Assessment of adult human exposure to phthalate esters in the urban centre of Paris (France)

The concentration of phthalates in drinking water in Iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis

PAE and PC polymers, such as BPA, are utilized to make water bottles. Due to the lack of polymer-chemical interaction, PAE can enter drinking bottles during production, wrapping, and keeping. Phthalates can transfer from the bottle to the water depending on keeping conditions (temperature, time, sunlight intensity), pH, and bottle capacity. Since there haven't been previous studies published on the subject, the aim of this meta-analysis and systematic review research is to determine the level of phthalates in drinking water consumed in Iranian cities. Web of Science, Science of Direct, Scopus, and PubMed, databases have been used in this study. Eight studies were selected from 556 initial publications after screening for duplication and irrelevant information. Articles from January 1, 2000, to February 10, 2024, were found in the mentioned databases. Among the types of phthalates, the concentration of DEHP was reported higher than the others Because its concentration has been reported in seven out of eight studies. The highest concentration of DEHP was reported by Mehraie(2.22 µg/l), Zare Jeddi (0.8 µg/l), Yousefi (0.77 µg/l), Abtahi (0.76 µg/l), Zare Jeddi (0.42 µg/l), Abdolahnejad(0.15 µg/l), and Pourzamani (0.08 µg/l). The highest concentration of DEP, DBP, BBP, and PA was reported by Abtahi (0.77 µg/l) and Esteki (2.25 µg/l), Mehraie(0.93 µg/l), and Pourzamani (0.83 µg/l). The results of this study showed that the most important phthalates measured in drinking water include DEP, DEHP, DBP, BBP, and PA. According to the results of the present studies, the most important factor in the increase of phthalates is the storage conditions of drinking water (temperature, sunlight, and the type of pipe or bottle).

Phthalate acid esters promoted the enrichment of chlorine dioxide-resistant bacteria and their functions related to human diseases in rural polyvinyl chloride distribution pipes

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes are widely used as drinking water distribution pipes in rural areas of China. However, whether phthalate acid esters (PAEs) released from PVC pipes will affect tap water quality is still unknown. The influence of released PAEs on the water quality was analysed in this study, especially after ClO2 disinfection. The results indicated that ClO2 disinfection could control the growth of total coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria (HPC). However, when the ClO2 residual decreased to below 0.10 mg/L, HPC and opportunistic pathogens, including Mycobacterium avium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, increased significantly. In addition, after ClO2 disinfection, PAEs concentrations increased from 10.6-22.2 μg/L to 21.2-58.8 μg/L in different sampling cites. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) effect size (LEfSe) and statistical analysis of metagenomic profiles (Stamp) showed that ClO2 disinfection induced the enrichment of Pseudomonas, Bradyrhizobium, and Mycobacterium and functions related to human diseases, such as pathogenic Escherichia coli infection, shigellosis, Staphylococcus aureus infection, and Vibrio cholerae infection. The released PAEs not only promoted the growth of these ClO2-resistant bacterial genera but also enhanced their functions related to human diseases. Moreover, these PAEs also induced the enrichment of other bacterial genera, such as Blastomonas, Dechloromonas, and Kocuria, and their functions, such as chronic myeloid leukaemia, African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, hepatitis C and human T-cell leukaemia virus 1 infection. The released PAEs enhanced the microbial risk of the drinking water. These results are meaningful for guaranteeing water quality in rural areas of China.

Effects of Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) on Gamete Quality Parameters of Male Koi Carp (Cyprinus carpio)

In this study, we evaluated gamete quality parameters of mature male koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) exposed to three different concentrations (1, 10, and 100 µg/L) of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). After 60 days of exposure, there was a significant decrease in the gonadosomatic index (GSI) of males exposed to 10 and 100 µg/L of DEHP. Histological analysis of the testes revealed impaired histoarchitecture, including inflammatory cells, intratubular vacuoles, and swollen seminiferous tubules in treatment groups. Gamete quality parameters like sperm production, motility, spermatocrit, and sperm density values were significantly decreased at the 10 and 100 µg/L concentrations. Biochemical compositions, including glucose, cholesterol, and total protein levels, were significantly changed in the treatment groups. Similarly, the ionic compositions of seminal fluid (Na, K, Ca, and Mg) also varied in the treatment groups. Furthermore, the 11-ketotestosterone levels were decreased, and the 17-β estradiol levels were increased in the DEHP-treated groups. The mRNA expression levels of reproduction-related genes, including Fshr, Lhr, Ar, Erα, and Erβ, were significantly changed in the DEHP-treated males in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, the findings of this study confirmed that environmentally relevant exposure to DEHP may contribute to a decline in the gamete quality of male fishes.

Behavior, Neural Structure, and Metabolism in Adult Male Mice Exposed to Environmentally Relevant Doses of Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate Alone or in a Phthalate Mixture

BACKGROUND

We have previously shown that chronic exposure of adult male mice to low doses of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) altered male sexual behavior and induced down-regulation of the androgen receptor (AR) in the neural circuitry controlling this behavior.

OBJECTIVES

The cellular mechanisms induced by chronic exposure of adult male mice to low doses of DEHP alone or in an environmental phthalate mixture were studied.

METHODS

Two-month-old C57BL/6J males were exposed orally for 8 wk to DEHP alone (0, 5, or 50μg/kg/d) or to DEHP (50μg/kg/d) in a phthalate mixture. Behavior, dendritic density per 50-μm length, pre-/postsynaptic markers, synapse ultrastructure, and bioenergetic activity were analyzed.

RESULTS

Mice exposed to DEHP either alone or in a phthalate mixture differed in mating, emission of ultrasonic vocalizations, and the ability to attract receptive females in urinary preference tests from control mice. Analyses in the medial preoptic area, the key hypothalamic region involved in male sexual behavior, showed lower dendritic spine density and protein levels of glutamate receptors and differences in other postsynaptic components and presynaptic markers between the treated groups. Ultrastructural observation of dendritic synapses by electron microscopy showed comparable morphology between the treated groups. Metabolic analyses highlighted differences in hypothalamic metabolites of males exposed to DEHP alone or in a phthalate mixture compared to control mice. These differences included lower tryptophan and higher NAD+ levels, respectively, a precursor and end product of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism. The protein amounts of the xenobiotic aryl hydrocarbon receptor, one of the targets of this metabolic pathway and known negative regulator of the AR, were higher in the medial preoptic area of exposed male mice.

DISCUSSION

Differences in behavior of male mice exposed to environmental doses of phthalates were associated with differences in neural structure and metabolism, with possibly a key role of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism in the effects mediated by these substances. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11514.

Polysaccharide of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz(PAMK) protects against DEHP-induced apoptosis in grass carp hepatocytes

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a new environmental pollutant, which is widely used in plastic additives. DEHP and its metabolites pollute surface water and threaten the survival of fish. In order to investigate the mechanism of DEHP-induced apoptosis on grass carp hepatocytes, we treated grass carp hepatocytes with DEHP, and selected Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (PAMK) to study its inhibitory effect on DEHP. The results showed that after DEHP exposure, apoptosis related proteins expression were increased significantly, leading to hepatocytes apoptosis. Moreover, AO/EB staining and Hoechst staining also showed that the number of apoptotic cells increased after DEHP exposure. It should be noted that PAMK simultaneous treatment could alleviate apoptosis induced by DEHP. The innovation of this study is that the application of Chinese herbal medicine (PAMK) to antagonize the damage of DEHP in fish was investigated for the first time. This study indicated that traditional Chinese medicine can also be used in fish production to reduce the accumulation of food-derived drugs.

Associations between exposure to phthalates and subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnant women during early pregnancy: A pilot case-control study in China

Phthalates are environmental endocrine disruptors with thyroid-disrupting properties; however, the association between phthalate exposure and subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) during pregnancy is unknown. We recruited a study population from a cohort of pregnant women in Beijing, China, and conducted the present pilot case-control study of 42 SCH cases and 84 non-SCH controls matched with age and body mass index (BMI). Serum levels of thyroid peroxidase antibody, free thyroxine (FT₄), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and urinary levels of ten phthalate metabolites during early pregnancy were measured. Urinary monoethyl phthalate (MEP) levels in SCH cases were observably higher than those in controls (p = 0.01). Conditional logistic regression analysis revealed that mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), MEP, mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (ΣDEHP) were significantly associated with a higher risk of SCH during early pregnancy (adjusted odds ratios = 1.89, 1.42, 1.81, and 1.92, respectively). Concomitantly, multiple linear regression analysis showed that MECPP, MEOHP, and ΣDEHP were positively associated with TSH and FT₄ × TSH in the entire study population. Bayesian kernel machine regression analysis and stratified analysis by BMI revealed upward tendencies in the serum levels of TSH and FT₄ × TSH. In summary, exposure to phthalates, especially DEHP, may be associated with a higher risk of SCH during early pregnancy, and a possible mechanism is the disruption of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis.

Co-occurrence of phthalate esters and perfluoroalkyl substances affected bacterial community and pathogenic bacteria growth in rural drinking water distribution systems

The adverse health effects of phthalate esters (PAEs) and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in drinking water have attracted considerable attention. Our study investigated the effects of PAEs and PFAS on the bacterial community and the growth of potential human pathogenic bacteria in rural drinking water distribution systems. Our results showed that the total concentration of PAEs and PFAS ranged from 1.02 × 10² to 1.65 × 10⁴ ng/L, from 4.40 to 1.84 × 10² ng/L in rural drinking water of China, respectively. PAEs concentration gradually increased and PFAS slowly decreased along the pipeline distribution, compared to concentrations in the effluents of rural drinking water treatment plants. The co-occurrence of higher concentrations of PAEs and PFAS changed the structure and function of the bacterial communities found within these environments. The bacterial community enhanced their ability to respond to fluctuating environmental conditions through up-regulation of functional genes related to extracellular signaling and interaction, as well as genes related to replication and repair. Under these conditions, co-occurrence of PAEs and PFAS promoted the growth of potential human pathogenic bacteria (HPB), therefore increasing the risk of the development of associated diseases among exposed persons. The main HPB observed in this study included Burkholderia mallei, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Contaminants including particles, microorganisms, PAEs and PFAS were found to be released from corrosion scales and deposits of pipes and taps, resulting in the increase of the cytotoxicity and microbial risk of rural tap water. These results are important to efforts to improve the safety of rural drinking water.

Phthalic acid esters in grains, vegetables, and fruits: concentration, distribution, composition, bio-accessibility, and dietary exposure

Grain, vegetable, and fruit samples were collected from Xi'an City in Northwest China and analyzed for the characteristics, bio-accessibility, and dietary exposure of 22 phthalic acid esters (PAEs). All the studied PAEs were ubiquitously detected, except for diethyl phthalate in vegetables and fruits. In grains, the sum of detectable PAEs (∑22PAEs) varied between 0.0840 and 40.0 µg/g, with a mean of 4.19 µg/g, presenting rice >  > beans > flour, and the major PAEs were di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). In vegetables, the ∑21PAEs ranged from 0.190 to 56.8 µg/g, with a mean of 8.07 µg/g, exhibiting leafy vegetables > root vegetables > fruits-vegetables > fungus > cauliflower > beans, and the main PAEs were di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), DnBP, DEHP, di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP), and di-iso-decyl phthalate (DiDP). In fruits, the ∑21PAEs varied between 0.300 and 12.6 µg/g, with a mean of 3.97 µg/g, presenting spring-winter season fruits > summer-autumn season fruits and shell-less fruits > shelled fruits, and the predominant PAEs were DiBP, DnBP, DEHP, DiNP, and DiDP. The bio-accessibility of PAEs in the gastrointestinal fluid simulant was higher than that in the single gastric or intestinal fluid simulant. The bio-accessibility of PAEs was correlated with the physiochemical properties of PAEs. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of human dietary exposure to PAEs were lower than the reference doses of United States Environmental Protection Agency and the tolerable dairy intakes (TDIs) of European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), except for the EDI of DnBP in the grains and DiBP in the vegetables higher than or close to the TDI of the EFSA. The research suggested that special attention should be paid to human dietary exposure to DnBP and DiBP, especially for children and adolescents.

Exposure to environmentally relevant doses of plasticizers alters maternal behavior and related neuroendocrine processes in primiparous and multiparous female mice

Phthalates are organic pollutants frequently detected in the environment. The effects of these substances on male reproduction have been extensively studied but their potential impact on female reproductive behaviors in particular at environmental doses still remains to be documented. In the present study, we examined the effects of chronic exposure to di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) alone at 5 or 50 μg/kg/d, or in an environmental phthalate mixture on maternal behavior of lactating female mice after a first (primiparous) and a second gestation (multiparous). Exposure of DEHP alone or in a phthalate mixture reduced pup-directed behaviors, increased self-care and forced nursing behaviors and altered nest quality for both primiparous and multiparous dams. In pup-retrieval test, primiparous and multiparous dams exposed to DEHP alone or in a phthalate mixture retrieved their pups more rapidly, probably due to a higher emission of ultrasonic vocalizations by the pups. At lactational day 2 following the third and last gestational period, the neural circuitry of maternal behavior was analyzed. A lower number of oxytocin-immunoreactive neurons in the paraventricular and anterior commissural nuclei was found in dams exposed to DEHP alone or in a phthalate mixture, while no changes were observed in the number of arginine-vasopressin immunoreactive cells. In the medial preoptic area, exposure to DEHP alone or in a phthalate mixture reduced ERα-immunoreactive cell number. Dendritic spine density assessed for DEHP at 5 μg/kg/d was also reduced. Thus, exposure to DEHP alone or in a phthalate mixture altered maternal behavior probably through a neuroendocrine mode of action involving oxytocin and estrogen through ERα, key pathways necessary for neuroplasticity and behavioral processing.

Emerging contaminants migration from pipes used in drinking water distribution systems: a review of the scientific literature

Migration of emerging contaminants (ECs) from pipes into water is a global concern due to potential human health effects. Nevertheless, a review of migration ECs from pipes into water distribution systems is presently lacking. This paper reviews, the reported occurrence migration of ECs from pipes into water distribution systems in the world. Furthermore, the results related to ECs migration from pipes into water distribution systems, their probable sources, and their hazards are discussed. The present manuscript considered the existing reports on migration of five main categories of ECs including microplastics (MPs), bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, nonylphenol (NP), perfluoroalkyl, and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from distribution network into tap water. A focus on tap water in published literature suggests that pipes type used had an important role on levels of ECs migration in water during transport and storage of water. For comparison, tap drinking water in contact with polymer pipes had the highest mean concentrations of reviewed contaminants. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyamide (PA), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) were the most frequently detected types of microplastics (MPs) in tap water. Based on the risk assessment analysis of ECs, levels of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were above 1, indicating a potential non-carcinogenic health risk to consumers. Finally, there are still scientific gaps on occurrence and migration of ECs from pipes used in distribution systems, and this needs more in-depth studies to evaluate their exposure hazards on human health.

Cumulative risk assessment of dietary exposure to phthalates in pregnant women in Beijing, China

Diet is an important exposure route for phthalates, such as di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP). In this study, we aimed to estimate phthalate exposure in the diet of pregnant women and assess the health risk. A total of 517 pregnant women in the first trimester were recruited, and food frequency questionnaires were collected. A simple distribution assessment method was used to estimate daily exposure, and the hazard index (HI) method was used to assess cumulative risk. The maximum daily dietary exposure to DEHP, DBP, DiBP, and BBP was 5.25, 3.17, 2.59, and 0.58 μg/kg bw/day, respectively, and did not exceed the safety limit values. Cereals and vegetables were the main sources of the estimated daily intake (EDI) of phthalates in the diet. The cumulative risk assessment, based on the European Food Safety Authority tolerable daily intake (TDI) and the US Environmental Protection Agency reference dose (RfD), did not exceed the threshold of 1. DiBP, DBP, and DEHP had higher hazard quotient (HQ) values for cumulative health risk than BBP. In conclusion, a low health risk was posed by the cumulative dietary exposure to phthalates for pregnant women in Beijing.

Associations between phthalate exposure and thyroid function in pregnant women during the first trimester

Phthalates are a class of environmental endocrine disruptors. Previous studies have demonstrated that phthalate exposure can affect thyroid function; however, limited studies have assessed the associations between phthalate exposure and thyroid function, especially thyroid autoimmunity in pregnant women during the first trimester. We recruited participants from a cohort of pregnant women in Beijing, China, and collected urine samples to measure ten phthalate metabolites, serum samples to measure free thyroxine (FT₄), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb) during the first trimester. We included 325 pregnant women without thyroid diseases or dysfunction in this study. Associations between phthalate metabolites and thyroid function parameters were assessed with the Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) model, multiple linear regression model, and restricted cubic spline. In the BKMR model analysis, compared to the 50th percentile, total urinary phthalate metabolites levels were negatively associated with serum TPOAb levels when phthalate metabolites were at or below the 40th percentile. Stratifying by body mass index, total urinary phthalate metabolites levels were negatively associated with serum TPOAb levels in normal weight women when phthalate metabolites were at or below the 45th percentile. However, total urinary phthalate metabolites levels were positively associated with serum TPOAb levels in underweight women when phthalate metabolites were at or below the 30th percentile. In restricted cubic spline analysis, L-shaped nonlinear associations of mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (ΣDEHP), and inverted S-shaped nonlinear association of mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) with TPOAb were observed. In conclusion, our findings suggest that phthalate exposure may affect thyroid autoimmunity in underweight pregnant women during early pregnancy, and the potential effects of phthalate exposure on thyroid autoimmunity may be nonlinear.

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of phthalic acid esters through a total diet study in Shenzhen, South China

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are typical endocrine disruptors which are ubiquitous contaminants. Human exposure to PAEs is through multiple routes of which the diet is recognised as the main source of daily intake. The aim of this study was to evaluate the dietary exposure to PAEs of residents in Shenzhen (China) through a total diet study and assess the potential health risk. A total of 16 different phthalate esters in samples of 12 composite food groups were determined by GC-MS. The main dietary sources of PAE exposure among adult residents in Shenzhen were potatoes (21%), eggs (21%), meat (15%) and aquatic products (14%). The median total dietary exposure to PAEs in Shenzhen residents was 7780 ng kg^-1 bw d^-1, and the hazard quotients (HQ) of dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-isobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were 0.09, 0.06, 0.07, 0.10 and 0.03, respectively. Therefore, the risks from dietary PAE exposure were low. However, with the increasing use of PAEs and their accumulation in the environment, the probability of PAEs entering the food chain is gradually increasing and, therefore, PAEs should be strictly controlled and regularly monitored.

Effects and underlying cellular pathway involved in the impairment of the neurovascular unit following exposure of adult male mice to low doses of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate alone or in an environmental phthalate mixture

We have previously shown that adult male mice exposure to low doses of di (2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) impacts the blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity and surrounding parenchyma in the medial preoptic area (mPOA), a key hypothalamic area involved in the male sexual behavior. BBB leakage was associated with a decrease in the endothelial tight junction accessory protein, zona occludens-1, and caveolae protein Cav-1, added to an inflammatory profile including glial activation accompanied by enhanced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase. As this failure of BBB functionality in the mPOA could participate, at least in part, in reported alteration of sexual behavior following DEHP exposure, we explored the cellular pathway connecting cerebral capillaries and neurons. Two-month-old C57BL/6J male mice were orally exposed for 6 weeks to DEHP alone (5 and 50 μg/kg/day) or to DEHP (5 μg/kg/day) in an environmental phthalate mixture. The presence of androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor-α (ERα) were first evidenced in brain capillaries. Protein levels of AR but not of ERα were reduced in cerebral capillaries after phthalate exposure. The amounts of basement membrane and cell-matrix interaction components were decreased, while matrix metalloprotease MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities were increased. Fluorojade® labelling suggested that exposure to phthalates also lead to a neurodegenerative process in the mPOA. Altogether, the data suggest that environmental exposure to endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, could alter AR/Cav-1 interaction, impacting a Cav-1/nitric oxide/MMP pathway. This would lead to disruption of the glio-neurovascular coupling which is essential to neuronal functioning.

Occurrence and dietary exposure risks of phthalate esters in food in the typical valley city Xi'an, Northwest China

Diet is an important exposure pathway of phthalate esters (PAEs) for humans. A total of 174 food samples covering 11 food groups were collected from Xi'an, a typical valley city in Northwest China, and analyzed to assess the occurrence and exposure risks for PAEs in the food. Twenty-two PAEs were detected. The sum of the 22 PAEs (∑22PAEs) varied between 0.0340 and 56.8 µg/g, with a mean of 3.94 µg/g. The major PAEs were di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP), and di-iso-decyl phthalate (DiDP), which were associated mainly with the usage of plasticizers. Bio-availability of the PAEs in the combined gastro-intestinal fluid simulant of digestion was higher than that in the single gastric or intestinal fluid simulant. Bis(2-methoxyethyl) phthalate exhibited the highest bio-availability in each of the three simulants. Bio-availability of the PAEs was negatively correlated with the molecular weight and octanol-water partition coefficient of the PAEs and positively correlated with the solubility and vapor pressure of the PAEs. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of PAEs based on national and municipal food consumption data was lower than the reference dose (RfD) of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the tolerable dairy intake (TDI) of European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), except for the EDI of DnBP and DiBP being higher than the TDI of EFSA. Grains and vegetables were the major sources of human dietary exposure to PAEs. The hazardous quotient for human dietary exposure to PAEs was less than the critical value of 1 and the cancer risk of butyl benzyl phthalate and DEHP was in the range of 10^-11-10^-6, suggesting relatively low health risks. The results indicated that human exposure to DnBP, DiBP, DEHP, DiNP, and DiDP in food is considerable and a health concern.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals used as common plastic additives: Levels, profiles, and human dietary exposure from the Indian food basket

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and bisphenol A (BPA) are the most widely used plastic additives in polymeric materials. These EDCs are ubiquitously distributed in the environment. Hence selected PAEs and BPA were investigated in twenty-five food types and drinking water (supply and packaged) from the metropolitan city, Delhi, and the peri-urban areas of a non-metropolitan city, Dehradun. Except cabbage and orange, the sum of thirteen PAEs (∑₁₃PAEs) and BPA in all the other food types were significantly higher in Delhi over Dehradun (p < 0.01). Highest mean ∑₁₃PAEs (665 ng/g) and BPA (73 ng/g) were observed in cottage cheese and potatoes, respectively followed by fish (PAEs - 477 ng/g, BPA - 16 ng/g). Supply water from the west zone of Delhi was found to contain the highest concentration of BPA (309 ng/L) and ∑₁₃PAEs (5765 ng/L) with the dominance of diethyl phthalate (DEP). Based on the compositional profile and compound-wise principal component analysis, environmental contamination and food processing were attributed as significant sources of most priority PAEs in food samples. Di-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) was over 100-fold higher in the bottled water from local brands than composite bottled water samples. Packaging material was identified as a source for di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) in packaged food. This study observed the highest estimated daily dietary intake (EDI) in the high-fat-containing food products viz., cottage cheese, and fish from north Delhi. High bioaccumulation of BPA can be a possible reason for elevated EDI in vegetables and local fish of Delhi. Unlike Dehradun, EDI for ∑₁₃PAEs and BPA was slightly higher for the non-vegetarian adult when compared to the vegetarian adult. DEHP and DnBP exhibited the highest estimated estrogenic potential for bottled water from local brands. Dietary exposure due to six priority PAEs contamination in food stuffs was two to four-fold higher in Delhi than Dehradun for adult man and woman.

Phthalate Esters in Tap Water, Southern Thailand: Daily Exposure and Cumulative Health Risk in Infants, Lactating Mothers, Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women

Human exposure to phthalate esters (PAEs) via drinking water has generated public health concerns due to their endocrine disruptive abilities. This study reports on the occurrence and fate of six PAEs in raw and tap water samples collected from provincial waterworks located in Songkhla Province, Southern Thailand. In addition, the daily exposure and cumulative health risk of susceptible populations due to drinking tap water were evaluated by using four different reference dose (RfDs) sources. The maximum concentrations of PAEs in raw water were between 1.68 and 4.84 and 0.52 and 1.24 µg/L in tap water. Moreover, the levels of PAEs in the tap water samples indicated the poor PAEs removal efficiency of the conventional treatment process (59.9-69.1%). The contribution of water to the daily intake of PAEs did not exceed 0.37% in all the groups. Furthermore, both the individual and cumulative risk assessment showed negligible noncarcinogenic and antiandrogenic risk for all the groups. Nevertheless, the cumulative risk showed an increasing trend in the order of infants > lactating mothers > pregnant women > nonpregnant women, suggesting that infants are more vulnerable. In additional, the newly proposed RfDAA yielded higher hazard quotient and hazard index estimates, which indicates it is a more sensitive tool than other RfDs for the assessment of the individual and mixture risk of pollutants. The carcinogenic risk of DEHP was acceptable in every group. However, we recommend a future cumulative risk assessment of vulnerable groups considering their simultaneous exposure to all chemicals that have antiandrogenic effects via tap water.

Oxidative degradation/mineralization of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) from plastic industrial wastewater using ferrate(VI)/TiO2 under ultraviolet irradiation

A novel ferrate(VI)/titanium dioxide/ultraviolet [Fe(VI)/TiO2/UV] system was successfully established for the photocatalytic oxidation of dimethyl phthalate (DMP). This system demonstrated a higher removal efficiency of DMP (95.2%) than the conventional TiO2/UV and Fe(VI) alone systems (51.8% and 23.5%, respectively) and produced obvious synergistic effects. Response surface methodology (RSM), based on a three level, three independent variables design, was conducted through Design Expert 8.0.6 program, and a second-order polynomial model (R2 = 0.998) was developed to quantitatively describe the photocatalysis of TiO2 combined with Fe(VI) oxidation under ultraviolet irradiation. The fresh TiO2 and photochemical reacted Fe(VI)/TiO2 were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and element dispersive spectrum (EDS), which indicated that Fe(VI) was imprinted into the TiO2, and the surface adsorbed Fe-O-(organic) materials inhibited DMP degradation. This photocatalytic oxidant showed high activity and stability after nine cycles without loss of its effectiveness (counting from the second cycle). The intermediates/products of DMP were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The proposed pathway for DMP degradation involved one electron transfer of hydroxyl radical and breaking of the ester bond and benzene ring. The mineralization efficiencies of DMP in actual industrial wastewater and simulated water were 87.1% and 95.2%, respectively, suggesting practical field applications. A ecotoxicity test (17.3% inhibition on bioluminescence) in treating actual industrial wastewater containing DMP implied that the proposed Fe(VI)/TiO2/UV had a potential for industrial water treatment.

Phthalates in the environment: characteristics, fate and transport, and advanced wastewater treatment technologies

Phthalates are well-known emerging contaminants that harm human health and the environment. Therefore, this review aims to discuss about the occurrence, fate, and phthalates concentration in the various environmental matrices (e.g., aquatic, sediment, soil, and sewage sludge). Hence, it is necessary to treat sources containing phthalates before discharging them to aqueous environment. Various advanced wastewater treatments including adsorption process (e.g., biochar, activated carbon), advanced oxidation processes (e.g., photo-fenton, ozonation, photocatalysis), and biological treatment (membrane bioreactor) have been successfully to address this issue with high removal efficiencies (70-95%). Also, the degradation mechanism was discussed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phthalate removal for the reader. Additionally, key factors that influenced the phthalates removal efficiency of these technologies were identified and summarized with a view towards pilot-scale and industrial applications.

Geographic distribution and time trend of human exposure of Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate among different age groups based on global biomonitoring data

Despite being restricted by many authorities, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is still widely detected in the environment and biospecimens. To indentify populations of high risk and evaluate the effects of DEHP restrictions, we elucidated the geographic distribution of DEHP exposure levels among pregnant women and different age groups, and compared the time trend of exposure levels with the time course of productions/restrictions. The estimated daily intake (EDI) was calculated based on biomonitoring data in published epidemiological studies, and then the group EDI (EDI_G) was calculated for one particular population, region, or period by weighting EDIs by sample sizes. Overall, 144,965 samples from 45 nations were included, with the sampling time ranging from 1982 to 2017. Children had the highest exposure level (5.50 μg/kg bw/day) worldwide, while infants and pregnant women had low levels (2.13 and 1.89 μg/kg bw/day, respectively). The EDI_Gs varied considerably between countries, and the majority of corresponding hazard quotients were less than 1; however, the risk behind can not be ignored. In the general population, the DEHP exposure level showed a downtrend from 4.40 μg/kg bw/day before 2000 to 2.23 μg/kg bw/day in 2015-2017. In the European Union, the annual trend of DEHP EDI_Gs of children and adults fitted the production and consumption volume, and the EDI_Gs decreased more sharply in children. The EDI_Gs of children decreased with a delay along with the regulations on the use of DEHP. Cutting productions/consumptions and restrictions are effective to reduce DEHP exposure, but current efforts are far from enough on a worldwide scale.

Urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations and serum hormone levels in pre- and perimenopausal women from the Midlife Women's Health Study

BACKGROUND

Phthalate exposure is associated with altered reproductive function, but little is known about associations between phthalate and hormone levels in midlife women.

METHODS

This cross-sectional analysis includes 45-54-year-old pre- and perimenopausal women from Baltimore, MD and its surrounding counties enrolled in the Midlife Women's Health Study (n = 718). Serum and urine samples were collected from participants once a week for four consecutive weeks to span the menstrual cycle. Serum samples were assayed for estradiol, testosterone, progesterone, sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), and geometric means were calculated for each hormone across all four weeks. Urine samples were analyzed for nine phthalate metabolites from pools of one-to-four urine samples. Phthalate metabolite concentrations were specific gravity-adjusted and assessed as individual metabolites or as molar sums of metabolites from common parents (di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites, ∑DEHP), exposure sources (plastic, ∑Plastics; personal care products, ∑PCP), biological activity (anti-androgenic, ∑AA), and sum of all metabolites (∑Phthalates). We used linear regression models to assess overall associations of phthalate metabolites with hormones, controlling for important demographic, lifestyle, and health factors. We also explored whether associations differed by menopause status, body mass index (BMI), and race/ethnicity.

RESULTS

Most participants were non-Hispanic white (67%) or black (29%), college-educated (65%), employed (80%), and had somewhat higher mean urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations than other U.S. women. Overall, the following positive associations were observed between phthalate metabolites and hormones: ∑DEHP (%Δ: 4.9; 95%CI: 0.5, 9.6), ∑Plastics (%Δ: 5.1; 95%CI: 0.3, 10.0), and ∑AA (%Δ: 7.8; 95%CI: 2.3, 13.6) with estradiol; MiBP (%Δ: 6.6; 95%CI: 1.5, 12.1) with testosterone; ∑DEHP (%Δ: 8.3; 95%CI: 1.5, 15.6), ∑Plastics (%Δ: 9.8; 95%CI: 2.4, 17.7), MEP (%Δ: 4.6; 95%CI: 0.1, 9.2), ∑PCP (%Δ: 6.0; 95%CI: 0.2, 12.2), ∑Phthalates (%Δ: 9.0; 95%CI: 2.1, 16.5), and ∑AA (%Δ: 12.9; 95%CI: 4.4, 22.1) with progesterone; and MBP (%Δ: 8.5; 95%CI: 1.2, 16.3) and ∑AA (%Δ: 9.0; 95%CI: 1.3, 17.4) with AMH. Associations of phthalate metabolites with hormones differed by menopause status (strongest in premenopausal women for estradiol, progesterone, and FSH), BMI (strongest in obese women for progesterone), and race/ethnicity (strongest in non-Hispanic white women for estradiol and AMH).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that phthalate metabolites were positively associated with several hormones in midlife women, and that some demographic and lifestyle characteristics modified these associations. Future longitudinal studies are needed to corroborate these findings in more diverse midlife populations.

Disruption of the blood-brain barrier and its close environment following adult exposure to low doses of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate alone or in an environmental phthalate mixture in male mice

We have previously shown that adult male mice exposure to low doses of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) alters neural function and behaviour. Whether such exposure also affects the integrity and function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) remained to be explored. The impact of adult exposure to low doses of DEHP alone or in an environmental phthalate mixture on the BBB integrity and surrounding parenchyma was studied in male mice. Two-month-old C57BL/6J males were orally exposed for 6 weeks to DEHP alone (5, and 50 μg/kg/day) or to DEHP (5 μg/kg/day) in an environmental phthalate mixture. BBB permeability, glial activation and neuroinflammation were investigated in the hypothalamic medial preoptic area (mPOA) and hippocampus involved, respectively on the reproductive and cognitive functions. Exposure to DEHP alone or in a phthalate mixture increased BBB permeability and affected the endothelial accessory tight junction protein zona occludens-1 and caveolae protein Cav-1 in the mPOA and the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas. This was associated with an inflammatory profile including astrocyte activation accompanied by enhanced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the mPOA, and a microglial activation in the mPOA and the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas. The protein levels of the inflammatory molecule cyclooxygenase-2 were increased in activated microglial cells of the exposed mPOA. None of the major effects induced by DEHP alone or in a mixture was detected in the hippocampal dendate gyrus. The data highlight that environmental exposure to endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, could represent a risk factor for the cerebrovascular function.

Occurrence, migration and health risk of phthalates in tap water, barreled water and bottled water in Tianjin, China

This study was to investigate the occurrence, migration and health risk of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in tap water, barreled water and bottled water in Tianjin, China. Six priority controlled PAEs were measured, among which the detection frequency of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was 100%, while the others were not detected. The concentration of DEHP was higher than BBP and DBP in all the samples. The initial ∑₃PAEs concentrations in tap water, barreled water and bottled water were 2.409 ± 0.391 μg/L, 1.495 ± 0.213 μg/L and 1.963 ± 0.160 μg/L, respectively. Boiling tap water could reduce the PAEs content to an extent, but they increased significantly in hot tap water contacting with disposable plastic cups. The migration of PAEs in barreled water and bottled water were positively correlated with storage time and temperature, which could be described by exponential models. The hazard indexes of PAEs in different types of drinking water were very low. However, the human carcinogenic risks of DEHP will reach the maximum acceptable risk level of 10^-6 when bottled water is stored for 8.8 days at 40 °C, 7.7 days at 50 °C, or 6.1 days at 60 °C.

Infant total diet study in France: Exposure to substances migrating from food contact materials

A total diet study (TDS) was conducted in France to assess the health risks related to the chemicals in food of non-breastfed children under three years of age (Infant TDS). For the first time, substances coming from food contact materials, such as bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE) and its derivatives, some phthalates, and some ink photoinitiators, were targeted because of growing interest in these substances. Food samples were collected to be representative of the whole diet of non-breastfed children aged 1-36 months, and prepared as consumed prior to analysis. Dietary exposure was assessed for 705 representative children under three years of age. Generally, the substances from food contact materials were detected in few samples: 38% for BPA, 0% for BADGE and its derivatives, 0-35% for phthalates, 1.9% for benzophenone, and 0% for the other ink photoinitiators. Regarding exposure levels, the situation was deemed tolerable for BADGE and its hydrolysis products, di-isodecyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, butyl benzyl phthalate, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and di-isononyl phthalate, benzophenone, and 4-methylbenzophenone. Only for BPA, the exposure levels of some children exceeded the lowest toxicological value established by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety at 0.083 µg.kg bw^-1.d^-1. The temporary tolerable daily intake of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), set at 4 µg.kg bw^-1.d^-1, was never exceeded. However, actual exposure to BPA was probably overestimated, as well as the associated risk, because the foods were sampled prior to the recent regulations banning BPA in food packaging. This study is the first worldwide to provide an estimate of infant food contamination levels and exposures of children under 3 years of age, based on a TDS approach. It therefore provides key data on the exposure of this particularly sensitive population to substances released from food contact materials, and presents useful data for studies evaluating exposure to mixtures or aggregated exposure.

Exposure of Adult Female Mice to Low Doses of di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate Alone or in an Environmental Phthalate Mixture: Evaluation of Reproductive Behavior and Underlying Neural Mechanisms

BACKGROUND

We have previously shown that adult male mice exposure to low doses of an ubiquitous endocrine disruptor, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), alters courtship behavior.

OBJECTIVE

The effects of adult exposure to low doses of DEHP alone or in an environmental phthalate mixture on estrous cyclicity, reproductive behavior, and underlying neural structures were analyzed in female mice.

METHODS

Two-month-old C57BL/6J females were exposed orally for 6 wk to DEHP alone (0, 5 or 50μg/kg/d) or to DEHP (5μg/kg/d) in a phthalate mixture. Estrous cyclicity was analyzed in intact mice, and behavior [lordosis, olfactory preference, partner preference, ability to stimulate male ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs)] was measured in ovariectomized mice primed with estradiol and progesterone. Immunohistochemical studies were conducted in the neural structures involved in behavior for estrogen receptor (ER) α and progesterone receptor (PR).

RESULTS

Exposure to DEHP alone or in mixture lengthened the estrous cycle duration, with a shorter proestrus and longer estrus and metestrus stages. Under normalized hormonal levels, females exposed to DEHP alone or in mixture exhibited altered olfactory preference. A lower lordosis behavior and ability to attract and stimulate male emission of courtship USVs was observed, probably due to modifications of pheromonal emission in exposed females. The behavioral alterations were associated with a lower number of PR-expressing neurons, without changes in ERα, in the neural circuitry underlying sexual behavior. The majority of effects observed was comparable between the two DEHP doses and were driven by DEHP in the mixture.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to environmental doses of DEHP alone or in mixture altered several components of female sexual behavior in mice, probably through selective disruption of neural PR signaling. Together with the previously reported vulnerability of male mice, this finding suggests a major impact of exposure to phthalates on sexual reproduction, including in other species with similar neural regulatory processes. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP7662.

Effect of environmental contamination on female and male gametes - A lesson from bovines

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) and foodborne contaminants are environmental pollutants that are considered reproductive toxicants due to their deleterious effects on female and male gametes. Among the EDCs, the phthalate plasticizers are of growing concern. In-vivo and in-vitro models indicate that the oocyte is highly sensitive to phthalates. This review summarizes the effects of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its major metabolite mono(2-ethyhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) on the oocyte. MEHP reduces the proportion of oocytes that fertilize, cleave and develop to the blastocyst stage. This is associated with negative effects on meiotic progression, and disruption of cortical granules, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial reorganization. MEHP alters mitochondrial membrane polarity, increases reactive oxygen species levels and induces alterations in genes associated with oxidative phosphorylation. A carryover effect from the oocyte to the blastocyst is manifested by alterations in the transcriptomic profile of blastocysts developed from MEHP-treated oocytes. Among foodborne contaminants, the pesticide atrazine (ATZ) and the mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) are of high concern. The potential hazards associated with exposure of spermatozoa to these contaminants and their carryover effect to the blastocyst are described. AFB1 and ATZ reduce spermatozoa's viability, as reflected by a high proportion of cells with damaged plasma membrane; induce acrosome reaction, expressed as damage to the acrosomal membrane; and interfere with mitochondrial function, characterized by hyperpolarization of the membrane. ATZ and AFB1-treated spermatozoa show a high proportion of cells with fragmented DNA. Exposure of spermatozoa to AFB1 and ATZ reduces fertilization and cleavage rates, but not that of blastocyst formation. However, fertilization with AFB1- or ATZ-treated spermatozoa impairs transcript expression in the formed blastocysts, implying a carryover effect. Taken together, the review indicates the risk of exposing farm animals to environmental contaminants, and their deleterious effects on female and male gametes and the developing embryo.

Worldwide bottled water occurrence of emerging contaminants: A review of the recent scientific literature

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) have recently been detected in bottled water and have brought about discussions on possible risks for human health. However, a systematic review of CECs in bottled water is currently lacking due to the relatively new introduction and/or detection of these pollutants. Hence, this paper reviews the existing studies on the presence of six major groups of emerging contaminants including microplastics (MPs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, alkylphenols (APs), and perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in bottled water from different countries. Also, the findings related to CECs' levels, their possible sources, and their risks are summarized. The gathered data indicate that MPs within the size range of 1-5 μm are the most predominant and potentially toxic classes of MPs in bottled water. In addition, PPCPs, PFASs, APs, and BPA occur in concentration levels of ng/L, while phthalates occur in the μg/L level in bottled water. The bottle type plays an important role in the contamination level. As expected, water in plastic bottles with plastic caps is more polluted than in glass bottles. However, other sources of contamination such as contact materials during cleaning, bottling, and storage are not negligible. Based on the gathered data in this review, the CEC levels except for MPs (no threshold values) in bottled water of most countries do not raise a safety concern for the human. However, the occurrence of individual CECs and their association in bottled water need more accurate data to understand their own/synergistic effects on human health.

Distribution and risk assessment of phthalates in water and sediment of the Pearl River Delta

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used industrial raw materials that are well known for their environmental contamination and toxicological effects as "endocrine disruptors." In this study, environmental levels of PAEs and eco-toxicological risk assessments were determined in the eight estuaries of the Pearl River (Estuaries), main upstream tributary (Xijiang River), urban river network (River network), and nature reserve reservoir (Reservoirs). Water and sediment samples from the above water systems were collected during the low-water period (May) and the high-water period (August) between 2012 and 2014. Solid phase and ultrasonic methods were used to extract 14 different PAEs that were analyzed by gas chromatography. The analytical average recovery of PAEs in water and sediment was 75.4% ± 4.9% and 121.5% ± 8.9%, respectively. The results showed that PAEs were detected in all of the samples, and the di-n-butyl phtalate (DBP) and benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) monomers had a detection rate of 100% in water. Similarly, in sediment samples, the detection rates of diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), DBP, dimethoxyethyl phthalate (DMEP), BBP, di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), and DNP ranged from 66.7 to 100%. Among these, in sediment samples, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and phthalic acid bis(2-butoxyethyl) ester (DBEP) had detection rates of 95.8% to 100% in the Estuaries, Xijiang River, and River network. The concentrations of Σ₁₄PAEs in water samples and sediments ranged from 12.95 ± 1.97 to 6717.29 ± 112.37 ng/L and 71.99 ± 8.72 to 17,340.04 ± 227.83 ng/g-dw, respectively. During the low-water period, the average concentration of Σ₁₄PAEs in water and sediment was 1159.58 ± 97.22 ng/L and 2842.50 ± 178.21 ng/g-dw, respectively, and during the high-water period, 822.83 ± 53.19 ng/L and 1936.42 ± 111.31 ng/g-dw, respectively. In water, the average concentration of Σ₁₄PAEs in 2013 and 2014 was 963.39 ± 19.55 ng/L and 2815.35 ± 176.32 ng/L, respectively. In sediment, the average concentrations of Σ₁₄PAEs in 2012 to 2014 were 990.10 ± 23.33 ng/g-dw, 1084.20 ± 112.12 ng/g-dw, and 1816.89 ± 79.97 ng/g-dw, respectively, with concentrations showing an increasing trend year after year (2014 > 2013 > 2012). Potential risk assessment of water ecological, the results show that exceeding environmental risk level (ERL) value in higher molecular weight plasticizer (DEHP, DMEP, DNOP, DNP) was mainly distributed in water, the lower molecular weight plasticizer (BMP, DiBP) was mainly distributed in sediment.

Update of the risk assessment of di-butylphthalate (DBP), butyl-benzyl-phthalate (BBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), di-isononylphthalate (DINP) and di-isodecylphthalate (DIDP) for use in food contact materials

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes and Processing Aids (CEP Panel) was asked by the European Commission to update its 2005 risk assessments of di-butylphthalate (DBP), butyl-benzyl-phthalate (BBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), di-isononylphthalate (DINP) and di-isodecylphthalate (DIDP), which are authorised for use in plastic food contact material (FCM). Dietary exposure estimates (mean and high (P95)) were obtained by combining literature occurrence data with consumption data from the EFSA Comprehensive Database. The highest exposure was found for DINP, ranging from 0.2 to 4.3 and from 0.4 to 7.0 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day for mean and high consumers, respectively. There was not enough information to draw conclusions on how much migration from plastic FCM contributes to dietary exposure to phthalates. The review of the toxicological data focused mainly on reproductive effects. The CEP Panel derived the same critical effects and individual tolerable daily intakes (TDIs) (mg/kg bw per day) as in 2005 for all the phthalates, i.e. reproductive effects for DBP (0.01), BBP (0.5), DEHP (0.05), and liver effects for DINP and DIDP (0.15 each). Based on a plausible common mechanism (i.e. reduction in fetal testosterone) underlying the reproductive effects of DEHP, DBP and BBP, the Panel considered it appropriate to establish a group-TDI for these phthalates, taking DEHP as index compound as a basis for introducing relative potency factors. The Panel noted that DINP also affected fetal testosterone levels at doses around threefold higher than liver effects and therefore considered it conservative to include it within the group-TDI which was established to be 50 μg/kg bw per day, expressed as DEHP equivalents. The aggregated dietary exposure for DBP, BBP, DEHP and DINP was estimated to be 0.9-7.2 and 1.6-11.7 μg/kg bw per day for mean and high consumers, respectively, thus contributing up to 23% of the group-TDI in the worst-case scenario. For DIDP, not included in the group-TDI, dietary exposure was estimated to be always below 0.1 μg/kg bw per day and therefore far below the TDI of 150 μg/kg bw per day. This assessment covers European consumers of any age, including the most sensitive groups. Based on the limited scope of the mandate and the uncertainties identified, the Panel considered that the current assessment of the five phthalates, individually and collectively, should be on a temporary basis.

Dietary Predictors of Phthalate and Bisphenol Exposures in Pregnant Women

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can disrupt fetal developmental processes during pregnancy, leading to long-term adverse outcomes in humans. A major source of exposure to EDCs, such as phthalates and bisphenols, is the food supply, primarily due to contamination from processing and packaging. Therefore, this review aimed to 1) review food-monitoring sources of phthalates and bisphenols, and 2) evaluate methodologies and provide future directions needed to establish EDC-limiting dietary recommendations in pregnancy. Using PubMed, 10 peer-reviewed studies were found on dietary predictors of EDC exposure in pregnancy, and all were selected for review. Use of plastic containers in pregnancy was associated with higher urinary phthalate metabolites, whereas canned food consumption was associated with higher urinary bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations. Foods and dietary patterns associated with healthier food choices (e.g., organic/grown/raised/caught foods, folic acid supplements, vegetarianism) were generally associated with lower urinary phthalate metabolite and BPA concentrations. Despite the many food-monitoring studies reporting high BPA and phthalate concentrations in various foods, the designs of most studies described here were not sufficiently robust to consistently detect associations of specific foods/food groups with phthalates and BPA. Given the limitations of currently available research, future studies should incorporate more valid questionnaires to accurately assess dietary EDC exposure, strive for concurrent diet and exposure assessment, and assess whether geographical and cultural differences modify associations of diet with gestational EDC exposures. Such progress will be critical for developing dietary recommendations that ensure the safety and health of pregnant women.

Identification of oxidative stress-related Xdh gene as a di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) target and the use of melatonin to alleviate the DEHP-induced impairments in newborn mouse ovaries

This study, using an in vitro ovary culture model, investigates the mechanisms through which di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) impairs germ cell cyst breakdown and primordial follicle assembly. The results indicate the latter effects exerted by 10 or 100 µmol/L DEHP in cultured newborn ovaries were associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis. Based on a transcriptome analysis, we found the expression of the oxidative stress-related gene Xdh (xanthine dehydrogenase) was significantly upregulated in DEHP-cultured ovaries. Two treatments, namely Xdh RNAi or the addition of melatonin to the ovary culture, inhibited the increase in Xdh expression and ROS levels caused by DEHP and, at the same time, reduced apoptosis and the impairment of primordial follicle assembly in the treated ovaries. Together, the results identify Xdh gene as one of the major targets of DEHP in newborn ovaries and that the consequent increased level of ROS is possibly responsible for the increment of apoptosis and primordial follicle assembly impairment. At the same time, they highlight that melatonin alleviates the effects of DEHP as with other endocrine-disrupting compounds on the ovary.

A one-step incubation ELISA kit for rapid determination of dibutyl phthalate in water, beverage and liquor

A one-step incubation ELISA kit based on monoclonal antibody against dibutyl phthalate (DBP) was developed. After optimizing concentrations of coating antigen, antibody and composition of the assay buffer, an inhibition curve was plotted. The IC50 is 29.6 ng·mL-1, and the detection limit for DBP is 3.6 ng·mL-1. Compared with other ELISA methods, this ELISA kit had a simpler sample preparation, costed less time for detection and could detect more types of sample. The recoveries of DBP in water, beverage and liquor samples were range from 78% to 110.4%, the range of coefficient of variations is 7.7-15.3%. The cross reactivity was very low (&1%) except that for butyl benzyl phthalate (3.9%) and the di-isobutyl phthalate (12.5%). The detection results in liquor showed good correlation with those from GC-MS. All data above indicated that this kit could be used as the fast and high-throughput screening of DBP in water, beverage and liquor.

Health risk of phthalates in water environment: Occurrence in water resources, bottled water, and tap water, and burden of disease from exposure through drinking water in tehran, Iran

Occurrence of phthalates in water resources, bottled water, and tap water, and health risk of exposure to the phthalates through drinking water in Tehran, Iran, 2018 were studied. The six phthalates with the most health and environmental concerns, including di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP) were monitored in drinking water and water resources. The average levels (±standard deviation: SD) of the total phthalates in drinking water from the water distribution system, bottled water, surface waters, and ground waters were determined to be 0.76 ± 0.19, 0.96 ± 0.10, 1.06 ± 0.23, and 0.77 ± 0.06 μg/L, respectively. The dominant compounds in the phthalates were DMP and DEHP causing a contribution to the total phthalate levels higher than 60% in all the water sources. The phthalate levels of drinking water significantly increased by contact of hot water with disposable plastic and paper cups and by sunlight exposure of bottled water (p value < 0.05). The hazard quotients (HQs) of DEHP, BBP, DBP, and DEP for all ages both sexes combined were determined to be 1.56 × 10^-4, 1.01 × 10^-5, 1.80 × 10^-5, and 1.29 × 10^-6, respectively that were much lower than the boundary value of 1.0. The disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and DALY rate (per 100,000 people) attributable to DEHP intake through drinking water for all ages both sexes combined were estimated to be 6.385 (uncertainty interval: UI 95% 1.892 to 22.133), and 0.073 (0.022-0.255), respectively. The proportion of mortality in the attributable DALYs was over 96%. The attributable DALY rate exhibited no significant difference by sex, but was considerably affected by age in a manner that the DALY rates ranged from 0.052 (0.015-0.175) in the age group 65 y plus to 0.099 (0.026-0.304) in the age group 5 to 9 y. Both the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks of the phthalates in drinking water were considered to be very low. The results can also be of importance in terms of developing frameworks to expand the domain of burden of disease study to the other environmental risks.

A preliminary investigation of 942 organic micro-pollutants in the atmosphere in waste processing and urban areas, northern Vietnam: Levels, potential sources, and risk assessment

Of 942 organic micro-pollutants screened, 167 compounds were detected at least once in the atmosphere in some primitive waste processing sites and an urban area in northern Vietnam by using a polyurethane foam-based passive air sampling (PUF-PAS) method and an Automated Identification and Quantification System with a Database (AIQS-DB) for GC-MS. Total concentrations of organic pollutants were higher in samples collected from an urban area of Hanoi city (2300-2600 ng m^-3) as compared with those from an end-of-life vehicle (ELV) dismantling area in Bac Giang (900-1700 ng m^-3) and a waste recycling cooperative in Thai Nguyen (870-1300 ng m^-3). Domestic chemicals (e.g., n-alkanes, phthalate ester plasticizers, and synthetic phenolic antioxidants) dominated the organic pollutant patterns in all the samples, especially in the urban area. Pesticides (e.g., permethrins, chlorpyrifos, and propiconazole) were found in the atmosphere around the ELV sites at more elevated concentrations than the other areas. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives in the Bac Giang and Thai Nguyen facilities were significantly higher than those measured in Hanoi urban houses, probably due to the waste processing activities. Daily intake doses of organic pollutants via inhalation were estimated for waste processing workers and urban residents. This study shall provide preliminary data on the environmental occurrence, potential emission sources, and effects of multiple classes of organic pollutants in urban and waste processing areas in northern Vietnam.

Migration and potential risk of trace phthalates in bottled water: A global situation

Increasing attention has been dedicated to trace phthalates in bottled water due to the serious concerns on public health, while there is still a lack of systematic analysis and assessment of current global situation. Through analyzing five representative phthalates in bottled water over 20 countries, this work clearly revealed the phthalates-associated potential risks in both human daily intake and estrogenic effect. In the risk assessment, the kinetic models were also developed to describe and predict phthalates migration. In more than three hundred brands of bottled waters from twenty one countries, the detection frequency of the five targeted phthalates was found to be in the order of dibutyl phthalate (DBP, 67.6%), di-2-(ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP, 61.7%), diethyl phthalate (DEP, 47.1%), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP, 36.9%), and dimethyl phthalate (DMP, 30.1%). Among the countries studied relating concentrations of DEHP in bottled waters, the top five countries ranked in the order of high to low were Thailand, Croatia, Czech Republic, Saudi Arabia and China with an average level of 61.1, 8.8, 6.3, 6.2 and 6.1 μg/L, respectively. The average levels of BBP, DBP, DMP and DEP in bottled water from Pakistan were high, in which DEP and DMP were ranked 1st among all countries with the average levels of 22.4 and 50.2 μg/L, while BBP and DBP were ranked 2nd and 3rd with the average levels of 7.5 and 17.8 μg/L, respectively. The human daily intake-based risk assessment revealed that phthalates in bottled waters studied would not pose a serious concern on public health. However, the adverse estrogenic effects of phthalates in bottled water from some countries appeared to be significant. This study just shed light on global situation of phthalates in bottled water, and more efforts should be needed to systematically examine the phthalates-related safety of bottled water.

Phthalates in soft glass (a soft transparent PVC plastic sheet used extensively in household and public place in developing countries in recent years): Implication for oral exposure to young children

It has been several years that a soft transparent polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic sheet, commonly known as "soft glass", or "crystal plate" in China and other developing countries, has quietly and gradually found extensive applications. This material has widely replaced cloth and glass as table cover in household and office, and replaced cloth as door drape in public place in China. In this study, the concentration of plasticizer used in soft glass and the migration of the plasticizer from soft glass to olive oil and porcine skin during contact were determined. The oral exposure of young children to the plasticizer from soft glass was estimated for the first time. Two exposure routes, one via ingestion of contaminated food, the other via mouthing of contaminated hand, were considered. It is found that Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the major plasticizer used in soft glass, which could leach out of the material and migrate easily to the olive oil and porcine skin during contact. A rough estimation of oral exposure for young children to DEHP from soft glass was 126 μg/person/d, which would be converted to 12.6 μg/kg bw/d and 7.9 μg/kg bw/d, for body weight of 10 kg and 16 kg, respectively. The estimated exposure dosages would not pose immediate health hazard to the children. The implications of these dosages were also discussed.

Phthalate Exposure from Drinking Water in Romanian Adolescents

Phthalates are plastic softeners that have been linked to several adverse health outcomes. The relative contributions of different sources to phthalate exposure in populations in different regions and at different life stages is unclear. We examined the relationships between water consumption, consumer product use, and phthalate exposure among 40 adolescents (20 males, 20 females) in Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Interviewers administered a questionnaire about drinking water consumption and use of phthalate-containing consumer products. Four common phthalates were measured in representative samples of participants’ municipal drinking water and consumed bottled water using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Urine samples were collected from participants and analyzed for the corresponding phthalate metabolites. Relationships between different exposure measures were assessed using nonparametric tests (Spearman rank correlation coefficients and the Kruskal–Wallis test). Diisobutyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate were commonly detected in bottled water, but generally not the municipal drinking water samples. Mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) was the most commonly detected urinary metabolite (detected in 92.5% of participants) and had the highest maximum concentration (1139.77 µg/g creatinine). We did not identify any statistically significant associations between water consumption or consumer product use practices and urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations in our adolescent group, and directions of correlation coefficients differed by individual phthalate compound. While phthalate exposure was widespread, these results highlight the challenges in examining phthalate exposure determinants and emphasize the need for further investigation into understanding exposure sources and potential health risks from chronic low-level exposures.

Multi-pathway human exposure assessment of phthalate esters and DINCH

Phthalate esters are substances mainly used as plasticizers in various applications. Some have been restricted and phased out due to their adverse health effects and ubiquitous presence, leading to the introduction of alternative plasticizers, such as DINCH. Using a comprehensive dataset from a Norwegian study population, human exposure to DMP, DEP, DnBP, DiBP, BBzP, DEHP, DINP, DIDP, DPHP and DINCH was assessed by measuring their presence in external exposure media, allowing an estimation of the total intake, as well as the relative importance of different uptake pathways. Intake via different uptake routes, in particular inhalation, dermal absorption, and oral uptake was estimated and total intake based on all uptake pathways was compared to the calculated intake from biomonitoring data. Hand wipe results were used to determine dermal uptake and compared to other exposure sources such as air, dust and personal care products. Results showed that the calculated total intakes were similar, but slightly higher than those based on biomonitoring methods by 1.1 to 3 times (median), indicating a good understanding of important uptake pathways. The relative importance of different uptake pathways was comparable to other studies, where inhalation was important for lower molecular weight phthalates, and negligible for the higher molecular weight phthalates and DINCH. Dietary intake was the predominant exposure route for all analyzed substances. Dermal uptake based on hand wipes was much lower (median up to 2000 times) than the total dermal uptake via air, dust and personal care products. Still, dermal uptake is not a well-studied exposure pathway and several research gaps (e.g. absorption fractions) remain. Based on calculated intakes, the exposure for the Norwegian participants to the phthalates and DINCH was lower than health based limit values. Nevertheless, exposure to alternative plasticizers, such as DPHP and DINCH, is expected to increase in the future and continuous monitoring is required.

Detoxification of cancerogenic compounds by lactic acid bacteria strains

Carcinogens in food are an important issue that threat people's health right now. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains as well-known probiotics have shown numerous perspectives in being used as a good food additive to confront cancerogenic compounds in recent years. Some LAB strains can remove cancerogenic compounds from medium environment via direct physical binding and avoid re-pollution of poisonous secondary metabolites which are generated from degradation of cancerogenic compounds. This article presents a whole overview of the physical-binding of LAB strains to such common cancerogenic compounds existed in food and feed environments as mycotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic amines (HAs) and pthalic acid esters (PAEs).In most cases, summaries of these published researches show that the binding of LAB strains to cancerogenic compounds is a physical process. Binding sites generally take place in cell wall, and peptidoglycan from LAB cells is the chief binding site. The adsorption of lactic acid bacteria to cancerogenic compounds is strain-specific. Specially, the strains from the two genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium show a better potential in binding cancerogenic compounds. Moreover, we firstly used molecular dynamic computer model as a highly potential tool to simulate the binding behavior of peptidoglycan from Lactobacillus acidophilus to DBP, one of pthalic acid esters with genetic toxicity. It was seen that the theoretical data were quite consistent with the experimental results in terms of the ability of this bacterium to bind DBP. Also, the toxicity reduction of cancerogenic compounds by LAB strains could be achieved either in gastrointestinal model or animal tests and clinical researches as well. In conclusion, carefully selected LAB strains should be a good solution as one of safety strategies to reduce potential risk of cancerogenic compounds from food-based products.

Prenatal exposure estimation of BPA and DEHP using integrated external and internal dosimetry: A case study

Prenatal exposure to Endocrine disruptors (EDs), such as Bisphenol A (BPA) and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), has been associated with obesity and diabetes diseases in childhood, as well as reproductive, behavioral and neurodevelopment problems. The aim of this study was to estimate the prenatal exposure to BPA and DEHP through food consumption for pregnant women living in Tarragona County (Spain). Probabilistic calculations of prenatal exposure were estimated by integrated external and internal dosimetry modelling, physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, using a Monte-Carlo simulation. Physical characteristic data from the cohort, along with food intake information from the questionnaires (concentrations of BPA and DEHP in different food categories and the range of the different food ratios), were used to estimate the value of the total dietary intake for the Tarragona pregnancy cohort. The major contributors to the total dietary intake of BPA were canned fruits and vegetables, followed by canned meat and meat products. In turn, milk and dairy products, followed by ready to eat food (including canned dinners), were the most important contributors to the total dietary intake of DEHP. Despite the dietary variations among the participants, the intakes of both chemicals were considerably lower than their respective current tolerable daily intake (TDI) values established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Internal dosimetry estimates suggest that the plasma concentrations of free BPA and the most important DEHP metabolite, mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), in pregnant women were characterized by transient peaks (associated with meals) and short half-lives (< 2h). In contrast, fetal exposure was characterized by a low and sustained basal BPA and MEHP concentration due to a lack of metabolic activity in the fetus. Therefore, EDs may have a greater effect on developing organs in young children or in the unborn child.

In vitro assessment of phthalate acid esters-trypsin complex formation

In this work, interactions of three phthalate acid esters (PAEs), including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP), with trypsin have been studied in vitro, under simulated physiological conditions using multi-spectroscopic techniques and molecular modeling. The results show that these PAEs can bind to the trypsin, forming trypsin-PAEs complexes, mainly via hydrophobic interactions, with the affinity order of DMP > DEP > DBP. Binding to the PAEs is found to result in molecular deformation of trypsin. The modeling results suggest that only DBP can bind with the amino acid residues of the catalytic triad and S1 binding pocket of trypsin, leading to potential competitive enzyme inhibition.

Neural Mechanisms Underlying the Disruption of Male Courtship Behavior by Adult Exposure to Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate in Mice

BACKGROUND

Courtship behavior plays a critical role in attracting females and reproduction success. However, the effects of exposure to a ubiquitous contaminant di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on these behaviors and, in particular, on courtship vocalizations have not been examined.

OBJECTIVE

The effects of adult exposure to DEHP on courtship and mating behaviors and gonadotropic axis and neural mechanisms involved in DEHP-induced effects were analyzed in male mice.

METHODS

Adult C57BL/6J males were orally exposed to DEHP (0, 0.5, 5, and 50μg/kg/d) for 4 wk. Olfactory preference, ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs), partner preference and mating, as well as locomotor activity and motor coordination, were measured. The kisspeptin system and testosterone levels were analyzed. Proteomic and molecular studies were conducted on the hypothalamic preoptic nucleus, the key region involved in sexual motivation to vocalize and mate.

RESULTS

DEHP at 50μg/kg/d reduced the emission of USVs, whereas lower doses changed the ratio of syllable categories. This was associated with diminished sexual interest of female partners toward males exposed to 5 or 50μg/kg/d and increased latency to mate, despite normal olfactory preference. The kisspeptin system and circulating testosterone levels were unaffected. In DEHP-exposed males, proteomic analysis of the preoptic nucleus identified differentially expressed proteins connected to the androgen receptor (AR). Indeed, exposure to 5 or 50μg/kg/d of DEHP induced selective AR downregulation in this nucleus and upstream chemosensory regions. The involvement of AR changes in the observed alterations was further supported by the reduced emission of courtship vocalizations in males with disrupted neural AR expression.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate the critical role of neural AR in courtship vocalizations and raises the possibility that the vulnerability of this signaling pathway to exposure to endocrine disrupters may be detrimental for courtship communication and mating in several species. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1443.