moholi), a black-capped squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis), and a crested macaque (Macaca nigra). Staining for neuronal nuclear marker (NeuN) revealed WMICs throughout the infracortical white matter, these cells being most dense close to inner cortical border, decreasing in density with depth in the white matter. Stereological analysis of NeuN-immunopositive cells revealed estimates of approximately 1.1, 10.8, and 37.7 million WMICs within the infracortical white matter of the galago, squirrel monkey, and crested macaque, respectively. The total numbers of WMICs form a distinct negative allometric relationship with brain mass and white matter volume when examined in a larger sample of primates where similar measures have been obtained. In all three primates studied, the highest densities of WMICs were in the white matter of the frontal lobe, with the occipital lobe having the lowest. Immunostaining revealed significant subpopulations of WMICs containing neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and calretinin, with very few WMICs containing parvalbumin, and none containing calbindin. The nNOS and calretinin immunopositive WMICs represent approximately 21% of the total WMIC population; however, variances in the proportions of these neurochemical phenotypes were noted. Our results indicate that both the squirrel monkey and crested macaque might be informative animal models for the study of WMICs in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders in humans.

The Medial Septum as a Potential Target for Treating Brain Disorders Associated With Oscillopathies

The medial septum (MS), as part of the basal forebrain, supports many physiological functions, from sensorimotor integration to cognition. With often reciprocal connections with a broad set of peers at all major divisions of the brain, the MS orchestrates oscillatory neuronal activities throughout the brain. These oscillations are critical in generating sensory and emotional salience, locomotion, maintaining mood, supporting innate anxiety, and governing learning and memory. Accumulating evidence points out that the physiological oscillations under septal influence are frequently disrupted or altered in pathological conditions. Therefore, the MS may be a potential target for treating neurological and psychiatric disorders with abnormal oscillations (oscillopathies) to restore healthy patterns or erase undesired ones. Recent studies have revealed that the patterned stimulation of the MS alleviates symptoms of epilepsy. We discuss here that stimulus timing is a critical determinant of treatment efficacy on multiple time scales. On-demand stimulation may dramatically reduce side effects by not interfering with normal physiological functions. A precise pattern-matched stimulation through adaptive timing governed by the ongoing oscillations is essential to effectively terminate pathological oscillations. The time-targeted strategy for the MS stimulation may provide an effective way of treating multiple disorders including Alzheimer's disease, anxiety/fear, schizophrenia, and depression, as well as pain.

Characterization of basal forebrain glutamate neurons suggests a role in control of arousal and avoidance behavior

The basal forebrain (BF) is involved in arousal, attention, and reward processing but the role of individual BF neuronal subtypes is still being uncovered. Glutamatergic neurons are the least well-understood of the three main BF neurotransmitter phenotypes. Here we analyzed the distribution, size, calcium-binding protein content and projections of the major group of BF glutamatergic neurons expressing the vesicular glutamate transporter subtype 2 (vGluT2) and tested the functional effect of activating them. Mice expressing Cre recombinase under the control of the vGluT2 promoter were crossed with a reporter strain expressing the red fluorescent protein, tdTomato, to generate vGluT2-cre-tdTomato mice. Immunohistochemical staining for choline acetyltransferase and a cross with mice expressing green fluorescent protein selectively in GABAergic neurons confirmed that cholinergic, GABAergic and vGluT2+ neurons represent distinct BF subpopulations. Subsets of BF vGluT2+ neurons expressed the calcium-binding proteins calbindin or calretinin, suggesting that multiple subtypes of BF vGluT2+ neurons exist. Anterograde tracing using adeno-associated viral vectors expressing channelrhodopsin2-enhanced yellow fluorescent fusion proteins revealed major projections of BF vGluT2+ neurons to neighboring BF cholinergic and parvalbumin neurons, as well as to extra-BF areas involved in the control of arousal or aversive/rewarding behavior such as the lateral habenula and ventral tegmental area. Optogenetic activation of BF vGluT2+ neurons elicited a striking avoidance of the area where stimulation was given, whereas stimulation of BF parvalbumin or cholinergic neurons did not. Together with previous optogenetic findings suggesting an arousal-promoting role, our findings suggest that BF vGluT2 neurons play a dual role in promoting wakefulness and avoidance behavior.

Contribution of the basal forebrain to corticocortical network interactions

Basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic neurons provide the cerebral cortex with acetylcholine. Despite the long-established involvement of these cells in sensory processing, attention, and memory, the mechanisms by which cholinergic signaling regulates cognitive processes remain elusive. In this study, we recorded spiking and local field potential data simultaneously from several locations in the BF, and sites in the orbitofrontal and visual cortex in transgenic ChAT-Cre rats performing a visual discrimination task. We observed distinct differences in the fine spatial distributions of gamma coherence values between specific basalo-cortical and cortico-cortical sites that shifted across task phases. Additionally, cholinergic firing induced spatial changes in cortical gamma power, and optogenetic activation of BF increased coherence between specific cortico-cortical sites, suggesting that the cholinergic system contributes to selective modulation of cortico-cortical circuits. Furthermore, the results suggest that cells in specific BF locations are dynamically recruited across behavioral epochs to coordinate interregional cortical processes underlying cognition.

The distribution, number, and certain neurochemical identities of infracortical white matter neurons in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) brain

We examined the number, distribution, and immunoreactivity of the infracortical white matter neuronal population, also termed white matter interstitial cells (WMICs), throughout the telencephalic white matter of an adult female chimpanzee. Staining for neuronal nuclear marker (NeuN) revealed WMICs throughout the infracortical white matter, these cells being most numerous and dense close to the inner border of cortical layer VI, decreasing significantly in density with depth in the white matter. Stereological analysis of NeuN-immunopositive cells revealed an estimate of approximately 137.2 million WMICs within the infracortical white matter of the chimpanzee brain studied. Immunostaining revealed subpopulations of WMICs containing neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS, approximately 14.4 million in number), calretinin (CR, approximately 16.7 million), very few WMICs containing parvalbumin (PV), and no calbindin-immunopositive neurons. The nNOS, CR, and PV immunopositive WMICs, possibly all inhibitory neurons, represent approximately 22.6% of the total WMIC population. As the white matter is affected in many cognitive conditions, such as schizophrenia, autism, epilepsy, and also in neurodegenerative diseases, understanding these neurons across species is important for the translation of findings of neural dysfunction in animal models to humans. Furthermore, studies of WMICs in species such as apes provide a crucial phylogenetic context for understanding the evolution of these cell types in the human brain.

Long-Range GABAergic Inhibition Modulates Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the Output Neurons in the Olfactory Bulb

Local interneurons of the olfactory bulb (OB) are densely innervated by long-range GABAergic neurons from the basal forebrain (BF), suggesting that this top-down inhibition regulates early processing in the olfactory system. However, how GABAergic inputs modulate the OB output neurons, the mitral/tufted cells, is unknown. Here, in male and female mice acute brain slices, we show that optogenetic activation of BF GABAergic inputs produced distinct local circuit effects that can influence the activity of mitral/tufted cells in the spatiotemporal domains. Activation of the GABAergic axons produced a fast disinhibition of mitral/tufted cells consistent with a rapid and synchronous release of GABA onto local interneurons in the glomerular and inframitral circuits of the OB, which also reduced the spike precision of mitral/tufted cells in response to simulated stimuli. In addition, BF GABAergic inhibition modulated local oscillations in a layer-specific manner. The intensity of locally evoked θ oscillations was decreased on activation of top-down inhibition in the glomerular circuit, while evoked γ oscillations were reduced by inhibition of granule cells. Furthermore, BF GABAergic input reduced dendrodendritic inhibition in mitral/tufted cells. Together, these results suggest that long-range GABAergic neurons from the BF are well suited to influence temporal and spatial aspects of processing by OB circuits.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Disruption of GABAergic inhibition from the basal forebrain (BF) to the olfactory bulb (OB) impairs the discrimination of similar odors, yet how this centrifugal inhibition influences neuronal circuits in the OB remains unclear. Here, we show that the BF GABAergic neurons exclusively target local inhibitory neurons in the OB, having a functional disinhibitory effect on the output neurons, the mitral cells. Phasic inhibition by BF GABAergic neurons reduces spike precision of mitral cells and lowers the intensity of oscillatory activity in the OB, while directly modulating the extent of dendrodendritic inhibition. These circuit-level effects of this centrifugal inhibition can influence the temporal and spatial dynamics of odor coding in the OB.

Spatial topography of the basal forebrain cholinergic projections: Organization and vulnerability to degeneration

The basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic system constitutes a heterogeneous cluster of large projection neurons that innervate the entire cortical mantle and amygdala. Cholinergic neuromodulation plays a critical role in regulating cognition and behavior, as well as maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Decades of postmortem histology research have demonstrated that the BF cholinergic neurons are selectively vulnerable to aging and age-related neuropathology in degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Emerging evidence from in vivo neuroimaging research, which permits longitudinal tracking of at-risk individuals, indicates that cholinergic neurodegeneration might play an earlier and more pivotal role in these diseases than was previously appreciated. Despite these advances, our understanding of the organization and functions of the BF cholinergic system mostly derives from nonhuman animal research. In this chapter, we begin with a review of the topographical organization of the BF cholinergic system in rodent and nonhuman primate models. We then discuss basic and clinical neuroscience research in humans, which has started to translate and extend the nonhuman animal research using novel noninvasive neuroimaging techniques. We focus on converging evidence indicating that the selective vulnerability of cholinergic neurons in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases is expressed along a rostral-caudal topography in the BF. We close with a discussion of why this topography of vulnerability in the BF may occur and why it is relevant to the clinician.

The brain of the African wild dog. II. The olfactory system

Employing a range of neuroanatomical stains, we detail the organization of the main and accessory olfactory systems of the African wild dog. The organization of both these systems follows that typically observed in mammals, but variations of interest were noted. Within the main olfactory bulb, the size of the glomeruli, at approximately 350 μm in diameter, are on the larger end of the range observed across mammals. In addition, we estimate that approximately 3,500 glomeruli are present in each main olfactory bulb. This larger main olfactory bulb glomerular size and number of glomeruli indicates that enhanced peripheral processing of a broad range of odorants is occurring in the main olfactory bulb of the African wild dog. Within the accessory olfactory bulb, the glomeruli did not appear distinct, rather forming a homogenous syncytia-like arrangement as seen in the domestic dog. In addition, the laminar organization of the deeper layers of the accessory olfactory bulb was indistinct, perhaps as a consequence of the altered architecture of the glomeruli. This arrangement of glomeruli indicates that rather than parcellating the processing of semiochemicals peripherally, these odorants may be processed in a more nuanced and combinatorial manner in the periphery, allowing for more rapid and precise behavioral responses as required in the highly social group structure observed in the African wild dog. While having a similar organization to that of other mammals, the olfactory system of the African wild dog has certain features that appear to correlate to their environmental niche.

Distribution, number, and certain neurochemical identities of infracortical white matter neurons in the brains of three megachiropteran bat species

A large population of infracortical white matter neurons, or white matter interstitial cells (WMICs), are found within the subcortical white matter of the mammalian telencephalon. We examined WMICs in three species of megachiropterans, Megaloglossus woermanni, Casinycteris argynnis, and Rousettus aegyptiacus, using immunohistochemical and stereological techniques. Immunostaining for neuronal nuclear marker (NeuN) revealed substantial numbers of WMICs in each species-M. woermanni 124,496 WMICs, C. argynnis 138,458 WMICs, and the larger brained R. aegyptiacus having an estimated WMIC population of 360,503. To examine the range of inhibitory neurochemical types we used antibodies against parvalbumin, calbindin, calretinin, and neural nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). The calbindin and nNOS immunostained neurons were the most commonly observed, while those immunoreactive for calretinin and parvalbumin were sparse. The proportion of WMICs exhibiting inhibitory neurochemical profiles was ~26%, similar to that observed in previously studied primates. While for the most part the WMIC population in the megachiropterans studied was similar to that observed in other mammals, the one feature that differed was the high proportion of WMICs immunoreactive to calbindin, whereas in primates (macaque monkey, lar gibbon and human) the highest proportion of inhibitory WMICs contain calretinin. Interestingly, there appears to be an allometric scaling of WMIC numbers with brain mass. Further quantitative comparative work across more mammalian species will reveal the developmental and evolutionary trends associated with this infrequently studied neuronal population.

Tyrosine hydroxylase containing neurons in the thalamic reticular nucleus of male equids

Here we report the unusual presence of thalamic reticular neurons immunoreactive for tyrosine hydroxylase in equids. The diencephalons of one adult male of four equid species, domestic donkey (Equus africanus asinus), domestic horse (Equus caballus), Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) and plains zebra (Equus quagga), were sectioned in a coronal plane with series of sections stained for Nissl substance, myelin, or immunostained for tyrosine hydroxylase, and the calcium-binding proteins parvalbumin, calbindin and calretinin. In all equid species studied the thalamic reticular nucleus was observed as a sheet of neurons surrounding the rostral, lateral and ventral portions of the nuclear mass of the dorsal thalamus. In addition, these thalamic reticular neurons were immunopositive for parvalbumin, but immunonegative for calbindin and calretinin. Moreover, the thalamic reticular neurons in the equids studied were also immunopositive for tyrosine hydroxylase. Throughout the grey matter of the dorsal thalamus a terminal network also immunoreactive for tyrosine hydroxylase was present. Thus, the equid thalamic reticular neurons appear to provide a direct and novel potentially catecholaminergic innervation of the thalamic relay neurons. This finding is discussed in relation to the function of the thalamic reticular nucleus and the possible effect of a potentially novel catecholaminergic pathway on the neural activity of the thalamocortical loop.

Unexpected awakenings in severe dementia from case reports to laboratory

OBJECTIVE

Case report notions of unexpected memory retrieval in patients with severe dementia near to death are starting to alter the central "irreversible" paradigm of dementia and locate dementia as a problem of memory retrieval, not consolidation. We suggest that the most likely central tenet of this paradoxical memory retrieval is the fluctuation of neuromodulators projecting from the brain stem to the medial prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. The neuromodulation-centric explanation of this phenomenon aims to open the "irreversible" paradigm of dementia up for discussion and suggest a plausible treatment strategy by questioning how the devastating process of death fluctuates memory performance in severe dementia.

BACKGROUND

Supporting demented patients, who are mostly unresponsive, without making demands or asking a question and regarding them as valuable human beings unexpectedly improve their memory performance around the time of death.

NEW LUCIDITY HYPOTHESIS

Around the time of death, neurological signs (hyper-arousal and -attention) of demented people point out that neurotransmitter discharges are dramatically changed. Relatively resistant neuromodulator circuits to neurodegeneration can maintain optimal levels of arousal and attention for memory processing. In this way, unexpected episodes of lucidity can be triggered. Also, corticotropin-releasing peptides might increase mental clarity by increasing the excitability of the neuromodulator circuits. The science of memory retrieval is more complicated and nuanced than retrieval observations in case reports, but the rapid development of new techniques holds promise for future understanding of lucidity in severe dementia.

MAJOR CHALLENGE FOR THE MODEL

There is no an animal or human model to test this hypothesis; however, the similarities between neurological signs (instantaneous cognitive fluctuations) of delirium and paradoxical lucidity could provide a unique window to understand neural events of terminal lucidity on a modified animal model of delirium. Likewise, similarities between unexpected consciousness signs of terminal lucidity and lucid dreaming suggest that lucid dreaming episodes might be considered a human model for terminal lucidity research.

The hippocampal formation of two carnivore species: The feliform banded mongoose and the caniform domestic ferret

Employing cyto-, myelo-, and chemoarchitectural staining techniques, we analyzed the structure of the hippocampal formation in the banded mongoose and domestic ferret, species belonging to the two carnivoran superfamilies, which have had independent evolutionary trajectories for the past 55 million years. Our observations indicate that, despite the time since sharing a last common ancestor, these species show extensive similarities. The four major portions of the hippocampal formation (cornu Ammonis, dentate gyrus, subicular complex, and entorhinal cortex) were readily observed, contained the same internal subdivisions, and maintained the topological relationships of these subdivisions that could be considered typically mammalian. In addition, adult hippocampal neurogenesis was observed in both species, occurring at a rate similar to that observed in other mammals. Despite the overall similarities, several differences to each other, and to other mammalian species, were observed. We could not find evidence for the presence of the CA2 and CA4 fields of the cornu Ammonis region. In the banded mongoose the dentate gyrus appears to be comprised of up to seven lamina, through the sublamination of the molecular and granule cell layers, which is not observed in the domestic ferret. In addition, numerous subtle variations in chemoarchitecture between the two species were observed. These differences may contribute to an overall variation in the functionality of the hippocampal formation between the species, and in comparison to other mammalian species. These similarities and variations are important to understanding to what extent phylogenetic affinities and constraints affect potential adaptive evolutionary plasticity of the hippocampal formation.

Neuronal Circuits in Barrel Cortex for Whisker Sensory Perception

The array of whiskers on the snout provides rodents with tactile sensory information relating to the size, shape and texture of objects in their immediate environment. Rodents can use their whiskers to detect stimuli, distinguish textures, locate objects and navigate. Important aspects of whisker sensation are thought to result from neuronal computations in the whisker somatosensory cortex (wS1). Each whisker is individually represented in the somatotopic map of wS1 by an anatomical unit named a 'barrel' (hence also called barrel cortex). This allows precise investigation of sensory processing in the context of a well-defined map. Here, we first review the signaling pathways from the whiskers to wS1, and then discuss current understanding of the various types of excitatory and inhibitory neurons present within wS1. Different classes of cells can be defined according to anatomical, electrophysiological and molecular features. The synaptic connectivity of neurons within local wS1 microcircuits, as well as their long-range interactions and the impact of neuromodulators, are beginning to be understood. Recent technological progress has allowed cell-type-specific connectivity to be related to cell-type-specific activity during whisker-related behaviors. An important goal for future research is to obtain a causal and mechanistic understanding of how selected aspects of tactile sensory information are processed by specific types of neurons in the synaptically connected neuronal networks of wS1 and signaled to downstream brain areas, thus contributing to sensory-guided decision-making.

Input dependent modulation of olfactory bulb activity by HDB GABAergic projections

Basal forebrain modulation of central circuits is associated with active sensation, attention, and learning. While cholinergic modulations have been studied extensively the effect of non-cholinergic basal forebrain subpopulations on sensory processing remains largely unclear. Here, we directly compare optogenetic manipulation effects of two major basal forebrain subpopulations on principal neuron activity in an early sensory processing area, i.e. mitral/tufted cells (MTCs) in the olfactory bulb. In contrast to cholinergic projections, which consistently increased MTC firing, activation of GABAergic fibers from basal forebrain to the olfactory bulb leads to differential modulation effects: while spontaneous MTC activity is mainly inhibited, odor-evoked firing is predominantly enhanced. Moreover, sniff-triggered averages revealed an enhancement of maximal sniff evoked firing amplitude and an inhibition of firing rates outside the maximal sniff phase. These findings demonstrate that GABAergic neuromodulation affects MTC firing in a bimodal, sensory-input dependent way, suggesting that GABAergic basal forebrain modulation could be an important factor in attention mediated filtering of sensory information to the brain.

Basal Forebrain Parvalbumin Neurons Mediate Arousals from Sleep Induced by Hypercarbia or Auditory Stimuli

The ability to rapidly arouse from sleep is important for survival. However, increased arousals in patients with sleep apnea and other disorders prevent restful sleep and contribute to cognitive, metabolic, and physiologic dysfunction [1, 2]. Little is currently known about which neural systems mediate these brief arousals, hindering the development of treatments that restore normal sleep. The basal forebrain (BF) receives inputs from many nuclei of the ascending arousal system, including the brainstem parabrachial neurons, which promote arousal in response to elevated blood carbon dioxide levels, as seen in sleep apnea [3]. Optical inhibition of the terminals of parabrachial neurons in the BF impairs cortical arousals to hypercarbia [4], but which BF cell types mediate cortical arousals in response to hypercarbia or other sensory stimuli is unknown. Here, we tested the role of BF parvalbumin (PV) neurons in arousal using optogenetic techniques in mice. Optical stimulation of BF-PV neurons produced rapid transitions to wakefulness from non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep but did not affect REM-wakefulness transitions. Unlike previous studies of BF glutamatergic and cholinergic neurons, arousals induced by stimulation of BF-PV neurons were brief and only slightly increased total wake time, reminiscent of clinical findings in sleep apnea [5, 6]. Bilateral optical inhibition of BF-PV neurons increased the latency to arousal produced by exposure to hypercarbia or auditory stimuli. Thus, BF-PV neurons are an important component of the brain circuitry that generates brief arousals from sleep in response to stimuli, which may indicate physiological dysfunction or danger to the organism.

Stress-Related Neuronal Clusters in Sublenticular Extended Amygdala of Basal Forebrain Show Individual Differences of Positions

To understand functional neuronal circuits for emotion in the basal forebrain, patterns of neuronal activation were examined in mice by immunohistochemistry of immediate-early gene products (Zif268/Egr1 and c-Fos). In all mice examined, clusters of 30–50 neurons expressing Zif268 were found on both sides in the area between the extended amygdala (EA) and globus pallidus (GP), generally designated as sublenticular extended amygdala (SLEA). The clusters consisted of 79.9 ± 3.0% of GABAergic neurons in GAD65-mCherry mice. The expression of the cholinergic marker choline acetyltransferase and the GP markers parvalbumin, proenkephalin, and FoxP2 indicated that these neurons were different from known types of neurons in the EA and GP; therefore, we named them the sublenticular extended amygdalar Zif268/Egr1-expressing neuronal cluster (SLEA-zNC). Sublenticular extended amygdalar Zif268/Egr1-expressing neuronal clusters participated in stress processing because increasing numbers of cells were observed in SLEA-zNCs after exposure to restraint stress (RS), the induction of which was suppressed by diazepam treatment. Mapping SLEA-zNCs showed that their positions and arrangement varied individually; SLEA-zNCs were distributed asymmetrically and tended to be situated mainly in the middle region between the anterior commissure (AC) and posterior end of the GP. However, the total cell number in SLEA-zNCs was compatible between the right and left hemispheres after activation by RS. Therefore, SLEA-zNCs were distributed asymmetrically but were not lateralized. Because time courses of activation differed between the Zif268 and c-Fos, the sequential dual treatment of RSs enabled us to differentiate SLEA-zNCs activated by the first and second RS. The results supported that the same SLEA-zNCs responded to both the first and second RS, and this also applied for all SLEA-zNCs. Thus, we concluded that the cluster positions were invariable under RS in each mouse but were distributed differently between individual mice. We name these newly identified neuronal clusters as stress-related neuronal clusters, SLEA-zNCs, which are considered to be novel functional units of “islands of activation.” Moreover, SLEA-zNCs were situated at different positions in all mice examined, showing individual differences in their positions.

Chronic oral administration of Passiflora incarnata extract has no abnormal effects on metabolic and behavioral parameters in mice, except to induce sleep

Although the number of prescriptions and dependence on sleeping pills are increasing, the associations with unexpected abnormal behaviors and metabolic diseases caused by the overuse of sleeping pills are not well understood. In particular, such as abnormal eating-behavior and the occurrence of metabolic disorders caused by psychological unstable states are reported. For this reason, herbal medicine, which has not had such side effects in recent years, is attracting attention as an alternative medicine/food for sleeping inducer. We have used ethanol extracts from Passiflora incarnata (PI) to steadily obtain positive effects on sleep and brain microenvironment. However, as mentioned earlier, sleep-inducing efficacy can only be used safely if the behavioral and metabolic abnormalities do not appear.

Thus, in this study, we used Phenomaster equipment to continuously monitor the movement, feeding, water consumption, gas changes, etc. in C57BL/6 mice at a dose of 500 mg/kg/day for 5 consecutive days with PI extract group compared with the control group. Before sacrifice, differences in body composition of mice were also compared. Monitoring of 24 h/5 days through the equipment showed no change in PI-treated group in anything except for significant decrease in blood melatonin levels and activity after PI administration. Taken together, the statistically insignificance of any behavioral and metabolic phenomenon produced by repeated treatment of PI are not only expected to have an accurate sleep effect, but are also free of side effects of the prescribed sleeping pills. This study has given us greater confidence in the safety of the PI extracts we use for sleep-inducer.

Intranasal administration of orexin peptides: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential for age-related cognitive dysfunction

Cognitive impairment is a core feature of several neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders, including narcolepsy and age-related dementias. Current pharmacotherapeutic approaches to cognitive enhancement are few in number and limited in efficacy. Thus, novel treatment strategies are needed. The hypothalamic orexin (hypocretin) system, a central integrator of physiological function, plays an important role in modulating cognition. Several single- and dual-orexin receptor antagonists are available for various clinical and preclinical applications, but the paucity of orexin agonists has limited the ability to research their therapeutic potential. To circumvent this hurdle, direct intranasal administration of orexin peptides is being investigated as a prospective treatment for cognitive dysfunction, narcolepsy or other disorders in which deficient orexin signaling has been implicated. Here, we describe the possible mechanisms and therapeutic potential of intranasal orexin delivery. Combined with the behavioral evidence that intranasal orexin-A administration improves cognitive function in narcoleptic and sleep-deprived subjects, our neurochemical studies in young and aged animals highlights the capacity for intranasal orexin administration to improve age-related deficits in neurotransmission. In summary, we highlight prior and original work from our lab and from others that provides a framework for the use of intranasal orexin peptides in treating cognitive dysfunction, especially as it relates to age-related cognitive disorders.

Neural Circuits for Sleep-Wake Regulation

The neural mechanisms of sleep, a fundamental biological behavior from invertebrates to humans, have been a long-standing mystery and present an enormous challenge. Gradually, perspectives on the neurobiology of sleep have been more various with the technical innovations over the recent decades, and studies have now identified many specific neural circuits that selectively regulate the initiation and maintenance of wake, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and non-REM (NREM) sleep. The cholinergic system in basal forebrain (BF) that fire maximally during waking and REM sleep is one of the key neuromodulation systems related to waking and REM sleep. Here we outline the recent progress of the BF cholinergic system in sleep-wake cycle. The intricate local connectivity and multiple projections to other cortical and subcortical regions of the BF cholinergic system elaborately presented here form a conceptual framework for understanding the coordinating effects with the dissecting regions. This framework also provides evidences regarding the relationships between the general anesthesia and wakefulness/sleep cycle focusing on the neural circuitry of unconsciousness induced by anesthetic drugs.

A Preliminary Description of the Sleep-Related Neural Systems in the Brain of the Blue Wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus

The current study provides a detailed qualitative description of the organization of the cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic, orexinergic, and GABAergic sleep-related systems in the brain of the blue wildebeest (Connocheates taurinus), along with a quantitative analysis of the pontine cholinergic and noradrenergic neurons, and the hypothalamic orexinergic neurons. The aim of this study was to compare the nuclear organization of these systems to other mammalian species and specifically that reported for other Cetartiodactyla. In the brain of the blue wildebeest, from the basal forebrain to the pons, the nuclear organization of the cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic, and orexinergic systems, for the most part, showed a corresponding nuclear organization to that reported in other mammals and more specifically the Cetartiodactyla. Furthermore, the description and distribution of the GABAergic system, which was examined through immunostaining for the calcium binding proteins calbindin, calretinin, and parvalbumin, was also similar to that seen in other mammals. These findings indicate that sleep in the blue wildebeest is likely to show typically mammalian features in terms of the global brain activity of the generally recognized sleep states of mammals, but Cetartiodactyl-specific features of the orexinergic system may act to lower overall daily total sleep time in relation to similar sized non-Cetartiodactyl mammals. Anat Rec, 2019. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy Anat Rec, 303:1977-1997, 2020. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy.

Neuromodulation in circuits of aversive emotional learning

Emotional learning and memory are functionally and dysfunctionally regulated by the neuromodulatory state of the brain. While the role of excitatory and inhibitory neural circuits mediating emotional learning and its control have been the focus of much research, we are only now beginning to understand the more diffuse role of neuromodulation in these processes. Recent experimental studies of the acetylcholine, noradrenaline and dopamine systems in fear learning and extinction of fear responding provide surprising answers to key questions in neuromodulation. One area of research has revealed how modular organization, coupled with context-dependent coding modes, allows for flexible brain-wide or targeted neuromodulation. Other work has shown how these neuromodulators act in downstream targets to enhance signal-to-noise ratios and gain, as well as to bind distributed circuits through neuronal oscillations. These studies elucidate how different neuromodulatory systems regulate aversive emotional processing and reveal fundamental principles of neuromodulatory function.

Cortical nNOS/NK1 Receptor Neurons are Regulated by Cholinergic Projections From the Basal Forebrain

Cholinergic (ACh) basal forebrain (BF) neurons are active during wakefulness and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and are involved in sleep homeostasis. We have previously shown in adult animals that cortical neurons that express neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and the receptor for Substance P (NK1R) are activated during non-REM (NREM) sleep in proportion to homeostatic sleep drive. Here, we show that BF neurons modulate cortical nNOS/NK1R cells. In vitro optogenetic stimulation of BF terminals both activated and inhibited nNOS/NK1R neurons. Pharmacological studies revealed cholinergic responses mediated by postsynaptic activation of muscarinic receptors (mAChRs; M3R > M2/4R > M1R) and that presynaptic M3R and M2R activation reduced glutamatergic input onto nNOS/NK1R neurons whereas nicotinic receptor (nAChR)-mediated responses of nNOS/NK1R neurons were mixed. Cholinergic responses of nNOS/NK1R neurons were largely unaffected by prolonged wakefulness. ACh release, including from BF cells, appears to largely excite cortical nNOS/NK1R cells while reducing glutamatergic inputs onto these neurons. We propose that cholinergic signaling onto cortical nNOS/NK1R neurons may contribute to the regulation of cortical activity across arousal states, but that this response is likely independent of the role of these neurons in sleep homeostasis.

GABAergic Medial Septal Neurons with Low-Rhythmic Firing Innervating the Dentate Gyrus and Hippocampal Area CA3

The medial septum implements cortical theta oscillations, a 5–12 Hz rhythm associated with locomotion and paradoxical sleep reflecting synchronization of neuronal assemblies such as place cell sequence coding. Highly rhythmic burst-firing parvalbumin-positive GABAergic medial septal neurons are strongly coupled to theta oscillations and target cortical GABAergic interneurons, contributing to coordination within one or several cortical regions. However, a large population of medial septal neurons of unidentified neurotransmitter phenotype and with unknown axonal target areas fire with a low degree of rhythmicity. We investigated whether low-rhythmic-firing neurons (LRNs) innervated similar or different cortical regions to high-rhythmic-firing neurons (HRNs) and assessed their temporal dynamics in awake male mice. The majority of LRNs were GABAergic and parvalbumin-immunonegative, some expressing calbindin; they innervated interneurons mostly in the dentate gyrus (DG) and CA3. Individual LRNs showed several distinct firing patterns during immobility and locomotion, forming a parallel inhibitory stream for the modulation of cortical interneurons. Despite their fluctuating firing rates, the preferred firing phase of LRNs during theta oscillations matched the highest firing probability phase of principal cells in the DG and CA3. In addition, as a population, LRNs were markedly suppressed during hippocampal sharp-wave ripples, had a low burst incidence, and several of them did not fire on all theta cycles. Therefore, CA3 receives GABAergic input from both HRNs and LRNs, but the DG receives mainly LRN input. We propose that distinct GABAergic LRNs contribute to changing the excitability of the DG and CA3 during memory discrimination via transient disinhibition of principal cells.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT For the encoding and recall of episodic memories, nerve cells in the cerebral cortex are activated in precisely timed sequences. Rhythmicity facilitates the coordination of neuronal activity and these rhythms are detected as oscillations of different frequencies such as 5–12 Hz theta oscillations. Degradation of these rhythms, such as through neurodegeneration, causes memory deficits. The medial septum, a part of the basal forebrain that innervates the hippocampal formation, contains high- and low-rhythmic-firing neurons (HRNs and LRNs, respectively), which may contribute differentially to cortical neuronal coordination. We discovered that GABAergic LRNs preferentially innervate the dentate gyrus and the CA3 area of the hippocampus, regions important for episodic memory. These neurons act in parallel with the HRNs mostly via transient inhibition of inhibitory neurons.

The brain of the tree pangolin (Manis tricuspis). IV. The hippocampal formation

Employing a range of standard and immunohistochemical stains we provide a description of the hippocampal formation in the brain of the tree pangolin. For the most part, the architecture, chemical neuroanatomy, and topological relationships of the component parts of the hippocampal formation of the tree pangolin were consistent with that observed in other mammalian species. Within the hippocampus proper fields CA1, 3, and 4 could be identified with certainty, while CA2 was tentatively identified as a small transitional zone between the CA1 and CA3 fields. Within the dentate gyrus evidence for adult hippocampal neurogenesis at a rate comparable to other mammals was observed. The subicular complex and entorhinal cortex also exhibited divisions typically observed in other mammalian species. In contrast to many other mammals, an architecturally and neurochemically distinct CA4 field was observed, supporting Lorente de Nó's proposed CA4 field, at least in some mammalian species. In addition, up to seven laminae were evident in the dentate gyrus. Calretinin immunostaining revealed the three sublamina of the molecular layer, while immunostaining for vesicular glutamate transporter 2 and neurofilament H indicate that the granule cell layer was composed of two sublamina. The similarities and differences observed in the tree pangolin indicate that the hippocampal formation is an anatomically and neurochemically conserved neural unit in mammalian evolution, but minor changes may relate to specific life history features and habits of species.

Specific Basal Forebrain-Cortical Cholinergic Circuits Coordinate Cognitive Operations

Based on recent molecular genetics, as well as functional and quantitative anatomical studies, the basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic projections, once viewed as a diffuse system, are emerging as being remarkably specific in connectivity. Acetylcholine (ACh) can rapidly and selectively modulate activity of specific circuits and ACh release can be coordinated in multiple areas that are related to particular aspects of cognitive processing. This review discusses how a combination of multiple new approaches with more established techniques are being used to finally reveal how cholinergic neurons, together with other BF neurons, provide temporal structure for behavior, contribute to local cortical state regulation, and coordinate activity between different functionally related cortical circuits. ACh selectively modulates dynamics for encoding and attention within individual cortical circuits, allows for important transitions during sleep, and shapes the fidelity of sensory processing by changing the correlation structure of neural firing. The importance of this system for integrated and fluid behavioral function is underscored by its disease-modifying role; the demise of BF cholinergic neurons has long been established in Alzheimer's disease and recent studies have revealed the involvement of the cholinergic system in modulation of anxiety-related circuits. Therefore, the BF cholinergic system plays a pivotal role in modulating the dynamics of the brain during sleep and behavior, as foretold by the intricacies of its anatomical map.

The distribution, number, and certain neurochemical identities of infracortical white matter neurons in a lar gibbon (Hylobates lar) brain

We examined the number, distribution, and immunoreactivity of the infracortical white matter neuronal population, also termed white matter interstitial cells (WMICs), in the brain of a lesser ape, the lar gibbon. Staining for neuronal nuclear marker (NeuN) revealed WMICs throughout the infracortical white matter, these cells being most numerous and dense close to cortical layer VI, decreasing significantly in density with depth in the white matter. Stereological analysis of NeuN-immunopositive cells revealed a global estimate of ~67.5 million WMICs within the infracortical white matter of the gibbon brain, indicating that the WMICs are a numerically significant population, ~2.5% of the total cortical gray matter neurons that would be estimated for a primate brain the mass of that of the lar gibbon. Immunostaining revealed subpopulations of WMICs containing neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS, ~7 million in number, with both small and large soma volumes), calretinin (~8.6 million in number, all of similar soma volume), very few WMICs containing parvalbumin, and no calbindin-immunopositive neurons. These nNOS, calretinin, and parvalbumin immunopositive WMICs, presumably all inhibitory neurons, represent ~23.1% of the total WMIC population. As the white matter is affected in many cognitive conditions, such as schizophrenia, autism and also in neurodegenerative diseases, understanding these neurons across species is important for the translation of findings of neural dysfunction in animal models to humans. Furthermore, studies of WMICs in species such as apes provide a crucial phylogenetic context for understanding the evolution of these cell types in the human brain.

Cholinergic modulation of spatial learning, memory and navigation

Spatial learning, including encoding and retrieval of spatial memories as well as holding spatial information in working memory generally serving navigation under a broad range of circumstances, relies on a network of structures. While central to this network are medial temporal lobe structures with a widely appreciated crucial function of the hippocampus, neocortical areas such as the posterior parietal cortex and the retrosplenial cortex also play essential roles. Since the hippocampus receives its main subcortical input from the medial septum of the basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic system, it is not surprising that the potential role of the septo-hippocampal pathway in spatial navigation has been investigated in many studies. Much less is known of the involvement in spatial cognition of the parallel projection system linking the posterior BF with neocortical areas. Here we review the current state of the art of the division of labour within this complex 'navigation system', with special focus on how subcortical cholinergic inputs may regulate various aspects of spatial learning, memory and navigation.

Basal Forebrain Nuclei Display Distinct Projecting Pathways and Functional Circuits to Sensory Primary and Prefrontal Cortices in the Rat

Recent evidence supports that specific projections between different basal forebrain (BF) nuclei and their cortical targets are necessary to modulate cognitive functions in the cortex. We tested the hypothesis of the existence of specific neuronal populations in the BF linking with specific sensory, motor, and prefrontal cortices in rats. Neuronal tracing techniques were performed using retrograde tracers injected in the primary somatosensory (S1), auditory (A1), and visual (V1) cortical areas, in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) as well as in BF nuclei. Results indicate that the vertical and horizontal diagonal band of Broca (VDB/HDB) nuclei target specific sensory cortical areas and maintains reciprocal projections with the prelimbic/infralimbic (PL/IL) area of the mPFC. The basal magnocellular nucleus (B nucleus) has more widespread targets in the sensory-motor cortex and does not project to the PL/IL cortex. Optogenetic stimulation was used to establish if BF neurons modulate whisker responses recorded in S1 and PL/IL cortices. We drove the expression of high levels of channelrhodopsin-2, tagged with a fluorescent protein (ChR2-eYFP) by injection of a virus in HDB or B nuclei. Blue-light pulses were delivered to the BF through a thin optic fiber to stimulate these neurons. Blue-light stimulation directed toward the HDB facilitated whisker responses in S1 cortex through activation of muscarinic receptors. The same optogenetic stimulation of HDB induced an inhibition of whisker responses in mPFC by activation of nicotinic receptors. Blue-light stimulation directed toward the B nucleus had lower effects than HDB stimulation. Our findings pointed the presence of specific neuronal networks between the BF and the cortex that may play different roles in the control of cortical activity.

Sleep Deprivation Distinctly Alters Glutamate Transporter 1 Apposition and Excitatory Transmission to Orexin and MCH Neurons

Glutamate transporter 1 (GLT1) is the main astrocytic transporter that shapes glutamatergic transmission in the brain. However, whether this transporter modulates sleep-wake regulatory neurons is unknown. Using quantitative immunohistochemical analysis, we assessed perisomatic GLT1 apposition with sleep-wake neurons in the male rat following 6 h sleep deprivation (SD) or following 6 h undisturbed conditions when animals were mostly asleep (Rest). We found that SD decreased perisomatic GLT1 apposition with wake-promoting orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus compared with Rest. Reduced GLT1 apposition was associated with tonic presynaptic inhibition of excitatory transmission to these neurons due to the activation of Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors, an effect mimicked by a GLT1 inhibitor in the Rest condition. In contrast, SD resulted in increased GLT1 apposition with sleep-promoting melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) neurons in the lateral hypothalamus. Functionally, this decreased the postsynaptic response of MCH neurons to high-frequency synaptic activation without changing presynaptic glutamate release. The changes in GLT1 apposition with orexin and MCH neurons were reversed after 3 h of sleep opportunity following 6 h SD. These SD effects were specific to orexin and MCH neurons, as no change in GLT1 apposition was seen in basal forebrain cholinergic or parvalbumin-positive GABA neurons. Thus, within a single hypothalamic area, GLT1 differentially regulates excitatory transmission to wake- and sleep-promoting neurons depending on sleep history. These processes may constitute novel astrocyte-mediated homeostatic mechanisms controlling sleep-wake behavior.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Sleep-wake cycles are regulated by the alternate activation of sleep- and wake-promoting neurons. Whether and how astrocytes can regulate this reciprocal neuronal activity are unclear. Here we report that, within the lateral hypothalamus, where functionally opposite wake-promoting orexin neurons and sleep-promoting melanin-concentrating hormone neurons codistribute, the glutamate transporter GLT1, mainly present on astrocytes, distinctly modulates excitatory transmission in a cell-type-specific manner and according to sleep history. Specifically, GLT1 is reduced around the somata of orexin neurons while increased around melanin-concentrating hormone neurons following sleep deprivation, resulting in different forms of synaptic plasticity. Thus, astrocytes can fine-tune the excitability of functionally discrete neurons via glutamate transport, which may represent novel regulatory mechanisms for sleep.

Cholinergic Modulation of Cortical Microcircuits Is Layer-Specific: Evidence from Rodent, Monkey and Human Brain

Acetylcholine (ACh) signaling shapes neuronal circuit development and underlies specific aspects of cognitive functions and behaviors, including attention, learning, memory and motivation. During behavior, activation of muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs and nAChRs) by ACh alters the activation state of neurons, and neuronal circuits most likely process information differently with elevated levels of ACh. In several brain regions, ACh has been shown to alter synaptic strength as well. By changing the rules for synaptic plasticity, ACh can have prolonged effects on and rearrange connectivity between neurons that outlasts its presence. From recent discoveries in the mouse, rat, monkey and human brain, a picture emerges in which the basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic system targets the neocortex with much more spatial and temporal detail than previously considered. Fast cholinergic synapses acting on a millisecond time scale are abundant in the mammalian cerebral cortex, and provide BF cholinergic neurons with the possibility to rapidly alter information flow in cortical microcircuits. Finally, recent studies have outlined novel mechanisms of how cholinergic projections from the BF affect synaptic strength in several brain areas of the rodent brain, with behavioral consequences. This review highlights these exciting developments and discusses how these findings translate to human brain circuitries.