Development and risk behavior among African American, Caucasian, and mixed-race adolescents living in high poverty inner-city neighborhoods

The Link between Abstract Thinking Style and Subjective Well-Being: Its Impact when People are in (Real or Perceived) Financial Scarcity

Across three studies, we explored the link between an abstract mindset and subjective well-being (SWB) in participants with real and/or perceived financial scarcity. In Studies 1 and 2, samples presented real objective financial vulnerability: Adolescents from lower-middle income districts (Study 1; N = 256), and adults without higher education and with very low incomes (Study 2; N = 210). In Studies 1 and 2 participants completed a survey including measures of thinking style and SWB. In Studies 2 and 3 perception of financial difficulty and SWB were also measured. Study 3 (N = 161) used a sample of university students and employed an experimental design manipulating participants' thinking style (i.e., concrete versus abstract mindset conditions); additionally, all participants were induced to perceive financial scarcity. Correlations revealed a significant and positive relationship between an abstract thinking style and SWB (Studies 1 and 2). Thus, these results showed that a relatively more abstract thinking style was associated with greater life satisfaction. In Studies 2 and 3 mediation analyses indicated that adults who presented a more abstract thinking style, perceived lower financial difficulties and then reported greater SWB. Overall, given that an abstract thinking style can be induced, these results offer a new intervention approach for improving the SWB of people living in situations of financial scarcity.

Potential Pathways From Peer Victimization to Alcohol Use Among Biracial Adolescents: The Intervening Role of Parental Support

BACKGROUND

This study examined pathways from peer victimization to alcohol use and the role of parental support in mediating potential peer effects among biracial youth. Given a significant dearth of research on biracial youth, this study addresses this significant gap in the extant literature.

METHODS

Secondary data analyses were conducted using the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study in the United States. This study enrolled 492 self-identified biracial school-aged youth using a nationally representative sampling of public and private schools.

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling was computed to test the mediational effects of low number of close friends, affiliation with delinquent friends, and parental support on alcohol use. Major findings indicated that affiliation with delinquent friends was correlated with higher alcohol use, higher levels of parental support were correlated with lower peer victimization, and higher levels of parental support were negatively correlated with affiliation with delinquent peers and alcohol use.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental and peer effects remain salient for biracial youth who are navigating adolescence and experiencing peer victimization. School-based interventions that include parents and friends of biracial youth are likely to be effective in reducing peer victimization and its negative sequelae.

Psychological patterns of poverty in Russia: Relationships among socioeconomic conditions, motivation, self-regulation and well-being

This article aims to extend our understanding of the link between socioeconomic conditions and psychological variables. It focuses on the effects of five distinct socioeconomic indicators on a range of psychological variables in samples of 162 individuals living below the poverty line and 188 of their more well-off counterparts in Russia. Participants completed a questionnaire containing measures of socioeconomic indicators (i.e., income, education, perceived deprivation, subjective socioeconomic status, and childhood socioeconomic status) and psychological variables representing self-regulation, motivation, and well-being. Our main findings include: (a) significant effects of socioeconomic status on all psychological variables, which are in line with other studies seeking to answer similar questions, (b) varying importance of different socioeconomic indicators for different psychological variables, and (c) centrality of all socioeconomic indicators except childhood socioeconomic status, and of values of openness to change and self-transcendence, satisfaction with life and self-esteem in the network of relationships between socioeconomic indicators and psychological variables.

Duration-Weighted Exposure to Neighborhood Disadvantage and Racial-Ethnic Differences in Adolescent Sexual Behavior

Racial-ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior are associated with health disparities during adulthood and are therefore important to understand. Some scholars argue that neighborhood disadvantage induces disparities, yet prior research is mixed. We extend neighborhood-effects research by addressing long-term exposure to neighborhood disadvantage and estimation bias resulting from inclusion of time-varying covariates. Drawing from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study, we compare a point-in-time proximal measure of neighborhood disadvantage with a duration-weighted measure using marginal structural models with inverse probability of treatment weights. Findings indicate that multiracial, non-Hispanic black, and Hispanic youth exhibit significantly higher sexual risk and duration-weighted exposure to neighborhood disadvantage than non-Hispanic white adolescents. Duration-weighted exposure is a better predictor of sexual initiation and number of partners by age 15 than a point-in-time proximal measure of neighborhood disadvantage and accounts for a substantial portion of the race-ethnic differences in sexual risk.

Neighborhood Disadvantage Is Associated with Lower Quality Sleep and More Variability in Sleep Duration among Urban Adolescents

Differential social and contextual environments may contribute to adolescent sleep disparities, yet most prior studies are limited to self-reported sleep data and have not been conducted at a national level, limiting the variation in neighborhood contexts. This study examined the association between neighborhood disadvantage and objective measures of adolescent sleep. A racially and geographically diverse sample of American adolescents (N = 682) wore wrist-worn accelerometers, "actigraphs," for ≥ 5 nights. Neighborhood disadvantage was calculated using a standardized index of neighborhood characteristics (proportion of female-headed households, public assistance recipients, households in poverty, adults without high school degrees, and unemployed). Adolescents in more disadvantaged neighborhoods spent more time awake after falling asleep (4.0 min/night, p < .05), a greater percentage of nighttime sleep intervals awake (1%, p < .01), and had less consistent sleep duration (11.6% higher standard deviation, p < .05). Sleep duration and timing did not differ across neighborhood groups. These findings demonstrate that adolescents who live in more disadvantaged neighborhoods have lower quality, less consistent sleep.

The Association of Family-Related Adversity With Fighting in Adolescents: Does Hopelessness Mediate This Association?

Objectives: To explore the association of family-related adversities with physical fighting, and whether this association is mediated by hopelessness.

Methods: The sample consisted of 3712 Slovak adolescents (mean age: 13.9, 50.7% girls). Participants answered questions regarding experienced family-related adversities, involvement in physical fighting in the last 12 months and the Hopelessness Questionnaire. First, the association of family adversities in general with fighting and of each of family-related adversity separately was assessed using linear regression models and second, mediation was assessed using the a*b product method with bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals

Results: Adolescents who had experienced at least one family adversity reported more frequent fighting. Similarly, each of reported family adversities (death of a parent, substance abuse problems of a parent, conflicts/physical fights, divorce) was associated with more frequent fighting among adolescents. The mediation effect of hopelessness was found in each association of family-related adversity with fighting.

Conclusion: These findings suggest that interventions to support adolescents who had experienced family adversities could among other things be directed at better coping with hopelessness.

Exploring how Family and Neighborhood Stressors Influence Genetic Risk for Adolescent Conduct Problems and Alcohol Use

Previous research suggests that genetic risk factors may predispose to conduct problems and alcohol use in adolescence. Whether genetic risk factors interact with social contexts has not been well characterized among African American adolescents. Data came from a subsample of the Genes, Environment, and Neighborhood Initiative study comprising 501 African American adolescents, including 151 lifetime drinkers (56% female, mean age = 16.3, SD = 1.4). Genetic risk was assessed with polygenic risk scores for alcohol dependence. Analyses explored interactions between genetic risk and self-reported alcohol use, conduct problems, life stressors, and other covariates. The effects of two gene-environment interactions (G × E) were tested in the sample of alcohol exposed adolescents; one on conduct problems and the other on alcohol use. There were significant associations between polygenic risk for alcohol dependence and conduct problems. A significant G × E interaction showed the impact of genetic risk on conduct problems was stronger under conditions of high exposure to family and neighborhood stressors. Among this sample of African American adolescents, genetic risk for alcohol dependence was not directly associated with alcohol use but was related to more conduct problems. Further, the effect of genetic risk interacted with stressors from the family and neighborhood, so that the effect of genetic risk on conduct problems was stronger for individuals who reported greater stressors.

Psychosocial correlates of safe sex self-efficacy among in-school adolescent girls in Lagos, Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Adolescent girls in Nigeria are at heightened risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. However, there are limited studies on psychosocial factors that are associated with safe sex intentions among this population. Self-efficacy has been established as an important correlate of behavioral intentions and the actual behavior. The objective of this research was to examine how key psychosocial factors such as social support, parental monitoring, and future orientation influence perceived safe sex self-efficacy among in-school adolescent girls in Nigeria. Furthermore, we assessed the associations between these psychosocial factors and HIV-related knowledge and safe sex self-efficacy.

METHODS

A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to 426 adolescent girls attending public and private school systems in Lagos, Nigeria. Multiple linear regression was used to evaluate the influence of psychosocial and demographic factors on safe sex self-efficacy. Further, stratified analysis was conducted to compare the estimates between participants attending public schools (n = 272) and those attending private schools (n = 154).

FINDINGS

Results from the study show that future orientation (β = 0.17; p < 0.05), participants age (β = 0.14; p < 0.05), and HIV knowledge accuracy (β = 0.17; p < 0.05) were associated with safe sex self-efficacy. Future orientation remained statistically significant in the sub-group analysis among participants attending public (β = 0.13; p < 0.05) and private schools (β = 0.24; p < 0.05). Among participants attending public schools, HIV accuracy (β = 0.2; p < 0.05) remained a significant correlate of safe sex self-efficacy while this association dissipated among private school attendees.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings point to the importance of including future orientation strategies in interventions developed for in-school adolescent girls in Nigeria. School-based interventions that increase positive future orientation outcomes may be beneficial to improve safe sex intentions among adolescent girls in Nigeria.

Neighborhood Disorder, Family Functioning, and Risky Sexual Behaviors in Adolescence

Adolescent risky sexual behaviors can result in negative consequences such as sexually transmitted infection. However, much research effort has been placed on understanding individual characteristics, rather than the role of neighborhood environment. This study addressed the prospective effects of neighborhood and family functioning in preadolescence on risky sexual behaviors. Participants included 4179 youth (Mage = 11.01 years, range 8.64-13.83; 51% female) and their caregivers. Using objective and self-reported measures of neighborhood and family functioning, results from multilevel regression analyses indicated that youth residing in disordered neighborhoods or had poorer family functioning in preadolescence were more likely to initiate sexual intercourse at younger ages 5 years later. Specifically, neighborhood poverty and decay were linked to early sexual initiation, whereas neighborhood social and family processes were protective against early sexual initiation. Males were more likely to engage in risky sexual behaviors in neighborhoods with greater poverty or decay; neighborhood poverty was linked with sexual initiation in White but not African American youth. Finally, parental monitoring moderated relationships between neighborhood social resources and contraceptive use, with neighborhood social resources linked with greater contraceptive use at low levels of parental monitoring, but lower contraceptive use at high levels of parental monitoring. These findings underscore the importance of neighborhood and family contexts in adolescents' risky sexual behavior, suggesting that males and White youth are more vulnerable to the effects of neighborhood poverty and that more research is needed on the possible counterproductive function of parental monitoring in neighborhoods with greater social resources.

Alcohol trajectories among biracial black subgroups: Testing the intermediate substance use hypothesis

OBJECTIVE

This study tests the intermediate biracial substance use hypothesis, which suggests that the prevalence of substance use among biracial individuals fall intermediate to their corresponding mononoracial counterparts. Using National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent and Adult Health (Add Health) data, we examine alcohol-use trajectories of a de-aggregated sample of biracial Black youth and compare them with the trajectories of the corresponding monoracial counterparts.

METHOD

The sample consists of 9421 adolescents and young adults who self-identified as 1 of 4 monoracial groups (i.e., Black, White, Hispanic, American Indian) or 1 of 3 biracial Black groups (i.e., Black-American Indian, Black-Hispanic, and Black-White). Study hypotheses are tested using latent growth curve modeling for first use, number of drinks, and binge drinking.

RESULTS

We found partial support for the intermediate substance use hypothesis, with the alcohol use rates of biracial Blacks more closely resembling the non-Black corresponding group than the monoracial Black group. Black-American Indians face particularly high risk of problematic drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate the need for additional research clarifying the onset and maintenance of alcohol use and misuse among biracial individuals and subgroups.

A Longitudinal Analysis of the Indirect Effect of Violence Exposure on Future Orientation Through Perceived Stress and the Buffering Effect of Family Participation

Exposure to violence (ETV) during adolescence has been associated with negative effects in later life, and may negatively affect an individual's future orientation. Future orientation has important health implications and warrants being studied. Yet, few researchers have examined how ETV affects an individual's future orientation as a young adult. The purpose of this study was to examine the indirect effect of ETV during adolescence on future orientation as a young adult through perceived stress. We also tested the moderating effect of family participation on the relationship between perceived stress and future orientation. Longitudinal data from a sample of 316 African American participants (42.10% male and 57.90% female, Mage = 14.76 at Wave 1) from low socioeconomic backgrounds recruited from a Midwestern school district were used in the analysis. Multigroup structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test our hypotheses. Our findings indicated that greater ETV during adolescence is associated with higher levels of perceived stress and, in turn, a more negative outlook on one's future as a young adult. This indirect effect occurred for individuals with lower family participation, but was not evident for individuals with greater family participation. These findings provide important implications for youth development interventions.

The Relationship Between Mixed Race/Ethnicity, Developmental Assets, and Mental Health Among Youth

This study assessed whether high school youth with mixed race/ethnicity are at greater risk for poor mental health conditions compared to their single race/ethnic counterparts and whether this mental health risk can be mitigated by youth developmental assets regardless of one's race/ethnicity. Methods involved secondary data analysis of the 2009-2013 Youth Risk Behavioral Survey-Anchorage, Alaska subsample. Difference in rates of mental health conditions and mean number of developmental assets (protective factors) were assessed among three racial/ethnic groups. Logistic regression models tested whether race/ethnicity has an independent association with mental health conditions and whether there is an interaction effect between race/ethnicity and protective factors. Results show that, compared to white students, mixed race/ethnic students have significantly higher rates of poor mental health condition and significantly fewer protective factors. A significant interaction effect between race/ethnicity and protective factors was also found, showing decreasing likelihood of poor mental health condition with increasing number of protective factors among all racial/ethnic groups. However, this effect was more pronounced among white students compared to both mixed and single race/ethnicity minority students. Study findings indicate that youth of mixed race/ethnicity are more likely to be at risk for poor mental health outcomes, yet less likely to mitigate this risk even with similar number of external developmental assets as their single race/ethnic counterparts. More research is needed to further understand the differential effect of certain developmental assets among different racial/ethnic groups.

Genes involved in stress response and alcohol use among high-risk African American youth

BACKGROUND

Genetic and environmental factors influence substance use behaviors in youth. One of the known environmental risk factors is exposure to life stressors. The aim of this project is to study the interaction between NR3C1 and CRHBP, genes thought to be involved in stress pathways, exposure to stressful life events, and adolescent alcohol use/misuse.

METHODS

The sample included 541 African American individuals (ages 13-18) from the Genes, Environment, and Neighborhood Initiative, a subset of the Mobile Youth Survey sample from whom DNA and more extensive phenotypic data were collected. Participants were selected from high-poverty neighborhoods in Mobile, Alabama, with potential exposure to a variety of extreme life stressors.

RESULTS

A measure of stressful life events was significantly predictive of alcohol use/misuse. In addition, this association was significantly dependent upon the number of putative risk variants at rs1715749, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in CRHBP (P ≤ .006). There was no significant interaction between NR3C1 and stressful life events with respect to alcohol use/misuse, after taking into account multiple testing.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that CRHBP variants are potentially relevant for adolescent alcohol use/misuse among African American youth populations being reared within the context of stressful life events and warrant replication.

Body Image Models among Low-income African American Mothers and Daughters in the Southeast United States

Obesity among low-income African American women has been studied using the concepts of both satisfaction and acceptance. The satisfaction frame suggests greater satisfaction with their bodies than their white counterparts, irrespective of size. The acceptance frame suggests that alternative aesthetics serve as resistance against intersectional marginalization. Yet, while these women accept their body size in defiance of thinness ideals, they may not be satisfied. We describe cultural models of body image among mothers and daughters in Alabama. We found that respectability, material consumption, and parental support were important factors determining positive body image, exceeding descriptions of physical features. We further found that those expressing greater body dissatisfaction emphasized respectability, whereas those with less dissatisfaction assigned importance to consumerism and physical form. These findings suggest divergences between biomedical messaging and lived experience. They also challenge uncritical or universalist applications of these frames when interpreting African American women's perceptions of their own bodies.

Risk and Protective Processes Predicting Rural African American Young Men's Substance Abuse

Informed by a life course perspective, this study tested a cascade model linking harsh, unresponsive parenting during childhood to young African American men's substance abuse via precocious transitions, economic instability, and future orientation. The moderating influence of community disadvantage and romantic partner support on the hypothesized pathways was also examined. At the baseline, the sample included 505 African American men between ages 19 and 22 years from high-poverty rural communities. Follow-up data were collected 18 months after baseline. Using structural equation modeling, we identified harsh, unresponsive parenting influenced precocious transitions in adolescence, which in turn increased economic instability during young adulthood. Economic instability was associated with a reduction in future orientation, a proximal influence on increases in substance abuse. Also, residence in a disadvantaged community amplified the influence of precocious transitions on economic instability and the influence of economic instability on future orientation. Involvement with supportive romantic partnership evinced a protective effect, attenuating the influence of precocious transitions on economic instability and the influence of economic instability on a future orientation. This study expands understanding of young adults' substance abuse by demonstrating the risk and protective processes linking substance abuse to developmental factors across childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood.

Does it really matter which drug you choose? An examination of the influence of type of drug on type of risky sexual behavior

This study investigates whether certain types of substances are differentially related to certain risky sexual behaviors (RSBs) within the same population and determines whether combination substance use (SU) has additive, redundant or antagonistic effects on RSBs. African-American youth aged 9-19 participated in a large, community-based survey assessing substance use and sexual behaviors. Multilevel modeling was used to predict the differential influence of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine use on condom use measured in the past 90days and at last intercourse, sex while drunk/high, and number of sexual partners. Tests of the within-participant relations showed that participants increasing their SU over time concurrently increased their RSBs, establishing a strong link between the two behaviors (alcohol: condom β=-0.045, sex while drunk/high β=0.138, sex partners β=0.102; marijuana: condom β=-0.081, sex while drunk/high β=0.255, sex partners β=0.166; cocaine: condom β=-0.091, sex while drunk/high β=0.103, sex partners β=0.031; all p's<0.01). Tests of the between-participant relations showed that, generally, youth reporting less SU across their teenage years were also more likely to report fewer RSBs over this period (alcohol: condom β=-0.128, sex while drunk/high β=0.120, sex partners β=0.169; marijuana: condom β=-0.170, sex while drunk/high β=0.638, sex partners β=0.357; cocaine: condom β=-0.353; all p's<0.05). Moreover, the combination of some substances has unique redundant or antagonistic effects on RSB. Such findings support the consideration of type of SU, and particular combinations of substances, on RSBs in intervention development.

Neighborhood environment and marijuana use in urban young adults

Risk factors for marijuana use in older adolescents and young adults have focused primarily on family environment and peer affiliation. A growing body of work has examined the relationship between environmental context and young adult substance use. This study builds on previous research linking neighborhood environment to young adult marijuana use by exploring two distinct features of neighborhoods, namely the physical (e.g., broken windows) and social environment (e.g., adults watching youth). Data were obtained from a longitudinal sample of 398 predominately African American young adults living in an urban environment. The data also included observational measures of physical and social order and disorder collected on the young adult's residential block. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) was utilized to test hypothesized relationships between these two features of the neighborhood environment and past year young adult marijuana use. A two-factor model of neighborhood environment with good fit indices was selected (CFI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.037). There was a positive and significant direct effect from neighborhood physical disorder to marijuana use (0.219, p < 0.05) controlling for gender, race, and free and reduced price meal (FARPM) status. The direct effect from neighborhood social environment to marijuana use was not significant. These results converge with previous research linking vacant housing with young adult marijuana use but do not provide empirical support for the neighborhood social environment as a determinant of drug taking. Better explication of the social environment is needed to understand its relationship to drug use.

Parent and youth dopamine D4 receptor genotypes moderate multilevel contextual effects on rural African American youth's risk behavior

The present investigation extends research on Gene × Environment interactions and youth risk behavior by linking multilevel contextual factors, such as community disadvantage and protective parenting practices, to both parental and youth dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) genotypes. We expected community disadvantage to influence youth risk behavior via a series of indirect effects involving protective parenting and youth's planful future orientation when both parents' and youth's DRD4 status was considered. Genetic moderation processes also were tested to determine whether they conformed to a diathesis-stress or a differential susceptibility model. Hypotheses were investigated with data from 361 rural African American youth and their parents assessed 3 times when youth were ages 16 to 19. Community disadvantage interacted with parental DRD4 status to predict low levels of protective parenting. Protective parenting, in turn, interacted with youth DRD4 status to forecast increases in youth's planful future orientations, a proximal influence on changes in risk behavior. The Parental DRD4 × Community Disadvantage interaction, but not youth DRD4 × Protective Parenting, conformed to a differential susceptibility model. Indirect effect analyses revealed a significant indirect path linking community disadvantage to youth risk behavior through a series of multilevel Gene × Environment interaction processes.

The role of social support and social context on the incidence of attempted suicide among adolescents living in extremely impoverished communities

PURPOSE

Evaluate the impact of social support and social context on suicide attempt in disadvantaged adolescents, and calculate that longitudinal risk of suicide attempt.

METHODS

Seven thousand two hundred ninety-nine adolescents were used to evaluate the effect of social support and context on suicide attempt, and to estimate the overall risk of suicide attempt.

RESULTS

Increased peer support reduced the risk of suicide attempt, and increased perceived inevitability of violence led to an increase in risk among 9-year-old children. As children age, the effect of overall peer support remains consistent, while there is a reduction in the effect of inevitability of violence. Approximately 36% of extremely impoverished adolescents attempt suicide by the age of 19.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study provides insight into the nature of suicide attempt within a grossly understudied population. Social support and social context have an important impact on suicidal behavior in extremely disadvantaged adolescents.

Spanish version of the Substance Use Risk Profile Scale: factor structure, reliability, and validity in Mexican adolescents

To validate the Substance Use Risk Profile Scale (SURPS) in a sample of Mexican adolescents, this brief 23-item self-report questionnaire has been developed to screen four high-risk personality traits for substance misuse, to guide targeted approaches to prevention of addictions in adolescents. The scale has been previously validated in United Kingdom, Canada, Sri Lanka and China. A sample of 671 adolescents aged 11-17 completed a Spanish translation of the SURPS as well as other measures of personality and substance use. The Spanish translation of the SURPS has moderate internal consistency, and demonstrated a four-factor structure very similar to the original scale. The four subscales show good concurrent validity and three of the subscales were found to correlate with measures of substance use. The Spanish translation of the SURPS seems to be a valid and sensitive scale that can be used in a Mexican adolescent population.

Change in Age-Specific, Psychosocial Correlates of Risky Sexual Behaviors Among Youth: Longitudinal Findings From a Deep South, High-Risk Sample

The current study examined psychosocial predictors of change in intercourse frequency and number of sexual partners among youth within a socio-ecological framework and assessed whether these determinants vary by stage of adolescent development. Longitudinal data were derived from a large, community study of adolescent risky behavior among predominantly high-risk, African American youth. Significant predictors of intercourse frequency for early adolescents included age, gender, self-worth, and familial factors; for older youth, age, gender, self-worth, curfews, and sense of community exerted significant effects. Among early adolescents, age, gender, self-worth, familial factors, and sense of community predicted change in the number of sexual partners in the previous year, while age, gender, self-worth, parental knowledge, curfews, and sense of community were predictive of change in the number of sexual partners in the previous year among older youth. Study implications and future directions are discussed.

SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL PREDICTORS OF INTERCOURSE FREQUENCY AND NUMBER OF SEXUAL PARTNERS AMONG MALE AND FEMALE AFRICAN AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS

The current study examined 14 waves of data derived from a large, community-based study of the sexual behavior of impoverished youth between 12 and 17 years of age residing in the Deep South. We used multilevel linear modeling to identify ecological predictors of intercourse frequency and number of sexual partners among gender-specific subsamples. Results indicated that predictors of adolescent sexual behavior differed by both type of sexual behavior and gender. For males, age, maternal warmth, parental knowledge, curfew, self-worth, and sense of community predicted intercourse frequency, while age, parental knowledge, curfew, self-worth, friend support, and sense of community were significantly associated with having multiple sexual partners. Among females, age, curfew, and self-worth exerted significant effects on intercourse frequency, while age, parental knowledge, curfew, and self-worth exerted significant effects on having multiple sexual partners. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Neighborhoods and racial/ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior

Understanding the determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior is important given its links to the differential risk of teen pregnancy, childbearing, and sexually transmitted infections. This article tests a contextual model that emphasizes the concentration of neighborhood disadvantage in shaping racial/ethnic disparities in sexual risk behavior. We focus on two risk behaviors that are prevalent among Black and Hispanic youth: the initiation of sexual activity in adolescence and the number of sex partners. Using data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Study of Youth (N = 6,985; 48% female; 57% non-Hispanic White) evidence indicates that neighborhood disadvantage--measured by concentrated poverty, unemployment rates, and the proportion of female-headed households--partially explains Black and Hispanic disparities from Whites in the odds of adolescent sexual debut, although the prevalence of female-headed households in neighborhoods appears to be the main driver in this domain. Likewise, accounting for neighborhood disadvantage reduces the Black-White and Hispanic-White disparity in the number of sexual partners, although less so relative to sexual debut. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

Associations of adolescent hopelessness and self-worth with pregnancy attempts and pregnancy desire

OBJECTIVES

We examined the associations of pregnancy desire (ambivalence or happiness about a pregnancy in the next year) and recent pregnancy attempts with hopelessness and self-worth among low-income adolescents.

METHODS

To evaluate independent associations among the study variables, we conducted gender-stratified multivariable logistic regression analyses with data derived from 2285 sexually experienced 9- to 18-year-old participants in the Mobile Youth Survey between 2006 and 2009.

RESULTS

Fifty-seven percent of youths reported a desire for pregnancy and 9% reported pregnancy attempts. In multivariable analyses, hopelessness was positively associated and self-worth was negatively associated with pregnancy attempts among both female and male youths. Hopelessness was weakly associated (P = .05) with pregnancy desire among female youths.

CONCLUSIONS

The negative association of self-worth and the positive association of hopelessness with pregnancy attempts among young men as well as young women and the association of hopelessness with pregnancy desire among young women raise questions about why pregnancy is apparently valued by youths who rate their social and cognitive competence as low and who live in an environment with few options for material success.

Trajectories of multiple adolescent health risk behaviors in a low-income African American population

This study examined interdependent trajectories of sexual risk, substance use, and conduct problems among 12- to 18-year-old African American youths who were followed annually as part of the Mobile Youth Study. We used growth mixture modeling to model the development of these three outcomes in the 1,406 participants who met the inclusion criteria. Results indicate that there were four distinct classes: normative, low risk (74.3% of sample); increasing high-risk takers (11.9%); adolescent-limited conduct problems and drug risk with high risky sex (8.0%); and early experimenters (5.8%) The higher risk classes had higher rates of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections diagnoses than the normative sample at each of the ages we examined. Differing somewhat from our hypothesis, all of the nonnormative classes exhibited high sexual risk behavior. Although prevention efforts should be focused on addressing all three risk behaviors, the high rate of risky sexual behavior in the 25% of the sample that fall into the three nonnormative classes underscores an urgent need for improved sex education, including teen pregnancy and HIV/sexually transmitted infections prevention, in this community.

Young women's education and behavioural risk trajectories: clarifying their association with unintended-pregnancy resolution

In the USA, most pregnancies occurring to teenage women are unplanned, making both the decisions regarding their resolution and the consequences of those decisions important topics of inquiry. Substantial debate surrounds the potential consequences for young women of either carrying an unintended pregnancy to term or voluntarily terminating it. The present study utilises data from The US National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health prospectively to examine the predictors of pregnancy resolution decisions in terms of young women's educational goals and their engagement in risk behaviours. Additionally, the long-term consequences of these decisions for education and risk-taking behaviours are identified. Results indicate that young women with strong educational goals have a greater likelihood of terminating an unintended pregnancy than those with low aspirations, and that pregnancy termination predicts higher educational attainment compared to motherhood. Risk behaviours did not predict pregnancy-resolution decisions, but young women who became mothers reported lower rates of subsequent substance use and fewer sexual partners post-pregnancy than those who terminated the pregnancy or who had never been pregnant. Motherhood appears to be a catalyst for lifestyle change among young women, limiting substance use and sexual partnering, in contrast to abortion, which appears to allow adolescents to continue risk-taking trajectories.

Prevalence of mental health disorders among low-income African American adolescents

PURPOSE

Data on the prevalence of mental health disorders for low-income, urban African American adolescents are scarce. This study presents data about the burden of mental disorders for this understudied population.

METHODS

Mental disorders were assessed using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (C-DISC), Youth Self-Report (YSR), and Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) among a sample of adolescents and their caregivers from very impoverished neighborhoods in a Southern city.

RESULTS

Based on the C-DISC, 3.8, 5.1 and 7.7% of adolescents met diagnostic criteria for major depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and conduct disorder, respectively. There were significant differences among some of the mental health disorders based on adolescent and caregiver characteristics such as sex, school status, caregiver work status, and income level. We found a low prevalence of alcohol, marijuana, and substance abuse and dependence disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Information about the prevalence of mental health disorders in specific communities and populations can assist in addressing unmet needs, planning for services and treatment, and reducing health disparities.

Parental and peer disapproval of alcohol use and its relationship to adolescent drinking: age, gender, and racial differences

This study examined age, gender, and racial differences in parental and peer disapproval of alcohol use and in the relationship of these injunctive norms with drinking during adolescence. Participants included 20,239 students ages 11-19 years (average age 14.34; 47% boys; 46% White and 54% Black) from 2 large urban and suburban school districts. Youth responded to a cross-sectional, school-administered Pride Survey in the spring of 2004. Adolescents reported how often they used alcohol in the past year and their perceptions of peer and parental disapproval of alcohol use. The results revealed that youth perceived higher disapproval from parents than peers throughout adolescence, but this parent-peer disparity in norms increased with age as a result of steeper decline in peer than parental disapproval. Black youth perceived lower disapproval from both peers and parents than Whites in earlier but not later adolescence. Girls reported higher perceptions of both parental and peer disapproval than boys throughout adolescence. Alcohol use was more strongly related to peer than parental norms, and the effect of parental and peer disapproval on abstinence was larger among older youth. Peer norms were more closely associated with alcohol use in girls than boys. Both parent and peer injunctive norms were also more strongly related to alcohol use in White than Black adolescents. Parental disapproval of drinking amplified the link between peer disapproval and lower alcohol use. These findings suggest that interventions should target both parental and peer disapproval throughout adolescence, particularly among White youth.

Distinct Stress and Resource Profiles Among At-Risk Adolescents: Implications for Violence and Other Problem Behaviors

This study tests for the presence of subgroups among youth at-risk for school drop-out and whether those groups differ on levels of violence and related problem behaviors. Latent profile analysis was employed with a diverse adolescent sample (N = 849) to identify and describe subgroups based on assessment of stress and coping resources, resulting in four distinct groups: Low Risk, Unprotected, Risk Only, and High Risk. Tests across these groups demonstrated significant heterogeneity in violent behaviors, substance use, and school disengagement. The value of stress and protective resource assessment and tailoring interventions to meet the differing needs of vulnerable youth is discussed.

Sensitivity and specificity of a brief personality screening instrument in predicting future substance use, emotional, and behavioral problems: 18-month predictive validity of the Substance Use Risk Profile Scale

BACKGROUND

This study assessed the validity, sensitivity, and specificity of the Substance Use Risk Profile Scale (SURPS), a measure of personality risk factors for substance use and other behavioral problems in adolescence.

METHODS

The concurrent and predictive validity of the SURPS was tested in a sample of 1,162 adolescents (mean age: 13.7 years) using linear and logistic regressions, while its sensitivity and specificity were examined using the receiver operating characteristics curve analyses.

RESULTS

Concurrent and predictive validity tests showed that all 4 brief scales-hopelessness (H), anxiety sensitivity (AS), impulsivity (IMP), and sensation seeking (SS)-were related, in theoretically expected ways, to measures of substance use and other behavioral and emotional problems. Results also showed that when using the 4 SURPS subscales to identify adolescents "at risk," one can identify a high number of those who developed problems (high sensitivity scores ranging from 72 to 91%). And, as predicted, because each scale is related to specific substance and mental health problems, good specificity was obtained when using the individual personality subscales (e.g., most adolescents identified at high risk by the IMP scale developed conduct or drug use problems within the next 18 months [a high specificity score of 70 to 80%]).

CONCLUSIONS

The SURPS is a valuable tool for identifying adolescents at high risk for substance misuse and other emotional and behavioral problems. Implications of findings for the use of this measure in future research and prevention interventions are discussed.

Future expectations among adolescents: a latent class analysis

Future expectations have been important predictors of adolescent development and behavior. Its measurement, however, has largely focused on single dimensions and misses potentially important components. This analysis investigates whether an empirically-driven, multidimensional approach to conceptualizing future expectations can substantively contribute to our understanding of adolescent risk behavior. We use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 to derive subpopulations of adolescents based on their future expectations with latent class analysis. Multinomial regression then determines which covariates from Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory are associated with class membership. After modeling these covariates, we examine whether future expectations is associated with delinquency, substance use, and sexual experience. Our analysis suggests the emergence of four distinct classes labeled the Student Expectations, Student/Drinking Expectations, Victim Expectations, and Drinking/Arrest Expectations classes according to their indicator profiles. These classes differ with respect to covariates associated with membership; furthermore, they are all statistically and differentially associated with at least one adolescent risk behavior. This analysis demonstrates the additional benefit derived from using this multidimensional approach for studying future expectations. Further research is needed to investigate its stability and role in predicting adolescent risk behavior over time.

Future orientation, school contexts, and problem behaviors: a multilevel study

The association between future orientation and problem behaviors has received extensive empirical attention; however, previous work has not considered school contextual influences on this link. Using a sample of N = 9,163 9th to 12th graders (51.0 % females) from N = 85 high schools of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, the present study examined the independent and interactive effects of adolescent future orientation and school contexts (school size, school location, school SES, school future orientation climate) on problem behaviors. Results provided evidence that adolescent future orientation was associated independently and negatively with problem behaviors. In addition, adolescents from large-size schools reported higher levels of problem behaviors than their age mates from small-size schools, controlling for individual-level covariates. Furthermore, an interaction effect between adolescent future orientation and school future orientation climate was found, suggesting influences of school future orientation climate on the link between adolescent future orientation and problem behaviors as well as variations in effects of school future orientation climate across different levels of adolescent future orientation. Specifically, the negative association between adolescent future orientation and problem behaviors was stronger at schools with a more positive climate of future orientation, whereas school future orientation climate had a significant and unexpectedly positive relationship with problem behaviors for adolescents with low levels of future orientation. Findings implicate the importance of comparing how the future orientation-problem behaviors link varies across different ecological contexts and the need to understand influences of school climate on problem behaviors in light of differences in psychological processes among adolescents.

Understanding the ecology and development of children and families experiencing homelessness: implications for practice, supportive services, and policy

The experience of homelessness can pervade multiple levels and facets of a child and family's world. In view of the historical risks in the lives of children who are experiencing homelessness (e.g., growing up under conditions of poverty, exposure to family violence), it is clear that interventions, services, and supports need to be equally comprehensive to have a positive influence on child functioning and development. Consequently, service systems, providers, and community supports need to address the circumstances of children and families experiencing homelessness and, more specifically, better attend to their ecologies and the diverse factors that can affect their well-being and adjustment trajectories. Such an approach is needed to better understand the range of factors and influences on the development and adaptation of these youngsters at home, at school, and with their peers as well as to guide the identification and implementation of adequate family-centered services and supports.

Sleep disturbance and risk behaviors among inner-city African-American adolescents

Adolescents tend to experience more problems with sleep loss as a natural consequence of puberty, whereas teens from impoverished urban areas are likely to witness neighborhood violence and/or engage in risk behaviors that may affect sleep. Data from the Mobile Youth Survey, a longitudinal study of impoverished inner-city African-American adolescents (1998-2005; N = 20,716; age range = 9.75-19.25 years), were used to compare paired years of annual surveys elicited by questions about how sleep was affected when bad things happen to friends or family. Using a cross-lagged panel multivariate approach comparing reports for two sequential years and controlling for age/gender plus exposure to traumatic stress and violence, prior sleep disturbance was associated with carrying a knife/gun, brandishing a knife/gun, using a knife/gun, quick temperedness, warmth toward mother, worry, and belief in the neighborhood street code in the latter year. Conversely, seeing someone cut, stabbed, or shot, using alcohol, worry, and internalized anger were associated with sleep disturbance in a latter year. Although a limited measure of sleep disturbance was used, these findings support further research to examine sleep disturbance and risk behaviors among low-income adolescents.

Socioeconomic status, a forgotten variable in lateralization development

Socioeconomic status (SES), a variable combining income, education, and occupation, is correlated with a variety of social health outcomes including school dropout rates, early parenthood, delinquency, and mental illness. Several studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s largely failed to report a relationship between SES and hemispheric asymmetry as measured by lateral differences in dichotic listening, tactile dot enumeration, and visual emotion and word recognition. However, none of the studies used asymmetry measures correcting for both ceiling and floor effects in accuracy, raising the question of whether lower and higher SES groups were comparable. Here the published data are reanalyzed using a laterality coefficient that corrects for such effects. The results are consistent across studies in revealing reduced lateralization in lower SES groups. Developmentally, this finding is consistent with either maturation delay or reduced functional specialization, or both. Suggestions are made for further research that include the use of behavioral asymmetry measures to screen tasks for structural and functional brain imaging.

Personality moderates the longitudinal relationship between psychological symptoms and alcohol use in adolescents

BACKGROUND

A great deal of research has emerged on the comorbidity between alcohol misuse and psychological symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety, and antisocial behavior or conduct disorder) in adolescence. Research has also shown that personality traits underlie vulnerability to alcohol use and psychological symptoms, but how personality moderates this association has not been comprehensively examined. The goals of this study are to clarify (i) whether early alcohol use effects the rate of change of psychological symptoms and vice versa, (ii) whether initial levels and rate of change in both domains vary according to individual differences in personality traits, and (iii) whether personality moderates the relationship between alcohol use and psychological symptoms.

METHODS

Self-reported alcohol use, depression, anxiety, and antisocial behavior were collected from 393 adolescents at four separate time points across an 18-month period. Parallel growth models were used to assess the main objectives of the study. Personality traits [anxiety sensitivity (AS), hopelessness (H), impulsivity (IMP), and sensation seeking (SS)] were included as time-invariant predictors of initial levels and rates of change of each construct.

RESULTS

The results indicated that elevated levels of depression predicted faster rates of increase in alcohol use. Personality-specific relationships were demonstrated across all models. IMP was shown to moderate the relationship between alcohol use and depression, suggesting that adolescents who showed a susceptibility to elevated levels of IMP, and heavier drinking were less likely to demonstrate a normative decline in depression. Adolescents with higher levels of AS and anxiety were more likely to show a faster rate of increase in alcohol use.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the importance of examining personality traits in studying the associations between alcohol use and psychological symptoms.

Behavioral and Emotional Strengths among Youth in Systems-of-Care and the Effect of Race/Ethnicity

Behavioral and emotional strengths are important to consider when understanding youth mental health and treatment. This study examined the association between youth strengths and functional impairment, and whether this association is modified by race/ethnicity. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to estimate the effects of strengths on impairment, and examine whether race and ethnicity modified this relationship in 8,129 Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native youth, between 5 and 18 years of age. Results suggest that youth with average and above average strengths were less likely to have impairment compared to youth with below average strengths. Race and ethnicity modified this relationship in both expected and unexpected ways. Among youth with average and above average strengths, racial and ethnic minority youth appear to have more impairment than Caucasian youth. However, among youth with below average strengths, racial and ethnic minority youth have less impairment than Caucasian youth. Findings highlight the importance of incorporating strengths-based approaches in youth mental health treatment and the need for further research to understand the specific nature of strengths as it effects impairment across racial/ethnic groups. Implications and recommendations are discussed.

Social connections, trajectories of hopelessness, and serious violence in impoverished urban youth

Youth living in impoverished urban neighborhoods are at risk for becoming hopeless about their future and engaging in violent behaviors. The current study seeks to examine the longitudinal relationship between social connections, hopelessness trajectories, and subsequent violent behavior across adolescence. Our sample included 723 (49% female) African American youth living in impoverished urban neighborhoods who participated in the Mobile Youth Survey from 1998 through 2006. Using general growth mixture modeling, we found two hopelessness trajectory classes for both boys and girls during middle adolescence: a consistently low hopelessness class and an increasingly hopeless class with quadratic change. In all classes, youth who reported stronger early adolescent connections to their mothers were less hopeless at age 13. The probability of later adolescent violence with a weapon was higher for boys and was associated with the increasingly hopeless class for both boys and girls. Implications for new avenues of research and design of hope-based prevention interventions will be discussed.

Pathways and Predictors of Antisocial Behaviors in African American Adolescents from Poor Neighborhoods

Antisocial behavior among youth remains a serious personal and social problem in the United States. The purposes of this study were to (1) identify the shape and number of developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior in a sample of poor, inner-city African American youth, and (2) test predictors of group membership and the developmental course of antisocial behaviors. Using growth mixture modeling, we examined predictors of antisocial behavior pathways and the likelihood of arrest in a sample of 566 poor, urban African American adolescents (ages 11 to 16). Three distinct trajectory classes of antisocial behavior were identified over a period of six years: one low-risk group (low steady) and two high-risk groups (incremental and high starter). The conditional probabilities for being arrested during ages 14-16 were 0.18 for the low steady class, 0.68 for the incremental class, and 0.31 for high starter class. Prevention strategies for adolescents at high risk are discussed.

Defining the scope of systems of care: an ecological perspective

The definition of a system of care (SOC) can guide those intending to develop and sustain SOCs. Hodges, Ferreira, Israel, and Mazza [Hodges, S., Ferreira, K., Israel, N., & Mazza, J. (in press). Systems of care, featherless bipeds, and the measure of all things. Evaluation and Program Planning] have emphasized contexts in which services are provided to families, plus the adaptive, dynamic, complex nature of systems and multiple components that comprise SOCs. However, two areas need additional clarification: (1) the nature of the "system" of concern in a "system of care," and how it should differ from a "service delivery system"; and (2) the degree to which intended, or desired, outcomes of a SOC extend beyond increased access to "necessary" services and supports. These prime issues in the conceptualization of SOCs are addressed, drawing on ecological theory to underscore the need for broader systems--including factors in the proximal and distal contexts of children and families--to be engaged in the process of promoting well-being and helping children and families function and participate fully in their communities. A revised definition is proposed, with implications for the implementation of SOCs.

Community psychology: individuals and interventions in community context

Community psychology has historically focused on understanding individual behavior in sociocultural context, assessing high-impact contexts, and working in and with communities to improve their resources and influence over their futures. This review adopts an ecological perspective on recent developments in the field, beginning with philosophy of science and progressing through a series of substantive research and intervention domains that characterize current work. These domains include research on the ecology of lives, the assessment of social settings and their impact on behavior, culture and diversity as expressed in the community research process, and community intervention.

The influence of race and ethnicity on substance use and negative activity involvement among monoracial and multiracial adolescents of the southwest

This study examined predictors of substance use and negative activity involvement among a diverse sample of European American, African American, Hispanic, Native American, and multiracial early adolescents (n = 749) living in a large urban city in the Southwest United States. This study investigated a broad set of predictor variables that tap sociodemographic, peer, family, community, and school influences. Overall, findings from this study confirm that lifetime substance use remains high among youth of color. Of particular concern is this study's finding that multiracial adolescents are at elevated risk to use substances and engage in negative activities. The implications of this study for understanding how risk factors are influenced by race and other variables on different measures of problem behavior are discussed.

Adoption of risk-related factors through early adolescence: associations with weight status and implications for causal mechanisms

PURPOSE

To examine cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between weight status and measures of risk and protective factors in youth.

METHODS

Participants included 3010 students (72.1% white, 27.9% nonwhite), with a baseline mean age of 12.7 years from the Teens Eating for Energy and Nutrition at School (TEENS) study. Surveys were administered in grades 7 and 8. Cross-sectional and longitudinal mixed-effects regression analyses were conducted to determine the association between body mass index z-score percentiles (BMI) and risk and protective factors (including substance use, depression, fighting, optimism, and spirituality).

RESULTS

Only depression was associated with BMI at the beginning of grade 7. However, by the end of grade 8, binge drinking, alcohol, tobacco, and other drug (ATOD) use, fighting, and depression were all cross-sectionally associated with BMI. Longitudinally, BMI in grade 7 did not predict risk and protective factors in grade 8. However, ATOD use, fighting, depression, and optimism in grade 7 predicted BMI in grade 8.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests there is a notable co-occurrence of unhealthy factors (including weight status, ATOD use, depression) which appears to develop during the critical transition period through early adolescence. Specifically, earlier ATOD use, depression, increased fighting, and decreased optimism may lead to unhealthy increases in weight status, whereas early indicators of increased weight status do not appear to predict increases in these factors. This work yields important insights into the causal mechanisms underlying adolescent behavior patterning and the progression with which these unhealthy risk factor profiles are adopted during this critical age.