Acute Exercise and Hormones Related to Appetite Regulation: A Meta-Analysis

A single bout of jumping exercise does not modulate serum markers of bone formation or bone resorption throughout a 24 h period

INTRODUCTION

This randomized, cross-over trial assessed the effect of a single bout of high-impact exercise on serum markers of bone formation and bone resorption over a 24 h period.

METHODS

Twenty healthy males and females performed a single bout of brief jumping exercise (EXC) or no exercise (CON), 55 min following consumption of a standard breakfast. Blood markers of bone formation (P1NP) and bone resorption (CTX-I) were assessed before (t = 0 h) and over a 5 h period after breakfast, and following 24 h of post-exercise recovery (t = 24 h).

RESULTS

Serum CTX-I concentrations decreased during the 5 h postprandial period (time-effect, P < 0.001) with no differences between conditions (time x condition, P = 0.14). After a ~ 16 % decline during the first 30 min following breakfast, serum P1NP concentrations gradually returned to baseline values during the 5 h postprandial period, with no differences in the overall response between conditions (time-effect, P < 0.001; time x condition, P = 0.25). Fasted serum CTX-I concentrations decreased from 0.33 ± 0.15 and 0.35 ± 0.15 ng/mL at baseline, to 0.31 ± 0.13 and 0.31 ± 0.16 ng/mL at t = 24 h in CON and EXC, respectively, with no differences between conditions (time-effect, P < 0.01; time x condition, P = 0.70). Fasted serum P1NP concentrations did not change from baseline to t = 24 h in both CON (baseline: 76 ± 27 ng/mL, t = 24 h: 79 ± 26 ng/mL) and EXC (baseline: 80 ± 24 ng/mL, t = 24 h: 77 ± 29 ng/mL; time-effect, P = 0.89), with no differences between conditions (time x condition, P = 0.22).

CONCLUSION

High-impact exercise does not modulate the concentrations of the serum marker of bone formation P1NP and the serum marker of bone resorption CTX-I throughout a 24 h recovery period in healthy adults.

Efficacy of Interval Training in Improving Body Composition and Adiposity in Apparently Healthy Adults: An Umbrella Review with Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Although the efficacy of interval training for improving body composition has been summarized in an increasing number of systematic reviews in recent years, discrepancies in review findings and conclusions have been observed.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to synthesize the available evidence on the efficacy of interval training compared with moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) and nonexercise control (CON) in reducing body adiposity in apparently healthy adults.

METHODS

An umbrella review with meta-analysis was performed. A systematic search was conducted in seven databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Database, CINAHL, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science) up to October 2023. Systematic reviews with meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing interval training and MICT/CON were included. Literature selection, data extraction, and methodological quality assessment (AMSTAR-2) were conducted independently by two reviewers. Meta-analyses were performed using a random-effects model. Subgroup analyses were conducted based on the type of interval training [high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT)], intervention duration, body mass index, exercise modality, and volume of HIIT protocols.

RESULTS

Sixteen systematic reviews, including 79 RCTs and 2474 unique participants, met the inclusion criteria. Most systematic reviews had a critically low (n = 6) or low (n = 6) AMSTAR-2 score. Interval training demonstrated significantly greater reductions in total body fat percent (BF%) compared with MICT [weighted mean difference (WMD) of - 0.77%; 95% confidence interval (CI) - 1.12 to - 0.32%] and CON (WMD of - 1.50%; 95% CI - 2.40 to - 0.58%). Significant reductions in fat mass, visceral adipose tissue, subcutaneous abdominal fat, and android abdominal fat were also observed following interval training compared to CON. Subgroup analyses indicated that both HIIT and SIT resulted in superior BF% loss than MICT. These benefits appeared to be more prominent in individuals with overweight/obesity and longer duration interventions (≥ 12 weeks), as well as in protocols using cycling as a modality and low-volume HIIT (i.e., < 15 min of high-intensity exercise per session).

CONCLUSIONS

This novel umbrella review with large-scale meta-analysis provides an updated synthesis of evidence with implications for physical activity guideline recommendations. The findings support interval training as a viable exercise strategy for reducing adiposity in the general population.

Low- and high-load resistance training exercise to volitional fatigue generate exercise-induced appetite suppression

Research on exercise-induced appetite suppression often does not include resistance training (RT) exercise and only compared matched volumes.

PURPOSE

To compare the effects of low-load and high-load RT exercise completed to volitional fatigue on appetite-regulation.

METHODS

11 resistance-trained males (24 ± 2 y) completed 3 sessions in a crossover experimental design: 1) control (CTRL); 2) RT exercise at 30% 1-repetition maximum (RM); and 3) RT exercise at 90% 1-RM. RT sessions consisted of 3 sets of 5 exercises completed to volitional fatigue. Acylated ghrelin, active glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), active peptide tyrosine (PYY), lactate, and subjective appetite perceptions were measured pre-exercise, 0-, 60-, and 120-min post-exercise. Energy intake was recorded the day before, of, and after each session.

RESULTS

Lactate was elevated following both 30% (0-, 60-, 120-min post-exercise) and 90% (0-, 60-min post-exercise; P < 0.001, d > 3.92) versus CTRL, with 30% greater than 90% (0-min post-exercise; P = 0.011, d = 1.14). Acylated ghrelin was suppressed by 30% (P < 0.007, d > 1.22) and 90% (P < 0.028, d > 0.096) post-exercise versus CTRL, and 30% suppressed concentrations versus 90% (60-min post-exercise; P = 0.032, d = 0.95). There was no effect on PYY (P > 0.171, ηp2 <0.149) though GLP-1 was greater at 60-min post-exercise in 90% (P = 0.052, d = 0.86) versus CTRL. Overall appetite was suppressed 0-min post-exercise following 30% and 90% versus CTRL (P < 0.013, d > 1.10) with no other differences (P > 0.279, d < 0.56). There were no differences in energy intake (P > 0.101, ηp2 <0.319).

CONCLUSIONS

RT at low- and high-loads to volitional fatigue induced appetite suppression coinciding with changes in acylated ghrelin though limited effects on anorexigenic hormones or free-living energy intake were present.

The Influence of Acute and Chronic Exercise on Appetite and Appetite Regulation in Patients with Prediabetes or Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-A Systematic Review

This systematic review aims to analyze the effects of acute and chronic exercise on appetite and appetite regulation in patients with abnormal glycemic control. PubMed, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched for eligible studies. The included studies had to report assessments of appetite (primary outcome). Levels of appetite-regulating hormones were analyzed as secondary outcomes (considered, if additionally reported). Seven studies with a total number of 211 patients with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) met the inclusion criteria. Ratings of hunger, satiety, fullness, prospective food consumption, nausea, and desire to eat, as well as levels of (des-)acylated ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, pancreatic polypeptide, peptide tyrosine tyrosine, leptin, and spexin were considered. Following acute exercise, the effects on appetite (measured up to one day post-exercise) varied, while there were either no changes or a decrease in appetite ratings following chronic exercise, both compared to control conditions (without exercise). These results were accompanied by inconsistent changes in appetite-regulating hormone levels. The overall risk of bias was low. The present results provide more evidence for an appetite-reducing rather than an appetite-increasing effect of (chronic) exercise on patients with prediabetes or T2DM. PROSPERO ID: CRD42023459322.

The effect of blood flow restriction exercise on N-lactoylphenylalanine and appetite regulation in obese adults: a cross-design study

Background

N-lactoylphenylalanine (Lac-Phe) is a new form of "exerkines" closely related to lactate (La), which may be able to inhibit appetite. Blood flow restriction (BFR) can lead to local tissue hypoxia and increase lactate accumulation. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of combining Moderate-intensity Continuous Exercise (MICE) with BFR on Lac-Phe and appetite regulation in obese adults.

Methods

This study employed the cross-design study and recruited 14 obese adults aged 18-24 years. The participants were randomly divided into three groups and performed several tests with specific experimental conditions: (1) M group (MICE without BFR, 60%VO2max, 200 kJ); (2) B group (MICE with BFR, 60%VO2max, 200 kJ); and (3) C group (control session without exercise). Participants were given a standardized meal 60 min before exercise and a ad libitum 60 min after exercise. In addition, blood and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) were collected before, immediately after, and 1 hour after performing the exercise.

Results

No significant difference in each index was detected before exercise. After exercise, the primary differential metabolites detected in the M and B groups were xanthine, La, succinate, Lac-Phe, citrate, urocanic acid, and myristic acid. Apart from that, the major enrichment pathways include the citrate cycle, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism. The enhanced Lac-Phe and La level in the B group was higher than M and C groups. Hunger of the B group immediately after exercise substantially differed from M group. The total ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 and hunger in the B group 1 hour after exercise differed substantially from M group. The results of calorie intake showed no significant difference among the indexes in each group.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this cross-design study demonstrated that the combined MICE and BFR exercise reduced the appetite of obese adults by promoting the secretion of Lac-Phe and ghrelin. However, the exercise did not considerably affect the subsequent ad libitum intake.

The influence of physical activity on neural responses to visual food cues in humans: A systematic review of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies

This systematic review examined whether neural responses to visual food-cues measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are influenced by physical activity. Seven databases were searched up to February 2023 for human studies evaluating visual food-cue reactivity using fMRI alongside an assessment of habitual physical activity or structured exercise exposure. Eight studies (1 exercise training, 4 acute crossover, 3 cross-sectional) were included in a qualitative synthesis. Structured acute and chronic exercise appear to lower food-cue reactivity in several brain regions, including the insula, hippocampus, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), postcentral gyrus and putamen, particularly when viewing high-energy-density food cues. Exercise, at least acutely, may enhance appeal of low-energy-density food-cues. Cross-sectional studies show higher self-reported physical activity is associated with lower reactivity to food-cues particularly of high-energy-density in the insula, OFC, postcentral gyrus and precuneus. This review shows that physical activity may influence brain food-cue reactivity in motivational, emotional, and reward-related processing regions, possibly indicative of a hedonic appetite-suppressing effect. Conclusions should be drawn cautiously given considerable methodological variability exists across limited evidence.

β-Endorphins are not responsible for delayed gastric emptying of digestible solids after exercise in professional cyclists. A preliminary study

OBJECTIVE

It has been reported that professional cyclists had an accelerated solid gastric emptying which decreased by increasing the exercise intensity. That could be explained by a predominance of stress-dependent motility inhibitors such gastrointestinal hormones, neurotransmitters and or the predominance of the gastric inhibitory vagal motor circuit. The aim of this preliminary study was to evaluate the role of β-endorphins, inhibitors of gastric motility, in these findings.

METHODS

Gastric emptying of solids marked with Tc⁹⁹ while resting and plasmatic levels of β-endorphins were evaluated in 27 healthy controls and 19 professional cyclists (day 1). Besides, gastric emptying of solids was also assessed in cyclists when they reached 50% (day 1) and 75% (day 2) of the maximum oxygen consumption (low and high, respectively), during exercise on the cycle-ergometer. The third day, naloxone was administered in cyclists in order to block the β-endorphins receptors and gastric emptying was measured when they reached 75% of the maximum oxygen consumption.

RESULTS

Basal β-endorphin levels were lower in cyclists vs controls (p<0.05) and they increased with the exercise intensity (p<0.001). There were no significant differences in gastric emptying of solids with or without naloxone when 75% of the maximum oxygen consumption was reached.

CONCLUSIONS

The inhibitory effect of the exercise in the gastric emptying of solids does not seem to be secondary to the action of β-endorphins, that leaves the gastric inhibitory vagal motor circuit a more likely predominant role.

The impact of acute exercise on appetite control: Current insights and future perspectives

The interaction of exercise with appetite control and energy intake has been widely studied due to the ability of exercise-related energy expenditure to influence energy and substrate balance. Many empirical studies have explored appetite and energy intake responses to acute (single) exercise bouts involving a variety of protocols in diverse populations revealing several consistent trends. The balance of evidence suggests that acute moderate-to-vigorous intensity land-based exercise suppresses subjective appetite feelings and the orexigenic hormone acylated ghrelin and elevates the anorexigenic hormones peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1. These perturbations are transient and hormone concentrations usually return to resting values in the hours after exercise without evoking compensatory increases in appetite or energy intake on the same day. This evidence counters the popular assertion that exercise transiently increases appetite and may prompt greater energy intake at subsequent meals. The indifference of the appetite control system to acute exercise-induced energy deficits contrasts with the immediate increases in appetite and energy intake provoked by equivalent diet-induced energy deficits. There is, however, considerable inter-individual variability in subjective appetite and hormonal responses to acute exercise with some individuals experiencing greater exercise-induced appetite suppression than others. Current evidence supports the promotion of exercise as a strategy for inducing a short-term energy deficit but the relevance of this for long-term appetite regulation and the control of body mass remains uncertain.

Effects of acute exercise and exercise training on plasma GDF15 concentrations and associations with appetite and cardiometabolic health in individuals with overweight or obesity - A secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial

Growth Differentiation Factor 15 (GDF15) is seemingly involved in appetite control. Acute exercise increases GDF15 concentrations in lean humans, but acute and long-term effects of exercise on GDF15 in individuals with overweight/obesity are unknown. We investigated the effects of acute exercise and exercise training on GDF15 concentrations in individuals with overweight/obesity and associations with appetite and cardiometabolic markers. 90 physically inactive adults (20-45 years) with overweight/obesity were randomized to 6-months habitual lifestyle (CON, n=16), or isocaloric exercise of moderate (MOD, n=37) or vigorous intensity (VIG, n=37), 5 days/week. Testing was performed at baseline, 3, and 6 months. Plasma GDF15 concentrations, other metabolic markers, and subjective appetite were assessed fasted and in response to acute exercise before an ad libitum meal. Cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, insulin sensitivity, and intraabdominal adipose tissue were measured. At baseline, GDF15 increased 18% (95%CI: 4; 34) immediately after acute exercise and 32% (16; 50) 60 min post-exercise. Fasting GDF15 increased 21% (0; 46) in VIG after 3 months (p=0.045), but this attenuated at 6 months (13% (-11; 43), p=0.316) and was unchanged in MOD (11% (-6; 32), p=0.224, across 3 and 6 months). Post-exercise GDF15 did not change in MOD or VIG. GDF15 was not associated with appetite or energy intake. Higher GDF15 was associated with lower cardiorespiratory fitness, central obesity, dyslipidemia, and poorer glycemic control. In conclusion, GDF15 increased in response to acute exercise but was unaffected by exercise training. Higher GDF15 concentrations were associated with a less favorable cardiometabolic profile but not with markers of appetite. This suggests that GDF15 increases in response to acute exercise independent of training state. Whether this has an impact on free-living energy intake and body weight management needs investigation.

Acute effect of high-intensity interval training versus moderate-intensity continuous training on appetite perception: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Interval training protocols have gained popularity over the years, but their impact on appetite sensation compared to officially recommended training method, moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) is not well understood. Thus, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare a single session of high intensity interval training (HIIT) including sprint interval training (SIT) with MICT on appetite perception measured by the visual analog scale (VAS). After searching up articles published up to September 2021, 13 randomized controlled studies were included in the meta-analysis. Outcomes of meta-analysis demonstrated that both acute sessions of HIIT/SIT and MICT suppressed appetite compared to no-exercise control groups immediately post exercise but there were no significant effects 30-90 min post exercise or in AUC values, indicating a transient effect of exercise on appetite sensations. Moreover, differences in appetite sensations between HIIT/SIT and MICT were negligible immediately post exercise, but HIIT/SIT suppressed hunger (MD = -6.347 [-12.054, -0.639], p = 0.029) to a greater extent than MICT 30- to 90-min post exercise, while there was a lack of consistency other VAS subscales of appetite. More studies that address the impact of exercising timing, nutrient compositions of energy intake (energy intake (EI)) and differences in participants' characteristics and long-term studies analyzing chronic effects are needed to comprehensively examine the differences between HIIT/SIT and MICT on appetite and EI. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: [https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO], Identifier [CRD42021284898].

The exercise-induced suppression of acylated ghrelin is blunted in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle compared to the follicular phase following vigorous-intensity exercise

Limited work examining woman's appetite-regulatory response to exercise has been focused on the follicular phase (FP) of the menstrual cycle. This is an important limitation as estradiol (E₂) and progesterone (P₄) fluctuate across phases with greater concentrations in the luteal phase (LP).

OBJECTIVE

To examine the appetite-regulatory response to vigorous-intensity continuous exercise (VICT) in the FP and LP.

METHODS

Twelve women completed 30 min of VICT at 80% V˙O_2max in the FP and LP. E₂, P₄, acylated ghrelin, active peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (PYY), active glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and appetite perceptions were measured pre-exercise, 0-, 30-, and 90-min post-exercise. Energy intake was recorded for a 2-day period (day before and of each session). A series of two-way repeated measure ANOVA were used to compare all dependent variables.

RESULTS

Pre-exercise E₂ (P = 0.005, d = 1.00) and P₄ (P < 0.001, d = 1.41) concentrations were greater in the LP than the FP and exercise increased both at 0- and 30-min post-exercise (E₂: P < 0.009; P₄: P < 0.001, d = 0.63). Acylated ghrelin was lower in the FP versus LP at pre-exercise as well as 0-min (P = 0.006, d = 0.97) and 90-min (P = 0.029, d = 0.72) post-exercise. There were no differences of menstrual phase on PYY (P = 0.359, η_p² = 0.092), GLP-1 (P = 0.226, η_p² = 0.130), or overall appetite (P = 0.514, η_p² = 0.066). Energy intake was greater on the day of in the LP versus the FP (P = 0.003, d = 1.2).

CONCLUSION

Acylated ghrelin was lower in the FP compared to the LP and though there were no differences in anorexigenic hormones or subjective appetite, energy intake was greater on the day of the session in the LP suggesting important differences across the menstrual cycle where greater concentrations of ovarian hormones in the LP may blunt the exercise response.

Effects of exercise training programmes on fasting gastrointestinal appetite hormones in adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

A systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to determine the effect of exercise training on fasting gastrointestinal appetite hormones in adults living with overweight and obesity. For eligibility, only randomised controlled trials (duration ≥ four weeks) examining the effect of exercise training interventions were considered. This review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (CRD42020218976). The searches were performed on five databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Scopus. The initial search identified 13204 records. Nine studies, which include sixteen exercise interventions, met the criteria for inclusion. Meta-analysis was calculated as the standardised mean difference (Cohen's d). Exercise training had no effect on fasting concentrations of total ghrelin (d: 1.06, 95% CI -0.38 to 2.50, P = 0.15), acylated ghrelin (d: 0.08, 95% CI: -0.31 to 0.47, P = 0.68) and peptide YY (PYY) (d = -0.16, 95% CI: -0.62 to 0.31, P = 0.51) compared to the control group. Analysis of body mass index (BMI) (d: -0.31, 95% CI: -0.50 to -0.12, P < 0.01) and body mass (d: -0.22, 95% CI: -0.42 to -0.03, P = 0.03) found a significant reduction after exercise compared to controls. Overall, exercise interventions did not modify fasting concentrations of total ghrelin, acylated ghrelin, and PYY in individuals with overweight or obesity, although they reduced body mass and BMI. Thus, any upregulation of appetite and energy intake in individuals with overweight and obesity participating in exercise programmes is unlikely to be related to fasting concentrations of gastrointestinal appetite hormones.

Breaking up sitting with short frequent or long infrequent physical activity breaks does not lead to compensatory changes in appetite, appetite-regulating hormones or energy intake

The aim of this study was to determine the appetite-related responses to breaking up prolonged sitting with physical activity bouts differing in frequency and duration among adult females. Fourteen sedentary females aged 34 ± 13 years with a body mass index of 27.1 ± 6.3 kg/m2 (mean ± SD) took part in a randomised crossover trial with three, 7.5 h conditions: (1) uninterrupted sitting (SIT), (2) sitting with short frequent 2-min moderate-intensity walking breaks every 30 min (SHORT-BREAKS), and (3) sitting with longer duration, less frequent 10-min moderate-intensity walking breaks every 170-180 min (LONG-BREAKS). The intensity and total duration of physical activity was matched between the SHORT-BREAKS and LONG-BREAKS conditions. Linear mixed models were used to compare the outcomes between conditions with significance being accepted as p ≤ 0.05. There were no significant between-condition differences in hunger, satisfaction, prospective food consumption or overall appetite area under the curve (AUC) (all p ≥ 0.801). Absolute ad libitum energy intake and relative energy intake (REI) did not differ significantly between conditions (all p ≥ 0.420). Acylated ghrelin and total peptide YY incremental and total AUC did not differ significantly between conditions (all p ≥ 0.388). Yet, there was a medium effect size for the higher acylated ghrelin incremental AUC in SHORT-BREAKS versus SIT (d = 0.61); the reverse was seen for total AUC, which was lower in SHORT-BREAKS versus SIT (d = 0.69). These findings suggest that breaking up sitting does not lead to compensatory changes in appetite, appetite hormones or energy intake regardless of physical activity bout duration and frequency among adult females.

Effect of d-β-Hydroxybutyrate-(R)-1,3 Butanediol on Appetite Regulation in People with Prediabetes

SCOPE

The main aim of the present study is to study the effect of acute ketosis on parameters of appetite regulation in prediabetes.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This is a randomized controlled trial registered under ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT03889210. After an overnight fast, 18 adults with prediabetes are assigned to consume a ketone monoester (d-β-hydroxybutyrate-(R)-1,3 butanediol) drink and a placebo drink in cross-over fashion. Blood samples are collected every 30 min, from baseline to 150 min. Paired t test is used to compare the total area under the curve (AUC) for the changes in parameters of appetite regulation (acylated ghrelin, peptide YY [PYY], and hunger) following both drinks. Significant elevation in blood β-hydroxybutyrate from 0.2 to 3.5 mmol L^-1 (p < 0.001) is achieved within 30 min. Acute ketosis does not result in statistically significant differences in the AUCs for ghrelin, PYY, and hunger.

CONCLUSION

Acute ketosis consistently does not affect both objective and subjective parameters of appetite regulation in prediabetes.

Acute effect of high-intensity interval training versus moderate-intensity continuous training on appetite-regulating gut hormones in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Exercise intensity has been suggested to influence acute appetite-regulating gut hormone responses after exercise. High intensity interval training (HIIT) with near maximal to maximal intensity or sprint interval training (SIT) with supramaximal intensity might induce greater effects on gut hormones compared to moderate intensity continuous training (MICT), while current findings were inconsistent regarding the effects of these popular training methods.

Objective

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to synthesis the findings in the literature and explore the impact of exercise modality on acylated ghrelin (AG), glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY).

Methods

After searching the major databases (PubMed, Web of science and ScienceDirect, Scopus, Cochrane Library) to find articles published up to May 2022, twelve studies that compared hormone responses to HIIT/SIT and MICT were identified and included in the analysis.

Results

A random-effects meta-analysis showed that HIIT/SIT and MICT decreased AG concentration and increased GLP-1 and PYY concentration compared with no exercise control group, while interval training protocols, especially SIT protocols, elicited greater effect sizes in suppressing AG levels at all of the analysed time points and PYY immediately post-exercise compared to MICT.

Conclusion

Acute SIT with lower exercise volume appears to be a more advantageous approach to decrease plasma AG concentration and potentially suppress hunger to a greater extent compared to MICT, despite the similar effects of HIIT/SIT compared to MICT in increasing anorectic hormones (i.e., GLP-1 and PYY). Future studies are needed to further investigate the impact of moderators (e.g., gender, body composition and exercise mode) on the variability of changes in gut hormones after interval trainings.

Associations between average step counts, variability in step counts and nonhomeostatic eating

PURPOSE

Nonhomeostatic drives (e.g., reward and negative emotion) for eating are associated with weight gain over time. Higher average and lower intraindividual variability in physical activity (PA) levels are positively associated with health and weight outcomes, but have not been evaluated in relation to nonhomeostatic eating. The aim of this paper is to examine the associations between PA and nonhomeostatic drives for eating. The hypotheses were that average levels of and consistency in PA would be negatively correlated with nonhomeostatic eating.

METHODS

Adult participants (N = 432) were recruited online and asked to report objectively measured PA using commercially available PA monitors for the previous 7 days and to complete self-report measures of reward-driven and emotional eating.

RESULTS

Average daily steps (M = 6519.36) were negatively associated with emotional eating, but were not significantly related to reward-driven eating. Intraindividual variability in steps (M = 2209.85) was not associated with either type of nonhomeostatic eating. Adjusting for relevant covariates (e.g., age, BMI, gender), average daily step count was negatively associated with emotional eating (p = 0.01) but not reward-driven eating (p = 0.31) and variability in step counts was positively associated with reward-driven eating (p = 0.04) but not emotional eating (p = 0.52).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that greater average levels and lower variability in PA are related to lower nonhomeostatic eating; thus, complex associations between PA and eating exist, and may impact weight and outcomes of treatment related to eating and weight.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

V, cross-sectional correlation study.

Beta-Hydroxybutyrate Suppresses Hepatic Production of the Ghrelin Receptor Antagonist LEAP2

INTRODUCTION

Liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide-2 (LEAP2) is an endogenous ghrelin receptor antagonist, which is upregulated in the fed state and downregulated during fasting. We hypothesized that the ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is involved in the downregulation of LEAP2 during conditions with high circulating levels of BHB.

METHODS

Hepatic and intestinal Leap2 expression were determined in 3 groups of mice with increasing circulating levels of BHB: prolonged fasting, prolonged ketogenic diet, and oral BHB treatment. LEAP2 levels were measured in lean and obese individuals, in human individuals following endurance exercise, and in mice after BHB treatment. Lastly, we investigated Leap2 expression in isolated murine hepatocytes challenged with BHB.

RESULTS

We confirmed increased circulating LEAP2 levels in individuals with obesity compared to lean individuals. The recovery period after endurance exercise was associated with increased plasma levels of BHB levels and decreased LEAP2 levels in humans. Leap2 expression was selectively decreased in the liver after fasting and after exposure to a ketogenic diet for 3 weeks. Importantly, we found that oral administration of BHB increased circulating levels of BHB in mice and decreased Leap2 expression levels and circulating LEAP2 plasma levels, as did Leap2 expression after direct exposure to BHB in isolated murine hepatocytes.

CONCLUSION

From our data, we suggest that LEAP2 is downregulated during different states of energy deprivation in both humans and rodents. Furthermore, we here provide evidence that the ketone body, BHB, which is highly upregulated during fasting metabolism, directly downregulates LEAP2 levels. This may be relevant in ghrelin receptor-induced hunger signaling during energy deprivation.

Effects of Three Different Modes of Resistance Training on Appetite Hormones in Males With Obesity

Purpose

This study explored the effect of three different modes of resistance training on appetite hormones [leptin, ghrelin, cholecystokinin (CCK), glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and peptide tyrosine–tyrosine (PYY)], cardiometabolic and anthropometric measures in males with obesity.

Methods

Forty-four males with obesity (age: 27.5 ± 9.4 yrs.; mean weight: 93.2 ± 2.2 kg, body mass index: 32.9 ± 1.2 kg/m²) were randomized to traditional resistance training (TRT, n = 11), circuit resistance training (CRT, n = 11), interval resistance training (IRT, n = 11) or control (C, n = 11) groups. All resistance training groups received 50 min of supervised training per session, three days per week, for 12 weeks. Measurements were taken at baseline and after 12 weeks of training.

Results

Plasma levels of leptin, ghrelin, CCK, and PYY decreased significantly in all three different modalities of resistance training groups when compared to the control group (p < 0.05). GLP-1 increased significantly in both CRT and IRT groups compared to TRT and C groups (p < 0.05). Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide decreased significantly in CRT and IRT groups compared to the C group (p < 0.05). Adiponectin levels increased significantly in all resistance training groups compared to the C group (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Overall, CRT and IRT protocols had the greatest impact on appetite hormones compared to individuals who engaged in TRT or did not exercise (C).

Effect of Morning and Evening Exercise on Energy Balance: A Pilot Study

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of randomizing adults with overweight and obesity (BMI 25-40 kg/m2) to morning (06:00-10:00) or evening (15:00-19:00) aerobic exercise. Participants completed four exercise sessions per week in the morning (AM, n = 18) or evening (PM, n = 15). The exercise program was 15 weeks and progressed from 70 to 80% heart rate maximum and 750-2000 kcal/week. Bodyweight, body composition, total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), energy intake (EI), sleep, sedentary behavior (SB), non-exercise physical activity (NEPA), and maximal aerobic capacity were assessed at baseline and week 15. Study retention was 94% and adherence to the supervised exercise program was ≥90% in both groups. Weight change was -0.9 ± 2.8 kg and -1.4 ± 2.3 kg in AM and PM, respectively. AM and PM increased TDEE (AM: 222 ± 399 kcal/day, PM: 90 ± 150 kcal/day). EI increased in AM (99 ± 198 kcal/day) and decreased in PM (-21 ± 156 kcal/day) across the intervention. It is feasible to randomize adults with overweight and obesity to morning or evening aerobic exercise with high levels of adherence. Future trials are needed to understand how the timing of exercise affects energy balance and body weight regulation.

Is the Secret in the Gut? SuperJump Activity Improves Bone Remodeling and Glucose Homeostasis by GLP-1 and GIP Peptides in Eumenorrheic Women

We showed that twenty weeks of SuperJump activity, an innovative workout training performed on an elastic minitrampoline, reduced bone resorption and increased bone formation in eumenorrheic women acting on the key points of the regulation of bone metabolism. The present study analyzed whether the gastrointestinal hormones are involved in the mechanism of action and if it has an impact on glucose homeostasis. The control group was composed of twelve women, similar to the exercise group that performed SuperJump activity for twenty weeks. The analysis was performed on blood samples and investigated GLP-1, GIP, GLP-2, PYY, ghrelin, glucose, insulin, insulin resistance, β-cell function, and insulin sensitivity. The results showed that the activity contributes to raising the GLP-1and GIP levels, and not on GLP-2, PYY, and ghrelin, which did not change. Moreover, SuperJump activity significantly reduced fasting insulin, glucose, insulin resistance, and increased insulin sensitivity but did not affect beta cell function. These data suggest that GLP-1, and GIP are involved in the mechanism of action that improves bone and glucose homeostasis following 20 weeks of SuperJump activity in eumenorrheic women.

The acute effect of fasted exercise on energy intake, energy expenditure, subjective hunger and gastrointestinal hormone release compared to fed exercise in healthy individuals: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To determine the acute effect of fasted and fed exercise on energy intake, energy expenditure, subjective hunger and gastrointestinal hormone release.

METHODS

CENTRAL, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched to identify randomised, crossover studies in healthy individuals that compared the following interventions: (i) fasted exercise with a standardised post-exercise meal [FastEx + Meal], (ii) fasted exercise without a standardised post-exercise meal [FastEx + NoMeal], (iii) fed exercise with a standardised post-exercise meal [FedEx + Meal], (iv) fed exercise without a standardised post-exercise meal [FedEx + NoMeal]. Studies must have measured ad libitum meal energy intake, within-lab energy intake, 24-h energy intake, energy expenditure, subjective hunger, acyl-ghrelin, peptide YY, and/or glucagon-like peptide 1. Random-effect network meta-analyses were performed for outcomes containing ≥5 studies.

RESULTS

17 published articles (23 studies) were identified. Ad libitum meal energy intake was significantly lower during FedEx + Meal compared to FedEx + NoMeal (MD: -489 kJ; 95% CI, -898 to -80 kJ; P = 0.019). Within-lab energy intake was significantly lower during FastEx + NoMeal compared to FedEx + NoMeal (MD: -1326 kJ; 95% CI, -2102 to -550 kJ; P = 0.001). Similarly, 24-h energy intake following FastEx + NoMeal was significantly lower than FedEx + NoMeal (MD: -2095 kJ; 95% CI, -3910 kJ to -280 kJ; P = 0.024). Energy expenditure was however significantly lower during FastEx + NoMeal compared to FedEx+NoMeal (MD: -0.67 kJ/min; 95% CI, -1.10 to -0.23 kJ/min; P = 0.003). Subjective hunger was significantly higher during FastEx + Meal (MD: 13 mm; 95% CI, 5-21 mm; P = 0.001) and FastEx + NoMeal (MD: 23 mm; 95% CI, 16-30 mm; P < 0.001) compared to FedEx + NoMeal.

CONCLUSION

FastEx + NoMeal appears to be the most effective strategy to produce a short-term decrease in energy intake, but also results in increased hunger and lowered energy expenditure. Concerns regarding experimental design however lower the confidence in these findings, necessitating future research to rectify these issues when investigating exercise meal timing and energy balance.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020208041.

KEY POINTS

Fed exercise with a standardised post-exercise meal resulted in the lowest energy intake at the ad libitum meal served following exercise completion. Fasted exercise without a standardised post-exercise meal resulted in the lowest within-lab and 24-h energy intake, but also produced the lowest energy expenditure and highest hunger. Methodological issues lower the confidence in these findings and necessitate future work to address identified problems.

Dynamic associations between anxiety, stress, physical activity, and eating regulation over the course of a behavioral weight loss intervention

Negative emotional experiences are associated with dysregulated eating behaviors that impede weight management. While weight loss interventions promote physical activity and self-regulation of eating, no studies have examined how physical activity may directly influence eating by attenuating associations between negative emotions and eating.

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined how momentary negative emotions (stress and anxiety), moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA), and their interactions predict eating dysregulation (i.e., intensity of eating temptations, inability to resist eating tempting foods, overeating), as well as how these associations change during a weight loss intervention.

METHODS

Women with overweight/obesity (N = 55) completed 14-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocols with objective measurement of physical activity (i.e., bout-related MVPA time) before and after a three-month internet-based weight loss program.

RESULTS

Three-way interactions emerged predicting overeating and eating tempting foods. When women experienced higher than usual levels of momentary anxiety or stress at end-of-treatment, they were less likely to subsequently overeat or eat tempting foods when they had recently engaged in more MVPA (relative to their usual level). No significant associations were found for ratings of temptation intensity.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest MVPA may exert direct effects on eating regulation. Specifically, MVPA appears to increasingly buffer the effect of negative emotional states on dysregulated eating behavior over the course of a weight loss intervention. Future work is needed to develop ways of communicating to patients how activity can have both indirect and direct effects on body weight, and examine whether such knowledge improves outcomes.

Physical Activity, Obesity and Weight Loss Maintenance

Regular physical activity has an impact on all human organ systems and mediates multiple beneficial effects on overall health. Physical activity alone is a poor strategy for weight loss; however, physical activity is of crucial importance for weight loss maintenance. The role of exercise in maintaining a stable body weight is not clear but might be related to better appetite regulation and food preference. In relation to exercise, muscle secretes myokines and other factors that can influence the metabolism in other organs, not least fat and brain tissues. Thereby, physical activity reduces the risk of obesity-associated diseases, such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, independently of weight loss and BMI. Therefore, physical activity should always be included in weight loss strategies and as a tool to maintain a healthy weight, despite its modest effect on energy expenditure and overall body weight.

Exercise, type 1 diabetes mellitus and blood glucose: The implications of exercise timing

The scientific literature shows that exercise has many benefits for individuals with type 1 diabetes. Yet, several barriers to exercise in this population exist, such as post-exercise hypoglycaemia or hyperglycaemia. Several studies suggest that the timing of exercise may be an important factor in preventing exercise-induced hypoglycaemia or hyperglycaemia. However, there is a paucity of evidence solely focused on summarising findings regarding exercise timing and the impact it has on glucose metabolism in type 1 diabetes. This report suggests that resistance or high-intensity interval exercise/training (often known as HIIT) may be best commenced at the time of day when an individual is most likely to experience a hypoglycaemic event (i.e., afternoon/evening) due to the superior blood glucose stability resistance and HIIT exercise provides. Continuous aerobic-based exercise is advised to be performed in the morning due to circadian elevations in blood glucose at this time, thereby providing added protection against a hypoglycaemic episode. Ultimately, the evidence concerning exercise timing and glycaemic control remains at an embryonic stage. Carefully designed investigations of this nexus are required, which could be harnessed to determine the most effective, and possibly safest, time to exercise for those with type 1 diabetes.

Effects of menstrual cycle on appetite-regulating hormones and energy intake in response to cycling exercise in physically active women

Although ample evidence supports the notion that an acute bout of endurance exercise performed at or greater than 70% of maximum oxygen uptake suppresses appetite partly through changes in appetite-regulating hormones, no study has directly compared the influence between the phases of the menstrual cycle in women. The present study compared the effects of an acute bout of exercise on orexigenic hormone (acylated ghrelin) and anorexigenic hormones (peptide YY and cholecystokinin) between the early follicular phase (FP) and the mid luteal phase (LP) of the menstrual cycle in physically active women. Ten healthy women (age, 20.6 ± 0.7 years) completed two 3.5-h trials in each menstrual phase. In both trials, participants performed cycling exercises at 70% of heart rate reserve (at a corresponding intensity to 70% of maximum oxygen uptake) for 60 min followed by 90 min of rest. Following 90 min of rest, participants were provided with an ad libitum meal for a fixed duration of 30 min. Blood samples and subjective appetite were collected and assessed before, during, immediately post-, 45 min post-, and 90 min post-exercise. The exercise increased estradiol (327 %) and progesterone (681 %) in the LP more than the FP respectively (P < 0.001, f = 1.33; P < 0.001,f = 1.20). There were no between-trial differences in appetite-regulating hormones, subjective appetite, or energy intake of ad libitum meal. These findings indicate that exercise-induced increases in ovarian hormones in the LP may not influence appetite-regulating hormones in physically active women.

Nutritional optimization for female elite football players-topical review

Women's football is an intermittent sport characterized by frequent intense actions throughout the match. The high number of matches with limited recovery time played across a long competitive season underlines the importance of nutritional strategies to meet these large physical demands. In order to maximize sport performance and maintain good health, energy intake must be optimal. However, a considerable proportion of female elite football players does not have sufficient energy intake to match the energy expenditure, resulting in low energy availability that might have detrimental physiologic consequences and impair performance. Carbohydrates appear to be the primary fuel covering the total energy supply during match-play, and female elite football players should aim to consume sufficient carbohydrates to meet the requirements of their training program and to optimize the replenishment of muscle glycogen stores between training bouts and matches. However, several macro- and micronutrients are important for ensuring sufficient energy and nutrients for performance optimization and for overall health status in female elite football players. The inadequacy of macro-and micronutrients in the diet of these athletes may impair performance and training adaptations, and increase the risk of health disorders, compromising the player's professional career. In this topical review, we present knowledge and relevant nutritional recommendations for elite female football players for the benefit of sports nutritionists, dietitians, sports scientists, healthcare specialists, and applied researchers. We focus on dietary intake and cover the most pertinent topics in sports nutrition for the relevant physical demands in female elite football players as follows: energy intake, macronutrient and micronutrient requirements and optimal composition of the everyday diet, nutritional and hydration strategies to optimize performance and recovery, potential ergogenic effects of authorized relevant supplements, and future research considerations.

The effect of acute exercise on pre-prandial ghrelin levels in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Ghrelin is a gut hormone with numerous physiological effects, including the regulation of energy balance, insulin sensitivity, vascular health, and body composition. Acylated (AG) and des-acylated (DAG) ghrelin constitute approximately 22 % and 78 % of total plasma ghrelin (TG), respectively. Alterations in the TG concentration and the AG/DAG ratio may be implicated in conditions involving energy imbalances and insulin resistant states (e.g., metabolic syndrome or Type 2 diabetes mellitus). Exercise is a therapeutic option that can potentially optimize ghrelin levels. Understanding the precise intensity and dose of exercise to optimize ghrelin levels may lead to targeted interventions to restore metabolic regulation in obesity and other clinical conditions.

OBJECTIVE

To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of acute exercise on pre-prandial levels of TG, AG, and DAG in healthy adults and to determine if sample demographics or exercise doses moderate such effects.

METHODS

Electronic databases (PubMed, Medline, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar) were searched with articles published through August 2020. The following criteria was determined a priori for article inclusion: (i) the study was a randomized controlled trial (RCT),(ii) exercise was an acute bout, (iii) the exercise bout for the intervention group(s)/condition was structured, (iv) the control group/condition received no exercise, (v) participants were adults age 18 or older, (vi) ghrelin was sampled through blood, (vii) there was at least one baseline measure and one post-exercise measure of ghrelin, (viii) there were at least 3 timepoints where ghrelin was measured while participants were fasted to allow for pre-prandial total area-under-the-curve (AUC_total) calculation, (ix) participants were healthy with no overt disease, (x) interventions were carried out without any environmental manipulations. Standardized mean difference (SMD) with 95 % confidence intervals were calculated using the restricted maximum likelihood estimation Moderator analyses to determine whether the overall pooled effect was influenced by: sex, ghrelin form, method of ghrelin analysis, age, body mass index, body fat percentage, fitness, intensity of exercise bout, duration of exercise bout, energy expenditure, and length of AUC_total data.

RESULTS

The analysis included 24 studies that consisted of 52 trials, n = 504 (age 27.0 (8.8) years, BMI 24.7 (2.7) kg/m²) and measured AG (n = 38 trials), DAG (n = 7), and TG (n = 7). The overall model indicated that exercise lowered ghrelin levels compared to control (no exercise); (SMD=-0.44, p < 0.001), and exercise intensity exhibited an inverse relationship with ghrelin levels (regression coefficient (ß)=-0.016, p = 0.04). There was no significant difference by ghrelin form (p = 0.18).

DISCUSSION

Acute exercise significantly lowers plasma ghrelin levels, with higher intensity exercise associated with greater ghrelin suppression. The majority of studies applied a moderate intensity exercise bout and measured AG, with limited data on DAG. This exercise dose may be clinically significant in individuals with metabolic dysregulation and energy imbalance as a therapy to optimize AG levels. More work is needed to compare moderate and high intensity exercise and the ghrelin response in clinical populations.

A single session of low-volume high-intensity interval and moderate-intensity continuous exercise elicits a transient reduction in ghrelin levels, but not in post-exercise energy intake in obese men

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the acute effects of high-intensity interval (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous (MICE) exercise on ghrelin levels in obese men.

METHODS

A total of 10 obese men (age 27.6 ± 1.8 years, body mass index 35.4 ± 4.5 kg/m2, body fat 39.9 ± 2.1%) performed two exercise sessions in a randomized order: HIIE (10 × 1 min intervals at 90% of the maximal heart rate [HRmax] interspersed by 1 min of active recovery) and MICE (20 min at 70% of the HRmax). Ghrelin levels were assessed pre-, post- and 1h post-exercise, and energy intake was assessed 1h post-exercise through an ad libitum meal.

RESULTS

HIIE and MICE showed a trend to decrease ghrelin levels immediately post-exercise (-14.1 ± 21.6% and -9.6 ± 23.8%, respectively, p = 0.07) and decreased 1h post-exercise (-12.7 ± 31.8% and -13.8 ± 21.7%, respectively, p < 0.05). No changes were observed for post-exercise energy intake (p > 0.05). There was a positive correlation between the change in ghrelin levels and post-exercise energy intake only for HIIE (r = 0.63, p = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

In summary, a single session of HIIE and MICE elicits a reduction on ghrelin levels without changing post-exercise energy intake in obese men.

What Is the Impact of Energy Expenditure on Energy Intake?

Coupling energy intake (EI) to increases in energy expenditure (EE) may be adaptively, compensatorily, or maladaptively leading to weight gain. This narrative review examines if functioning of the homeostatic responses depends on the type of physiological perturbations in EE (e.g., due to exercise, sleep, temperature, or growth), or if it is influenced by protein intake, or the extent, duration, timing, and frequency of EE. As different measures to increase EE could convey discrepant neuronal or humoral signals that help to control food intake, the coupling of EI to EE could be tight or loose, which implies that some ways to increase EE may have advantages for body weight regulation. Exercise, physical activity, heat exposure, and a high protein intake favor weight loss, whereas an increase in EE due to cold exposure or sleep loss likely contributes to an overcompensation of EI, especially in vulnerable thrifty phenotypes, as well as under obesogenic environmental conditions, such as energy dense high fat—high carbohydrate diets. Irrespective of the type of EE, transient elevations in the metabolic rate seem to be general risk factors for weight gain, because a subsequent decrease in energy requirement is not compensated by an adequate adaptation of appetite and EI.

Rolling out physical exercise and energy homeostasis: Focus on hypothalamic circuitries

Energy balance is the fine regulation of energy expenditure and energy intake. Negative energy balance causes body weight loss, while positive energy balance promotes weight gain. Modern societies offer a maladapted way of life, where easy access to palatable foods and the lack of opportunities to perform physical activity are considered the roots of the obesity pandemic. Physical exercise increases energy expenditure and, consequently, is supposed to promote weight loss. Paradoxically, physical exercise acutely drives anorexigenic-like effects, but the mechanisms are still poorly understood. Using an evolutionary background, this review aims to highlight the potential involvement of the melanocortin system and other hypothalamic neural circuitries regulating energy balance during and after physical exercise. The physiological significance of these changes will be explored, and possible signalling agents will be addressed. The knowledge discussed here might be important for clarifying obesity aetiology as well as new therapeutic approaches for body weight loss.

Examining the Role of Exercise Timing in Weight Management: A Review

Many adults cite exercise as a primary strategy for losing weight, yet exercise alone is modestly effective for weight loss and results in variable weight loss responses. It is possible that some of the variability in weight loss may be explained by the time of day that exercise is performed. Few studies have directly compared the effects of exercise performed at different times of the day (i. e., morning versus evening exercise). Results from these existing studies are mixed with some studies demonstrating superior weight and fat mass loss from morning exercise, while other studies have found that evening exercise may be better for weight management. Exercise timing may alter modifiable lifestyle behaviors involved in weight management, such as non-exercise physical activity, energy intake, and sleep. The purpose of this review is to summarize evidence for and against time-of-day dependent effects of exercise on weight management. Although limited, we also review studies that have examined the effect of exercise timing on other lifestyle behaviors linked to body weight regulation. While exercise at any time of day is beneficial for health, understanding whether there is an optimal time of day to exercise may advance personalized treatment paradigms for weight management.

Effects of Acute Heat and Cold Exposures at Rest or during Exercise on Subsequent Energy Intake: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The objective of this meta-analysis was to assess the effect of acute heat/cold exposure on subsequent energy intake (EI) in adults. We searched the following sources for publications on this topic: PubMed, Ovid Medline, Science Direct and SPORTDiscus. The eligibility criteria for study selection were: randomized controlled trials performed in adults (169 men and 30 women; 20–52 years old) comparing EI at one or more meals taken ad libitum, during and/or after exposure to heat/cold and thermoneutral conditions. One of several exercise sessions could be realized before or during thermal exposures. Two of the thirteen studies included examined the effect of heat (one during exercise and one during exercise and at rest), eight investigated the effect of cold (six during exercise and two at rest), and three the effect of both heat and cold (two during exercise and one at rest). The meta-analysis revealed a small increase in EI in cold conditions (g = 0.44; p = 0.019) and a small decrease in hot conditions (g = −0.39, p = 0.022) for exposure during both rest and exercise. Exposures to heat and cold altered EI in opposite ways, with heat decreasing EI and cold increasing it. The effect of exercise remains unclear.

Is Energy Expenditure or Physical Activity Considered When Energy Intake Is Measured? A Scoping Review 1975-2015

The health-transitions humans have delivered during the 20th Century associated with the nutrition is that from undernutrition to obesity, which perseveres in the current years of the 21st Century. Energy intake (EI) is a contributing factor and therefore a fascination in nutritional sciences. However, energy expenditure (EE) has not been usually considered as a conjoint factor. Thus, this study aimed to review if studies on adults consider data on dietary intake, specifically EI, and included data on EE and physical activity (PA). A search of MEDLINE from 1975 to December 2015 was managed. Our scoping review consisted of keywords related to EI, dietary allowances, and nutritional requirements. From 2229 acknowledged articles, 698 articles were finally taken fulfilling inclusion and quality criteria. A total of 2,081,824 adults (53.7% females) were involved, and most studies had been conducted in EEUU (241), Canada (42), Australia (30), Japan (32), and Brazil (14). In Europe, apart from UK (64), the Netherlands (31) and France (26) led the classification, followed by Sweden (18), Denmark (17), and France (26). Mediterranean countries are represented with 27 studies. A total of 76.4% did not include EE and 93.1% did not include PA. Only 23.6% of the studies contained both EI and EE. A large methodological diversity was perceived, with more than 14 different methods regarding EI, and more than 10 for EE. PA was only analyzed in scarce articles, and scarcely considered for interpretation of data and conclusions. Moreover, PA was often measured by subjective questionnaires. Dietary surveys show a large diversity regarding methodology, which makes comparability of studies difficult. EE and PA are missing in around 80% of studies or are not included in the interpretation of results. Conclusions regarding EI or diet adequacy in adults should not be taken without analyzing EE and PA.

Branched-Chain Amino Acid Catabolism and Cardiopulmonary Function Following Acute Maximal Exercise Testing in Adolescents

Background: To provide energy for cardiopulmonary function and maintenance of blood glucose, acute aerobic exercise induces lipolysis, fatty acid oxidation (FAO), glycolysis, and glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis. These adaptations are mediated by increases in cortisol, growth hormone (GH), and catecholamines and facilitated by a decline in insulin. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) also undergo catabolism during intense exercise. Here, we investigated the relationship between BCAA catabolism and metrics of cardiopulmonary function in healthy, well-developed, mature adolescent athletes undergoing an acute bout of maximal aerobic exercise. Hypothesis: We hypothesized: (a) acute maximal exercise in adolescents induces lipolysis, FAO, and BCAA catabolism associated with increases in GH and cortisol and a reduction in insulin; (b) increases in GH are associated with increases in ghrelin; and (c) metrics of cardiopulmonary function (aVO2, rVO2, aVO2/HRmax) following maximal exercise correlate with increases in GH secretion, FAO, and BCAA catabolism. Methods: Blood samples before and after maximal cardiopulmonary exercise in 11 adolescent athletes were analyzed by tandem-mass spectrometry. Paired, two-tailed student's t-tests identified significant changes following exercise. Linear regression determined if pre-exercise metabolite levels, or changes in metabolite levels, were associated with aVO2, rVO2, and aVO2/HRmax. Sex and school of origin were included as covariates in all regression analyses. Results: Following exercise there were increases in GH and cortisol, and decreases in ghrelin, but no changes in glucose or insulin concentrations. Suggesting increased lipolysis and FAO, the levels of glycerol, ketones, β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetylcarnitine concentrations increased. Pyruvate, lactate, alanine, and glutamate concentrations also increased. Plasma concentrations of valine (a BCAA) declined (p = 0.002) while valine degradation byproducts increased in association with decreases in urea cycle amino acids arginine and ornithine. Metrics of cardiopulmonary function were associated with increases in propionylcarnitine (C3, p = 0.013) and Ci4-DC/C4-DC (p < 0.01), byproducts of BCAA catabolism. Conclusions: Induction of lipolysis, FAO, gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis provides critical substrates for cardiopulmonary function during exercise. However, none of those pathways were significantly associated with metrics of cardiopulmonary function. The associations between rVO2, and aVO2/HRmax and C3 and Ci4-DC/C4-DC suggest that the cardiopulmonary response to maximal exercise in adolescents is linked to BCAA utilization and catabolism.

Acute Response to Capsiate Supplementation at Rest and during Exercise on Energy Intake, Appetite, Metabolism, and Autonomic Function: A Randomized Trial

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of capsiate supplementation on energy intake, self-reported appetite-related sensations, energy expenditure, fat oxidation, and autonomic parameters with and without an exercise intervention.

METHODS

Thirteen healthy men completed four randomized trials: two trials for the control condition (without exercise), one with capsiate supplementation (CTRL_cap) and one with a placebo (CTRL_pla), and two trials for the exercise condition, one with capsiate supplementation (EX_cap) and one with placebo (EX_pla). Exercise sessions were performed 150 min after the consumption of a standardized breakfast, and supplementation 115 min after consumption of breakfast. An ad libitum buffet was offered 200 min following the completion of the standardized breakfast, and energy intake (EI) and relative energy intake (REI) (relative energy intake = energy intake - energy expenditure related to exercise) were evaluated.

RESULTS

There were no significant effects on EI, self-reported appetite sensations, fat oxidation, and energy expenditure. REI was reduced in conditions involving EX when compared to CTRL. A low-frequency to high-frequency ratio for heart rate variability was higher in CTRL_cap (1.6 ± 1.1) vs. CTRL_pla (1.2 ± 0.9) (p = 0.025; d = 0.39).

CONCLUSION

Acute capsiate supplementation combined with aerobic exercise has limited effects on the examined variables (EI, REI, fat oxidation, energy expenditure, and autonomic parameters), while changes in the autonomic nervous system function in the absence of exercise may have occurred without influencing other variables.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

ensaiosclinicos.gov.br number, RBR-5pckyr https://ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-5pckyr.

Effects of moderate to vigorous intensity cycling on appetite, ad libitum energy intake and appetite-related hormones in healthy South Asian and white European men

Compensatory changes in appetite and energy intake do not appear to occur in the short-term after acute exercise; however, responses have not been compared in South Asians, a group at high risk of central obesity and type 2 diabetes, with white Europeans. This study examined appetite perceptions, energy intake and appetite-related hormones after moderate-to-vigorous intensity cycling in South Asian versus white European men. Fifteen South Asians (mean(SD) 29(8) years; 25.4(4.5) kg m^-2) and fifteen white Europeans (33(10) years; 26.1(3.8) kg m^-2) matched for age and body mass index completed two 7 h trials (control and exercise). Participants rested throughout both trials apart from completing 60 min cycling at 2-3 h in the exercise trial. A standardised breakfast was consumed at 0 h and an ad libitum buffet meal at 4 h. Appetite perceptions and appetite-related hormones were measured at predetermined intervals. Exercise suppressed acylated ghrelin (d = 0.19, P < 0.001) and increased total peptide YY (PYY) (d = 0.14, P = 0.004), insulin (d = 0.09, P = 0.046) and glucose concentrations (d = 0.31, P < 0.001) (main effect of trial), without stimulating compensatory increases in energy intakes in either group (group-by-trial interactions). South Asians exhibited lower absolute energy intake and higher insulin concentrations than white Europeans (main effect group d ≥ 0.63, P ≤ 0.003), whereas group-by-time interactions revealed lower acylated ghrelin concentrations at 3 and 4 h (d ≥ 0.75, P ≤ 0.038) and higher glucose concentrations at 0.75 and 2 h (d ≥ 0.67, P ≤ 0.008) in South Asian than white European men. These findings demonstrate that acute exercise induces a short-term energy deficit and similar appetite responses in South Asian and white European men.

The Effect of a Single Bout of Continuous Aerobic Exercise on Glucose, Insulin and Glucagon Concentrations Compared to Resting Conditions in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression

Background

Elevated glucose and insulin levels are major risk factors in the development of cardiometabolic disease. Aerobic exercise is widely recommended to improve glycaemic control, yet its acute effect on glycaemia and glucoregulatory hormones has not been systematically reviewed and analysed in healthy adults.

Objective

To determine the effect of a single bout of continuous aerobic exercise on circulating glucose, insulin, and glucagon concentrations in healthy adults.

Methods

CENTRAL, CINAHL, Embase, Global Health, HMIC, Medline, PubMed, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched from inception to May 2020. Papers were included if they reported a randomised, crossover study measuring glucose and/or insulin and/or glucagon concentrations before and immediately after a single bout of continuous aerobic exercise (≥ 30 min) compared to a time-matched, resting control arm in healthy adults. The risk of bias and quality of evidence were assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and GRADE approach, respectively. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed for glucose, insulin, and glucagon. Sub-group meta-analyses and meta-regression were performed for categorical (metabolic state [postprandial or fasted], exercise mode [cycle ergometer or treadmill]) and continuous (age, body mass index, % males, maximal aerobic capacity, exercise duration, exercise intensity) covariates, respectively.

Results

42 papers (51 studies) were considered eligible: glucose (45 studies, 391 participants), insulin (38 studies, 377 participants) and glucagon (5 studies, 47 participants). Acute aerobic exercise had no significant effect on glucose concentrations (mean difference: − 0.05 mmol/L; 95% CI, − 0.22 to 0.13 mmol/L; P = 0.589; I²: 91.08%, large heterogeneity; moderate-quality evidence). Acute aerobic exercise significantly decreased insulin concentrations (mean difference: − 18.07 pmol/L; 95% CI, − 30.47 to − 5.66 pmol/L; P = 0.004; I²: 95.39%, large heterogeneity; moderate-quality evidence) and significantly increased glucagon concentrations (mean difference: 24.60 ng/L; 95% CI, 16.25 to 32.95 ng/L; P < 0.001; I²: 79.36%, large heterogeneity; moderate-quality evidence). Sub-group meta-analyses identified that metabolic state modified glucose and insulin responses, in which aerobic exercise significantly decreased glucose (mean difference: − 0.27 mmol/L; 95% CI, − 0.55 to − 0.00 mmol/L; P = 0.049; I²: 89.72%, large heterogeneity) and insulin (mean difference: − 42.63 pmol/L; 95% CI, − 66.18 to − 19.09 pmol/L; P < 0.001; I²: 81.29%, large heterogeneity) concentrations in the postprandial but not fasted state. Meta-regression revealed that the glucose concentrations were also moderated by exercise duration and maximal aerobic capacity.

Conclusions

Acute aerobic exercise performed in the postprandial state decreases glucose and insulin concentrations in healthy adults. Acute aerobic exercise also increases glucagon concentrations irrespective of metabolic state. Therefore, aerobic exercise undertaken in the postprandial state is an effective strategy to improve acute glycaemic control in healthy adults, supporting the role of aerobic exercise in reducing cardiometabolic disease incidence.

PROSPERO registration number

CRD42020191345.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01473-2.

Appetite and Energy Intake Regulation in Response to Acute Exercise

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine if energy intake and appetite regulation differ in response to an acute bout of resistance exercise (REx) versus aerobic exercise (AEx).

METHODS

Physically inactive adults (n = 24, 35% ± 2% body fat, 50% female) completed three conditions: AEx (walking at 65%-70% heart rate max for 45 min), REx (1 set to failure of 12 exercises), and sedentary control (SED). Each condition was initiated in the postprandial state (35 min after breakfast). Appetite (visual analog scale for hunger, satiety, and prospective food consumption) and hormones (ghrelin, peptide YY (PYY), and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)) were measured before and 30, 90, 120, 150, and 180 min after a standardized breakfast. Area under the curve was calculated using the trapezoid method. Ad libitum energy intake was evaluated at a lunch meal after the 180-min measurements.

RESULTS

No differences in ad libitum energy intake (REx, 991 ± 68; AEx, 937 ± 65; SED, 944 ± 76 kcal; P = 0.50) or appetite ratings (all, P > 0.05) were detected. The area under the curve for ghrelin, PYY, and GLP-1 were all lower after REx versus AEx (ghrelin: 130,737 ± 4928 for REx; 143,708 ± 7500 for AEx (P = 0.006); PYY: 20,540 ± 1177 for REx, 23,812 ± 1592 for AEx (P = 0.001); and GLP-1: 1314 ± 93 for REx, 1615 ± 110 for AEx (P = 0.013)). Neither exercise condition significantly differed from SED.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute REx lowers both orexigenic (ghrelin) and anorectic (PYY and GLP-1) gut peptides compared with acute AEx. Ad libitum energy intake did not increase compared with SED in either exercise condition, indicating both exercise modalities have appetite and energy intake suppressing effects. Future work is needed to determine if exercise of differing modalities influences chronic appetite regulation.

Comparing the Effects of Immersed Versus Land-Based High-Intensity Interval Cycling on Energy Intake, Appetite Sensations and Perceived Exertion Among Healthy Men

Immersed exercise has been shown to induce higher energy expenditure and no difference or increase in food intake compared with similar exercise on land. In this study, we compared the effects of acute high-intensity cycling performed on land versus when immersed on subsequent energy intake (EI), appetite sensations and perceived exertion (RPE) in healthy men. Ten participants in a postprandial condition completed three experimental visits in a randomized order: a control condition (CONT); a high-intensity interval cycling exercise performed on land (HIIE-L) and the same exercise while immersed in water (HIIE-A) with a similar targeted heart rate. We observed no difference in energy and macronutrient intake and in area under the curve (AUC) for appetite sensations between sessions. The RPE at the end of HIIE-L was negatively correlated with EI (r=-0.67; p < 0.05), AUC for hunger (r=-0.86, p < 0.01), desire to eat (r=-0.78, p < 0.05) and prospective food consumption (r=-0.86, p < 0.01). Conversely, the RPE at the end of HIIE-L was positively correlated with AUC for fullness (r = 0.76, p < 0.05). No such correlations were observed for HIIE-A. The present study was the first to observe that immersion did not influence EI after HIIE cycling, but immersion blunted the relationship between session RPE and subsequent energy intake and appetite sensations relative to HIIE on land.

Exertional sodium loss does not increase immediate salt appetite or dietary sodium intake in athletes

We tested whether salt preference increases immediately after exertion-induced Na⁺ loss in sweat, and whether this may generalise to an increase in habitual dietary Na⁺ intake. For the first aim, trained athletes (n = 20) exercised in 2 ambient temperatures and sweat Na⁺ loss related to immediate salt preference assessed by taste, intake and psychophysical tests. For the second aim, we compared dietary and urinary Na⁺, and salt preference, seasoning and hedonics in the athletes and sedentary men (n = 20). No relationship was found between sodium loss during exercise and immediate preference for salt or psychophysical responses, and no differences in comparison to sedentary men. However, athlete diet had fewer foods (29.4 ± 1.5 vs 37.8 ± 1.9, p < 0.001), less seasoning (19 vs 32. p = 0.011) and more athletes reported dietary limitations (31 vs 11, p < 0.05), although nutrient content did not differ. Together these might suggest athlete adherence to a healthy diet at the expense of variety and flavour and a dissociation between dietary reports and intake. Athletes, more than controls, liked foods rich in energy and K⁺ suggesting compensatory-driven hedonics, although overall their intake did not differ. The findings are consistent with the absence of a salt appetite responding to Na⁺ loss in humans, and specifically that trained athletes do not increase their preference for salt in immediate response to exertion-induced Na⁺ loss and are not at risk for increased dietary Na⁺ compared to sedentary men.

Weight loss-induced increase in fasting ghrelin concentration is a predictor of weight regain: Evidence from the Diabetes Remission Clinical Trial (DiRECT)

AIM

To investigate whether appetite-related hormones were predictors of weight regain in the Diabetes Remission Clinical Trial (DiRECT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

DiRECT is a cluster-randomized clinical trial, designed to assess the effect of weight loss on type 2 diabetes remission. For this post hoc analysis, data were available for 253 (147 interventions, 106 controls) individuals with type 2 diabetes (age 53.6 ± 7.5 years, body mass index 34.7 ± 4.4 kg/m2 , 59% men). Intervention participants received a 24-month weight management programme, and controls remained on usual diabetes care. Fasting plasma concentrations of leptin, ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide YY were measured at baseline, 12 months and 24 months in all participants, and at 5 months in a subset of participants in the intervention (n = 56) and control groups (n = 22). Potential predictors were examined using multivariable linear regression models.

RESULTS

The intervention group lost 14.3 ± 6.0% body weight at 5 months but regained weight over time, with weight losses of 10.0 ± 7.5% at 12 months and 7.6 ± 6.3% at 24 months. Weight loss in controls was 1.1 ± 3.7% and 2.1 ± 5.0% at 12 and 24 months, respectively. Body weight increased by 2.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.4, 4.1; P = 0.019) between 12 and 24 months for every 1-ng/mL increase in ghrelin between baseline and 12 months, and weight regain between 12 and 24 months was increased by 1.1% (95% CI 0.2, 2.0; P = 0.023) body weight for every 1-ng/mL increase in ghrelin at 12 months.

CONCLUSION

The rise in ghrelin (but not any other measured hormone) during diet-induced weight loss was a predictor of weight regain during follow-up, and concentrations remained elevated over time, suggesting a small but significant compensatory drive to regain weight. Attenuating the effects of ghrelin may improve weight-loss maintenance.

Associations between objective physical activity and emotional eating among adiposity-discordant siblings using ecological momentary assessment and accelerometers

BACKGROUND

Emotional eating is associated with obesity, though less is known regarding factors that predict emotional eating episodes in children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) or total activity counts 60 minutes prior to psychological stress predicted stress-related eating and positive emotional eating (ie, eating while happy), and whether adiposity (z-BMI) moderated these associations.

METHODS

Participants were drawn from a prior study of siblings (N = 77; mean age = 15.4 ± 1.4 years) discordant for weight status (39 non-overweight siblings, 38 siblings with overweight/obesity) who completed an ecological momentary assessment protocol with accelerometer-based assessment of physical activity.

RESULTS

Greater MVPA was associated with lower stress-related eating across the sample. Lower total activity (between-person effects) and lower MVPA (within-person effects) were associated with greater stress-related eating for siblings with greater z-BMI. Greater total activity was associated with lower positive emotional eating for siblings with lower z-BMI (between- and within-person).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings demonstrate potential regulating effects of prior physical activity on emotional eating at the individual and momentary level, though there are nuances depending on z-BMI. Future work is needed to examine underlying mechanisms and timescale of effects, and particularly the extent to which enhancing MVPA time among youth with z-BMI may mitigate momentary risk of stress-related eating episodes.

Exogenous Ketones Lower Post-exercise Acyl-Ghrelin and GLP-1 but Do Not Impact Ad libitum Energy Intake

Ketosis and exercise are both associated with alterations in perceived appetite and modification of appetite-regulating hormones. This study utilized a ketone ester (R)-3-hydroxybutyl (R)-3-hydroxybutyrate (KE) to examine the impact of elevated ketone body D-β-hydroxybutyrate (βHB) during and after a bout of exercise on appetite-related hormones, appetite perception, and ad libitum energy intake over a 2 h post-exercise period. In a randomized crossover trial, 13 healthy males and females (age: 23.6 ± 2.4 years; body mass index: 25.7 ± 3.2 kg·m⁻²) completed an exercise session @ 70% VO_2peak for 60 min on a cycling ergometer and consumed either: (1) Ketone monoester (KET) (0.5 g·kg⁻¹ pre-exercise + 0.25 g·kg⁻¹ post-exercise); or (2) isocaloric dextrose control (DEX). Transient ketonaemia was achieved with βHB concentrations reaching 5.0 mM (range 4.1–6.1 mM) during the post-exercise period. Relative to the dextrose condition, acyl-ghrelin (P = 0.002) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (P = 0.038) were both reduced by acute ketosis immediately following exercise. AUC for acyl-ghrelin was lower in KET compared to DEX (P = 0.001), however there were no differences in AUC for GLP-1 (P = 0.221) or PYY (P = 0.654). Perceived appetite (hunger, P = 0.388; satisfaction, P = 0.082; prospective food consumption, P = 0.254; fullness, P = 0.282) and 2 h post-exercise ad libitum energy intake (P = 0.488) were not altered by exogenous ketosis. Although KE modifies homeostatic regulators of appetite, it does not appear that KE acutely alters energy intake during the post-exercise period in healthy adults.

Effects of energy balance on appetite and physiological mediators of appetite during strenuous physical activity: secondary analysis of a randomised crossover trial

Energy deficit is common during prolonged periods of strenuous physical activity and limited sleep, but the extent to which appetite suppression contributes is unclear. The aim of this randomised crossover study was to determine the effects of energy balance on appetite and physiological mediators of appetite during a 72-h period of high physical activity energy expenditure (about 9·6 MJ/d (2300 kcal/d)) and limited sleep designed to simulate military operations (SUSOPS). Ten men consumed an energy-balanced diet while sedentary for 1 d (REST) followed by energy-balanced (BAL) and energy-deficient (DEF) controlled diets during SUSOPS. Appetite ratings, gastric emptying time (GET) and appetite-mediating hormone concentrations were measured. Energy balance was positive during BAL (18 (sd 20) %) and negative during DEF (–43 (sd 9) %). Relative to REST, hunger, desire to eat and prospective consumption ratings were all higher during DEF (26 (sd 40) %, 56 (sd 71) %, 28 (sd 34) %, respectively) and lower during BAL (–55 (sd 25) %, −52 (sd 27) %, −54 (sd 21) %, respectively; Pcondition < 0·05). Fullness ratings did not differ from REST during DEF, but were 65 (sd 61) % higher during BAL (Pcondition < 0·05). Regression analyses predicted hunger and prospective consumption would be reduced and fullness increased if energy balance was maintained during SUSOPS, and energy deficits of ≥25 % would be required to elicit increases in appetite. Between-condition differences in GET and appetite-mediating hormones identified slowed gastric emptying, increased anorexigenic hormone concentrations and decreased fasting acylated ghrelin concentrations as potential mechanisms of appetite suppression. Findings suggest that physiological responses that suppress appetite may deter energy balance from being achieved during prolonged periods of strenuous activity and limited sleep.

Associations between naturalistically assessed physical activity patterns, affect, and eating in youth with overweight and obesity

Insufficient physical activity (PA) and excessive stationary behavior (SB) are contributors to pediatric obesity, though antecedents and consequences of these behaviors in this population are relatively unknown. This pilot study examined affect, loss of control eating (LOCE), overeating, and hunger surrounding PA and SB in 17 youth with overweight/obesity. Participants completed a 14-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) wearing accelerometers. At the momentary level, higher negative affect and lower positive affect predicted SB increases and PA decreases following EMA prompts; higher PA and lower SB also predicted increases in positive affect. Higher LOCE predicted SB increases and PA decreases, while increases in PA and decreases in SB predicted short-term increases in LOCE and overeating. At the individual level, higher SB and lower PA were related to lower positive affect and higher negative affect, LOCE, overeating, and hunger. Findings suggest affect is a relevant antecedent and consequence of PA/SB, and dysregulated eating may acutely impact PA/SB.

Zoladz J, Brzozowski T. Effect of Acute Sprint Exercise on Myokines and Food Intake Hormones in Young Healthy Men

Physical exercise is known to influence hormonal mediators of appetite, but the effect of short-term maximal intensity exercise on plasma levels of appetite hormones and cytokines has been little studied. We investigated the effect of a 30 s Wingate Test, followed by a postprandial period, on appetite sensations, food intake, and appetite hormones. Twenty-six physically active young males rated their subjective feelings of hunger, prospective food consumption, and fatigue on visual analogue scales at baseline, after exercise was completed, and during the postprandial period. Blood samples were obtained for the measurement of nesfatin-1, ghrelin, leptin, insulin, pancreatic polypeptide (PP), human growth factor (hGH) and cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6), irisin and plasma lactate concentrations, at 30 min before exercise, immediately (210 s) after exercise, and 30 min following a meal and at corresponding times in control sedentary males without ad libitum meal intake, respectively. Appetite perceptions and food intake were decreased in response to exercise. Plasma levels of irisin, IL-6, lactate, nesfatin-1 and ghrelin was increased after exercise and then it was returned to postprandial/control period in both groups. A significant rise in plasma insulin, hGH and PP levels after exercise was observed while meal intake potentiated this response. In conclusion, an acute short-term fatiguing exercise can transiently suppress hunger sensations and food intake in humans. We postulate that this physiological response involves exercise-induced alterations in plasma hormones and the release of myokines such as irisin and IL-6, and supports the notion of existence of the skeletal muscle-brain-gut axis. Nevertheless, the detailed relationship between acute exercise releasing myokines, appetite sensations and impairment of this axis leading to several diseases should be further examined.

Assessment of the Dietary Intake of High-Rank Professional Male Football Players during a Preseason Training Week

A well-balanced diet is one of the main factors that may play a supportive role in enhancing acute training stimuli in optimal training adaptation. The aim of the present study was to examine the energy and macro- and micronutrient intake including and excluding supplements among top-level Polish football players during one week of the general preparatory period. In addition, the study looked at whether athletes consume carbohydrates in recommended amounts, depending on the completed training sessions. A total of 26 professional football players were included in the study. The preseason dietary intake was assessed using a 7-day estimated food record. The energy value of the diet and the amounts of the dietary ingredients were assessed using the software Dieta 6.0. The average consumption of energy, vitamin B₂, vitamin C, vitamin E, folate, and calcium was lower than recommendations, and average intake of sodium and potassium was higher than the norm in the diets of the athletes. The results of this study do not confirm the justification for adding protein preparations to diets of the studied players. Furthermore, football players dietary carbohydrate intake was relatively low in comparison to requirements based on training loads. Based on our results we conclude that further work is necessary to reinforce education about nutritional habits and adjust nutritional strategies to individual needs to enhance athletic performance.