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Wang X, Hao X, Yang Y, Jia S, Chen Y, Yang W, Luo Y, Xie Z, Gu Y, Wu Y, Zhang F, Li M, Wang Y, Shen X, Xu L. A phosphodiesterase CpdB in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis degrades CDNs to inhibit innate immune response. Vet Microbiol 2024; 297:110194. [PMID: 39084162 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2024.110194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 07/21/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (Yptb) is a pathogenic gram-negative bacterium that can colonize the intestines of different animals. Its infection leads to the activation of the host's innate immunity. Both host and bacterial-derived cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs) could activate the innate immune response of host cells. In bacteria, CDNs like c-di-AMP, c-di-GMP, or 3'3'-cGAMP can be hydrolyzed by different hydrolases. Recent studies showed that the degradation of those second messengers helps the pathogen evade immune detection. In this study, we identified a hydrolase, YPK_3776, namely CpdB in Yptb. CpdB is predicted to bind bacterial-derived c-di-AMP, c-di-GMP, 3'3'-cGAMP and host-derived 2'3'-cGAMP. Surprisingly, by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), we found that CpdB could only degrade bacterial-derived CDNs but not host-derived 2'3'-cGAMP. In addition, CpdB has 2'3'-cNMP activity. Consistently, the Yptb mutant lacking the cpdB gene exhibited a higher level of intracellular c-di-GMP. Furthermore, the ∆cpdB mutant elicited stronger innate immune responses during Yptb infection in macrophages, suggesting CpdB enables Yptb to evade host immune surveillance. Furthermore, CpdB inhibited the Yptb-induced innate immune response in a STING-dependent manner. Finally, we showed the ∆cpdB infection in mice model exhibited in lower bacterial burden, as compared to wild-type strain infection, indicating CpdB is important for bacterial survival in the host. Together, we identified a cyclic dinucleotide hydrolase CpdB in Yptb that could degrade bacterial-derived CDNs which help the pathogen to evade immune detection via the STING pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Xinwei Hao
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yuqing Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Siyu Jia
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yating Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Wenguang Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yi Luo
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Zhen Xie
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yanchao Gu
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yuxuan Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Fuhua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Mengyuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yao Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
| | - Xihui Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
| | - Lei Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Stress Resistance and High-Efficiency Production, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
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Wang Y, Hao W, Guo Z, Sun Y, Wu Y, Sun Y, Gao T, Luo Y, Jin L, Yang J, Cheng K. Structural and functional investigation of the DHH/DHHA1 family proteins in Deinococcus radiodurans. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:7142-7157. [PMID: 38804263 PMCID: PMC11229311 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkae451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
DHH/DHHA1 family proteins have been proposed to play critical roles in bacterial resistance to environmental stresses. Members of the most radioresistant bacteria genus, Deinococcus, possess two DHH/DHHA1 family proteins, RecJ and RecJ-like. While the functions of Deinococcus radiodurans RecJ (DrRecJ) in DNA damage resistance have been well characterized, the role and biochemical activities of D. radiodurans RecJ-like (DrRecJ-like) remain unclear. Phenotypic and transcriptomic analyses suggest that, beyond DNA repair, DrRecJ is implicated in cell growth and division. Additionally, DrRecJ-like not only affects stress response, cell growth, and division but also correlates with the folding/stability of intracellular proteins, as well as the formation and stability of cell membranes/walls. DrRecJ-like exhibits a preferred catalytic activity towards short single-stranded RNA/DNA oligos and c-di-AMP. In contrast, DrRecJ shows no activity against RNA and c-di-AMP. Moreover, a crystal structure of DrRecJ-like, with Mg2+ bound in an open conformation at a resolution of 1.97 Å, has been resolved. Subsequent mutational analysis was conducted to pinpoint the crucial residues essential for metal cation and substrate binding, along with the dimerization state, necessary for DrRecJ-like's function. This finding could potentially extend to all NrnA-like proteins, considering their conserved amino acid sequence and comparable dimerization forms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Wanshan Hao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Ziming Guo
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Yiyang Sun
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Yu Wu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Yukang Sun
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Tianwen Gao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Yun Luo
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Lizan Jin
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Jieyu Yang
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Kaiying Cheng
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Immunology and Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
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Yeboah SK, Zigli A, Sintim HO. 2',4'-LNA-Functionalized 5'-S-Phosphorothioester CDNs as STING Agonists. Chembiochem 2024; 25:e202400321. [PMID: 38720428 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202400321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
Cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs) have garnered popularity over the last decade as immunotherapeutic agents, which activate the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway to trigger an immune response. Many analogs of 2'3'-cGAMP, c-di-GMP, and c-di-AMP have been developed and shown as effective cancer vaccines and immunomodulators for the induction of both the adaptive and innate immune systems. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of these CDNs is limited by their chemical and enzymatic instability. We recently introduced 5'-endo-phosphorothoiate 2'3'-cGAMP analogs as potent STING agonist with improved resistance to cleavage by clinically relevant phosphodiesterases. We herein report the synthesis of locked nucleic acid-functionalized (LNA) endo-S-CDNs and evaluate their ability to activate STING in THP1 monocytes. Interestingly, some of our synthesized LNA 3'3'-endo-S-CDNs can moderately activate hSTING REF haplotype (R232H), which exhibit diminished response to both 2'3'-cGAMP and ADU-S100. Also, we show that one of our most potent endo-S-CDNs has remarkable chemical (oxidants I2 and H2O2) and phosphodiesterase stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simpa K Yeboah
- Department of Chemistry, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907-2084
- Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Abdulai Zigli
- Department of Chemistry, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907-2084
- Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Herman O Sintim
- Department of Chemistry, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907-2084
- Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Foster AJ, van den Noort M, Poolman B. Bacterial cell volume regulation and the importance of cyclic di-AMP. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2024; 88:e0018123. [PMID: 38856222 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00181-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYNucleotide-derived second messengers are present in all domains of life. In prokaryotes, most of their functionality is associated with general lifestyle and metabolic adaptations, often in response to environmental fluctuations of physical parameters. In the last two decades, cyclic di-AMP has emerged as an important signaling nucleotide in many prokaryotic lineages, including Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Cyanobacteria. Its importance is highlighted by the fact that both the lack and overproduction of cyclic di-AMP affect viability of prokaryotes that utilize cyclic di-AMP, and that it generates a strong innate immune response in eukaryotes. In bacteria that produce the second messenger, most molecular targets of cyclic di-AMP are associated with cell volume control. Besides, other evidence links the second messenger to cell wall remodeling, DNA damage repair, sporulation, central metabolism, and the regulation of glycogen turnover. In this review, we take a biochemical, quantitative approach to address the main cellular processes that are directly regulated by cyclic di-AMP and show that these processes are very connected and require regulation of a similar set of proteins to which cyclic di-AMP binds. Altogether, we argue that cyclic di-AMP is a master regulator of cell volume and that other cellular processes can be connected with cyclic di-AMP through this core function. We further highlight important directions in which the cyclic di-AMP field has to develop to gain a full understanding of the cyclic di-AMP signaling network and why some processes are regulated, while others are not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J Foster
- Department of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Marco van den Noort
- Department of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bert Poolman
- Department of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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Goh KGK, Desai D, Thapa R, Prince D, Acharya D, Sullivan MJ, Ulett GC. An opportunistic pathogen under stress: how Group B Streptococcus responds to cytotoxic reactive species and conditions of metal ion imbalance to survive. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2024; 48:fuae009. [PMID: 38678005 PMCID: PMC11098048 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuae009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Group B Streptococcus (GBS; also known as Streptococcus agalactiae) is an opportunistic bacterial pathogen that causes sepsis, meningitis, pneumonia, and skin and soft tissue infections in neonates and healthy or immunocompromised adults. GBS is well-adapted to survive in humans due to a plethora of virulence mechanisms that afford responses to support bacterial survival in dynamic host environments. These mechanisms and responses include counteraction of cell death from exposure to excess metal ions that can cause mismetallation and cytotoxicity, and strategies to combat molecules such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that are generated as part of innate host defence. Cytotoxicity from reactive molecules can stem from damage to proteins, DNA, and membrane lipids, potentially leading to bacterial cell death inside phagocytic cells or within extracellular spaces within the host. Deciphering the ways in which GBS responds to the stress of cytotoxic reactive molecules within the host will benefit the development of novel therapeutic and preventative strategies to manage the burden of GBS disease. This review summarizes knowledge of GBS carriage in humans and the mechanisms used by the bacteria to circumvent killing by these important elements of host immune defence: oxidative stress, nitrosative stress, and stress from metal ion intoxication/mismetallation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelvin G K Goh
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Devika Desai
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Ruby Thapa
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Darren Prince
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Dhruba Acharya
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Matthew J Sullivan
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Glen C Ulett
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Southport, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia
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Guan D, Fang L, Feng M, Guo S, Xie L, Chen C, Sun X, Wu Q, Yuan X, Xie Z, Zhou J, Zhang H. Ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 inhibitors: Research progress and prospects. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 267:116211. [PMID: 38359537 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The cancer immunotherapies involved in cGAS-STING pathway have been made great progress in recent years. STING agonists exhibit broad-spectrum anti-tumor effects with strong immune response. As a negative regulator of the cGAS-STING pathway, ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) can hydrolyze extracellular 2', 3'-cGAMP and reduce extracellular 2', 3'-cGAMP concentration. ENPP1 has been validated to play important roles in diabetes, cancers, and cardiovascular disease and now become a promising target for tumor immunotherapy. Several ENPP1 inhibitors under development have shown good anti-tumor effects alone or in combination with other agents in clinical and preclinical researches. In this review, the biological profiles of ENPP1 were described, and the structures and the structure-activity relationships (SAR) of the known ENPP1 inhibitors were summarized. This review also provided the prospects and challenges in the development of ENPP1 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dezhong Guan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, TongjiaXiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, China
| | - Lincheng Fang
- Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Mingshun Feng
- Division of Antitumor Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Shi Guo
- Center of Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Lingfeng Xie
- Center of Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Chao Chen
- Center of Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xue Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, TongjiaXiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, China
| | - Qingyun Wu
- Center of Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xinrui Yuan
- Center of Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Zuoquan Xie
- Division of Antitumor Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jinpei Zhou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, TongjiaXiang 24, 210009, Nanjing, China.
| | - Huibin Zhang
- Center of Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang, Nanjing, 210009, China.
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Gao Y, Zhou A, Chen K, Zhou X, Xu Y, Wu S, Ning X. A living neutrophil Biorobot synergistically blocks multifaceted inflammatory pathways in macrophages to effectively neutralize cytokine storm. Chem Sci 2024; 15:2243-2256. [PMID: 38332816 PMCID: PMC10848682 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc03438k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Cytokine storm is a potentially life-threatening immune response typically correlated with lung injury, particularly in people with underlying disease states, such as pneumonia. Therefore, the prompt treatment of cytokine storm is essential for successful recovery from a potentially fatal condition. Herein, a living anti-inflammatory Biorobot (firefighter), composed of neutrophils encapsulating mannose-decorated liposomes of the NF-κB inhibitor TPCA-1 and STING inhibitor H-151 (M-Lip@TH, inflammatory retardant), is developed for alleviating hyperinflammatory cytokine storm through targeting multiple inflammatory pathways in macrophages. Biorobot fully inherits the chemotaxis characteristics of neutrophils, and efficiently delivers and releases therapeutic M-Lip@TH at the inflammatory site. Subsequently, M-Lip@TH selectively targets macrophages and simultaneously blocks the transcription factor NF-κB pathway and STING pathway, thereby preventing the overproduction of cytokines. Animal studies show that Biorobot selectively targets LPS-induced acute lung injury, and not only inhibits the NF-κB pathway to suppress the release of various pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, but also blocks the STING pathway to prevent an overactive immune response, which helps to neutralize cytokine storms. Particularly, Biorobot reduces lung inflammation and injury, improves lung function, and increases the survival rates of pneumonia mice. Therefore, Biorobot represents a rational combination therapy against cytokine storm, and may provide insights into the treatment of diseases involving overactive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya Gao
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Artificial Functional Materials, Nanjing University Nanjing 210093 China
| | - Anwei Zhou
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Physics, Nanjing University Nanjing 210093 China
| | - Kerong Chen
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Artificial Functional Materials, Nanjing University Nanjing 210093 China
| | - Xinyuan Zhou
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Artificial Functional Materials, Nanjing University Nanjing 210093 China
| | - Yurui Xu
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Artificial Functional Materials, Nanjing University Nanjing 210093 China
| | - Shuangshuang Wu
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Geriatrics, Department of Geriatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital with Nanjing Medical University Nanjing 210029 China
| | - Xinghai Ning
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Artificial Functional Materials, Nanjing University Nanjing 210093 China
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Wright MJ, Bai G. Bacterial second messenger cyclic di-AMP in streptococci. Mol Microbiol 2023; 120:791-804. [PMID: 37898560 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
Cyclic dimeric adenosine monophosphate (c-di-AMP) has been well studied in bacteria, including those of the genus Streptococcus, since the first recognition of this dinucleotide in 2008. Streptococci possess a sole diadenylate cyclase, CdaA, and distinct c-di-AMP phosphodiesterases. Interestingly, cdaA is required for viability of some streptococcal species but not all when streptococci are grown in standard laboratory media. Bacteria of this genus also have distinct c-di-AMP effector proteins, diverse c-di-AMP-signaling pathways, and subsequent biological outcomes. In streptococci, c-di-AMP may influence bacterial growth, morphology, biofilm formation, competence program, drug resistance, and bacterial pathogenesis. c-di-AMP secreted by streptococci has also been shown to interact with the mammalian host and induces immune responses including type I interferon production. In this review, we summarize the reported c-di-AMP networks in seven species of the genus Streptococcus, which cause diverse clinical manifestations, and propose future perspectives to investigate the signaling molecule in these streptococcal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Wright
- Department of Internal Medicine, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Guangchun Bai
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, USA
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Ravi D, Ntinopoulou E, Guetta N, Weier M, Vogel V, Spellerberg B, Sendi P, Gremlich S, Roger T, Giannoni E. Dysregulated monocyte-derived macrophage response to Group B Streptococcus in newborns. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1268804. [PMID: 38035076 PMCID: PMC10682703 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1268804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is a leading pathogen of neonatal sepsis. The host-pathogen interactions underlying the progression to life-threatening infection in newborns are incompletely understood. Macrophages are first line in host defenses against GBS, contributing to the initiation, amplification, and termination of immune responses. The goal of this study was to compare the response of newborn and adult monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) to GBS. Methods Monocytes from umbilical cord blood of healthy term newborns and from peripheral blood of healthy adult subjects were cultured with M-CSF to induce MDMs. M-CSF-MDMs, GM-CSF- and IFNγ-activated MDMs were exposed to GBS COH1, a reference strain for neonatal sepsis. Results GBS induced a greater release of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70 and IL-23 in newborn compared to adult MDMs, while IL-18, IL-21, IL-22, TNF, RANTES/CCL5, MCP-1/CCL2 and IL-8/CXCL8 were released at similar levels. MDM responses to GBS were strongly influenced by conditions of activation and were distinct from those to synthetic bacterial lipopeptides and lipopolysaccharides. Under similar conditions of opsonization, newborn MDMs phagocytosed and killed GBS as efficiently as adult MDMs. Discussion Altogether, the production of excessive levels of Th1- (IL-12p70), Th17-related (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-23) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines is consistent with a dysregulated response to GBS in newborns. The high responsiveness of newborn MDMs may play a role in the progression of GBS infection in newborns, possibly contributing to the development of life-threatening organ dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denho Ravi
- Clinic of Neonatology, Department Mother-Woman-Child, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Erato Ntinopoulou
- Clinic of Neonatology, Department Mother-Woman-Child, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nessim Guetta
- Clinic of Neonatology, Department Mother-Woman-Child, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Manuela Weier
- Clinic of Neonatology, Department Mother-Woman-Child, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Verena Vogel
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Barbara Spellerberg
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Parham Sendi
- Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sandrine Gremlich
- Clinic of Neonatology, Department Mother-Woman-Child, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Thierry Roger
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eric Giannoni
- Clinic of Neonatology, Department Mother-Woman-Child, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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10
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Faozia S, Hossain T, Cho KH. The Dlt and LiaFSR systems derepress SpeB production independently in the Δpde2 mutant of Streptococcus pyogenes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1293095. [PMID: 38029265 PMCID: PMC10679467 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1293095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The second messenger molecule, c-di-AMP, plays a critical role in pathogenesis and virulence in S. pyogenes. We previously reported that deleting the c-di-AMP phosphodiesterase gene pde2 severely suppresses SpeB production at the transcriptional level. We performed transposon mutagenesis to gain insight into the mechanism of how Pde2 is involved in SpeB regulation. We identified one of the genes of the dlt operon, dltX, as a suppressor of the SpeB-null phenotype of the Δpde2 mutant. The dlt operon consists of five genes, dltX, dltA, dltB, dltC, and dltD in many Gram-positive bacteria, and its function is to incorporate D-alanine into lipoteichoic acids. DltX, a small membrane protein, is a newly identified member of the operon. The in-frame deletion of dltX or insertional inactivation of dltA in the Δpde2 mutant restored SpeB production, indicating that D-alanylation is crucial for the suppressor phenotype. These mutations did not affect the growth in lab media but showed increased negative cell surface charge and enhanced sensitivity to polymyxin B. Considering that dlt mutations change cell surface charge and sensitivity to cationic antimicrobial peptides, we examined the LiaFSR system that senses and responds to cell envelope stress. The ΔliaR mutation in the Δpde2 mutant also derepressed SpeB production, like the ΔdltX mutation. LiaFSR controls speB expression by regulating the expression of the transcriptional regulator SpxA2. However, the Dlt system did not regulate spxA2 expression. The SpeB phenotype of the Δpde2ΔdltX mutant in higher salt media differed from that of the Δpde2ΔliaR mutant, suggesting a unique pathway for the Dlt system in SpeB production, possibly related to ion transport or turgor pressure regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kyu Hong Cho
- Department of Biology, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN, United States
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11
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Rahim MI, Waqas SFUH, Lienenklaus S, Willbold E, Eisenburger M, Stiesch M. Effect of titanium implants along with silver ions and tetracycline on type I interferon-beta expression during implant-related infections in co-culture and mouse model. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1227148. [PMID: 37929187 PMCID: PMC10621036 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1227148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Type I interferon-beta (IFN-β) is a crucial component of innate and adaptive immune systems inside the host. The formation of bacterial biofilms on medical implants can lead to inflammatory diseases and implant failure. Biofilms elicit IFN-β production inside the host that, in turn, restrict bacterial growth. Biofilms pose strong antibiotic resistance, whereas surface modification of medical implants with antibacterial agents may demonstrate strong antimicrobial effects. Most of the previous investigations were focused on determining the antibacterial activities of implant surfaces modified with antibacterial agents. The present study, for the first time, measured antibacterial activities and IFN-β expression of titanium surfaces along with silver or tetracycline inside co-culture and mouse models. A periodontal pathogen: Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans reported to induce strong inflammation, was used for infection. Silver and tetracycline were added to the titanium surface using the heat evaporation method. Macrophages showed reduced compatibility on titanium surfaces with silver, and IFN-β expression inside cultured cells significantly decreased. Macrophages showed compatibility on implant surfaces with tetracycline, but IFN-β production significantly decreased inside seeded cells. The decrease in IFN-β production inside macrophages cultured on implant surfaces with silver and tetracycline was not related to the downregulation of Ifn-β gene. Bacterial infection significantly upregulated mRNA expression levels of Isg15, Mx1, Mx2, Irf-3, Irf-7, Tlr-2, Tnf-α, Cxcl-1, and Il-6 genes. Notably, mRNA expression levels of Mx1, Irf7, Tlr2, Tnf-α, Cxcl1, and Il-6 genes inside macrophages significantly downregulated on implant surfaces with silver or tetracycline. Titanium with tetracycline showed higher antibacterial activities than silver. The in vivo evaluation of IFN-β expression around implants was measured inside transgenic mice constitutive for IFN-β expression. Of note, the non-invasive in vivo imaging revealed a significant decrease in IFN-β expression around subcutaneous implants with silver compared to titanium and titanium with tetracycline in sterile or infected situations. The histology of peri-implant tissue interfaces around infected implants with silver showed a thick interface with a significantly higher accumulation of inflammatory cells. Titanium implants with silver and tetracycline remained antibacterial in mice. Findings from this study unequivocally indicate that implant surfaces with silver decrease IFN-β expression, a crucial component of host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Imran Rahim
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry and Biomedical Materials Science, Lower Saxony Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Implant Research and Development (NIFE), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Syed Fakhar-Ul-Hassnain Waqas
- Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
| | - Stefan Lienenklaus
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Elmar Willbold
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Lower Saxony Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Implant Research and Development (NIFE), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael Eisenburger
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry and Biomedical Materials Science, Lower Saxony Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Implant Research and Development (NIFE), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Meike Stiesch
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry and Biomedical Materials Science, Lower Saxony Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Implant Research and Development (NIFE), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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12
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Zhou J, Zhuang Z, Li J, Feng Z. Significance of the cGAS-STING Pathway in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13316. [PMID: 37686127 PMCID: PMC10487967 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway plays a significant role in health and disease. In this pathway, cGAS, one of the major cytosolic DNA sensors in mammalian cells, regulates innate immunity and the STING-dependent production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including type-I interferon. Moreover, the cGAS-STING pathway is integral to other cellular processes, such as cell death, cell senescence, and autophagy. Activation of the cGAS-STING pathway by "self" DNA is also attributed to various infectious diseases and autoimmune or inflammatory conditions. In addition, the cGAS-STING pathway activation functions as a link between innate and adaptive immunity, leading to the inhibition or facilitation of tumorigenesis; therefore, research targeting this pathway can provide novel clues for clinical applications to treat infectious, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases and even cancer. In this review, we focus on the cGAS-STING pathway and its corresponding cellular and molecular mechanisms in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglin Zhou
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology, Biomedical Research Center of South China, College of Life Science, Fujian Normal University Qishan Campus, Fuzhou 350117, China
| | - Zhan Zhuang
- Key Laboratory of College of First Clinical Medicine, College of First Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Taijiang Campus, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Jiamian Li
- Key Laboratory of College of First Clinical Medicine, College of First Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Taijiang Campus, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Zhihua Feng
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology, Biomedical Research Center of South China, College of Life Science, Fujian Normal University Qishan Campus, Fuzhou 350117, China
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13
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Ribeiro JM, Cameselle JC. Genomic Distribution of ushA-like Genes in Bacteria: Comparison to cpdB-like Genes. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1657. [PMID: 37628708 PMCID: PMC10454023 DOI: 10.3390/genes14081657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
UshA and CpdB are nucleotidases of the periplasm of several Gram-negative bacteria, while several Gram-positives contain cell wall-bound variants. UshA is a 5'-nucleotidase, a UDP-sugar hydrolase, and a CDP-alcohol hydrolase. CpdB acts as a 3'-nucleotidase and as a phosphodiesterase of 2',3'-cyclic nucleotides and 3',5'-linear and cyclic dinucleotides. Both proteins are pro-virulent for the pathogens producing them and facilitate escape from the innate immunity of the infected host. Recently, the genomic distribution of cpdB-like genes in Bacteria was found to be non-homogeneous among different taxa, and differences occur within single taxa, even at species level. Similitudes and differences between UshA-like and CpdB-like proteins prompted parallel analysis of their genomic distributions in Bacteria. The presence of ushA-like and cpdB-like genes was tested by TBlastN analysis using seven protein probes to query the NCBI Complete Genomes Database. It is concluded that the distribution of ushA-like genes, like that of cpdB-like genes, is non-homogeneous. There is a partial correlation between both gene kinds: in some taxa, both are present or absent, while in others, only one is present. The result is an extensive catalog of the genomic distribution of these genes at different levels, from phylum to species, constituting a starting point for research using other in silico or experimental approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain;
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14
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Husťáková B, Trundová M, Adámková K, Kovaľ T, Dušková J, Dohnálek J. A highly active S1-P1 nuclease from the opportunistic pathogen Stenotrophomonas maltophilia cleaves c-di-GMP. FEBS Lett 2023; 597:2103-2118. [PMID: 37309731 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A number of multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens code for S1-P1 nucleases with a poorly understood role. We have characterized a recombinant form of S1-P1 nuclease from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, an opportunistic pathogen. S. maltophilia nuclease 1 (SmNuc1) acts predominantly as an RNase and is active in a wide range of temperatures and pH. It retains a notable level of activity towards RNA and ssDNA at pH 5 and 9 and about 10% of activity towards RNA at 10 °C. SmNuc1 with very high catalytic rates outperforms S1 nuclease from Aspergillus oryzae and other similar nucleases on all types of substrates. SmNuc1 degrades second messenger c-di-GMP, which has potential implications for its role in the pathogenicity of S. maltophilia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanka Husťáková
- Laboratory of Structure and Function of Biomolecules, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Mária Trundová
- Laboratory of Structure and Function of Biomolecules, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Adámková
- Laboratory of Structure and Function of Biomolecules, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Kovaľ
- Laboratory of Structure and Function of Biomolecules, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Jarmila Dušková
- Laboratory of Structure and Function of Biomolecules, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Dohnálek
- Laboratory of Structure and Function of Biomolecules, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
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15
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Mertowska P, Smolak K, Mertowski S, Grywalska E. Immunomodulatory Role of Interferons in Viral and Bacterial Infections. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10115. [PMID: 37373262 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferons are a group of immunomodulatory substances produced by the human immune system in response to the presence of pathogens, especially during viral and bacterial infections. Their remarkably diverse mechanisms of action help the immune system fight infections by activating hundreds of genes involved in signal transduction pathways. In this review, we focus on discussing the interplay between the IFN system and seven medically important and challenging viruses (herpes simplex virus (HSV), influenza, hepatitis C virus (HCV), lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and SARS-CoV coronavirus) to highlight the diversity of viral strategies. In addition, the available data also suggest that IFNs play an important role in the course of bacterial infections. Research is currently underway to identify and elucidate the exact role of specific genes and effector pathways in generating the antimicrobial response mediated by IFNs. Despite the numerous studies on the role of interferons in antimicrobial responses, many interdisciplinary studies are still needed to understand and optimize their use in personalized therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Mertowska
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Konrad Smolak
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Sebastian Mertowski
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Ewelina Grywalska
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
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16
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Farris LC, Torres-Odio S, Adams LG, West AP, Hyde JA. Borrelia burgdorferi Engages Mammalian Type I IFN Responses via the cGAS-STING Pathway. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 210:1761-1770. [PMID: 37067290 PMCID: PMC10192154 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi, the etiologic agent of Lyme disease, is a spirochete that modulates numerous host pathways to cause a chronic, multisystem inflammatory disease in humans. B. burgdorferi infection can lead to Lyme carditis, neurologic complications, and arthritis because of the ability of specific borrelial strains to disseminate, invade, and drive inflammation. B. burgdorferi elicits type I IFN (IFN-I) responses in mammalian cells and tissues that are associated with the development of severe arthritis or other Lyme-related complications. However, the innate immune sensors and signaling pathways controlling IFN-I induction remain unclear. In this study, we examined whether intracellular nucleic acid sensing is required for the induction of IFN-I to B. burgdorferi. Using fluorescence microscopy, we show that B. burgdorferi associates with mouse and human cells in culture, and we document that internalized spirochetes colocalize with the pattern recognition receptor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS). Moreover, we report that IFN-I responses in mouse macrophages and murine embryonic fibroblasts are significantly attenuated in the absence of cGAS or its adaptor stimulator of IFN genes (STING), which function to sense and respond to intracellular DNA. Longitudinal in vivo tracking of bioluminescent B. burgdorferi revealed similar dissemination kinetics and borrelial load in C57BL/6J wild-type, cGAS-deficient, or STING-deficient mice. However, infection-associated tibiotarsal joint pathology and inflammation were modestly reduced in cGAS-deficient compared with wild-type mice. Collectively, these results indicate that the cGAS-STING pathway is a critical mediator of mammalian IFN-I signaling and innate immune responses to B. burgdorferi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren C. Farris
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
| | - Sylvia Torres-Odio
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
| | - L. Garry Adams
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - A. Phillip West
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
| | - Jenny A. Hyde
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, USA
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17
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Vasiyani H, Wadhwa B, Singh R. Regulation of cGAS-STING signalling in cancer: Approach for combination therapy. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2023; 1878:188896. [PMID: 37088059 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2023.188896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity plays an important role not only during infection but also homeostatic role during stress conditions. Activation of the immune system including innate immune response plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of tumorigenesis. The innate immune sensor recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and activates cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) (cGAS-STING) and induces type-1 immune response during viral and bacterial infection. cGAS-STING is regulated differently in conditions like cellular senescence and DNA damage in normal and tumor cells and is implicated in the progression of tumors from different origins. cGAS binds to cytoplasmic dsDNA and synthesize cyclic GMP-AMP (2'3'-cGAMP), which selectively activates STING and downstream IFN and NF-κB activation. We here reviewed the cGAS-STING signalling pathway and its cross-talk with other pathways to modulate tumorigenesis. Further, the review also focused on emerging studies that targeted the cGAS-STING pathway for developing targeted therapeutics and combinatorial regimens for cancer of different origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitesh Vasiyani
- Department of Biochemistry, The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390002, Gujarat, India
| | - Bhumika Wadhwa
- Department of Biochemistry, The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390002, Gujarat, India
| | - Rajesh Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390002, Gujarat, India.
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18
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Ribeiro JM, Canales J, Costas MJ, Cabezas A, Pinto RM, García-Díaz M, Martín-Cordero P, Cameselle JC. Genomic Distribution of Pro-Virulent cpdB-like Genes in Eubacteria and Comparison of the Enzyme Specificity of CpdB-like Proteins from Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli and Streptococcus suis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24044150. [PMID: 36835561 PMCID: PMC9958556 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24044150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The cpdB gene is pro-virulent in avian pathogenic Escherichia coli and in Salmonella enterica, where it encodes a periplasmic protein named CpdB. It is structurally related to cell wall-anchored proteins, CdnP and SntA, encoded by the also pro-virulent cdnP and sntA genes of Streptococcus agalactiae and Streptococcus suis, respectively. CdnP and SntA effects are due to extrabacterial hydrolysis of cyclic-di-AMP, and to complement action interference. The mechanism of CpdB pro-virulence is unknown, although the protein from non-pathogenic E. coli hydrolyzes cyclic dinucleotides. Considering that the pro-virulence of streptococcal CpdB-like proteins is mediated by c-di-AMP hydrolysis, S. enterica CpdB activity was tested as a phosphohydrolase of 3'-nucleotides, 2',3'-cyclic mononucleotides, linear and cyclic dinucleotides, and cyclic tetra- and hexanucleotides. The results help to understand cpdB pro-virulence in S. enterica and are compared with E. coli CpdB and S. suis SntA, including the activity of the latter on cyclic-tetra- and hexanucleotides reported here for the first time. On the other hand, since CpdB-like proteins are relevant to host-pathogen interactions, the presence of cpdB-like genes was probed in eubacterial taxa by TblastN analysis. The non-homogeneous genomic distribution revealed taxa with cpdB-like genes present or absent, identifying eubacteria and plasmids where they can be relevant.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - José Canales
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - María Jesús Costas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Alicia Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Rosa María Pinto
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Miguel García-Díaz
- Unidad de Aparato Digestivo, Hospital de Zafra, Área de Salud Llerena-Zafra, Servicio Extremeño de Salud, 06300 Zafra, Spain
| | - Paloma Martín-Cordero
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario de Badajoz, Servicio Extremeño de Salud, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-924-289-470
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19
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Novel Bionanocomposites Based on Cinnamon Nanoemulsion and TiO2-NPs for Preserving Fresh Chicken Breast Fillets. FOOD BIOPROCESS TECH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11947-022-02934-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIn this study, bionanocomposite coating solutions were created using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and chitosan (Cs), with different concentrations of cinnamon essential oil in nanoemulsion (n-CEO; 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20%) and TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs). The bionanocomposite was characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy with EDX, and mechanical and barrier property assessment. Additionally, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and total phenols were evaluated. Generally, mechanical and barrier properties were enhanced with increasing n-CEO concentrations with a favorable distribution in film matrix. Moreover, total phenols, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities were also enhanced a broader inhibition pattern against A. flavus, gram-positive, and gram-negative bacteria. The influence of n-CEO and TiO2-NPs blended into bionanocomposite on preservation of fresh chicken breast fillets during 21 days of refrigeration was evaluated. Added n-CEO concentration, especially 20%, and TiO2-NPs enhanced antimicrobial properties and extended preservation time up to 14 days compared to uncoated samples. Furthermore, weight loss was decreased during storage of coated samples. Thus, PVA/Cs/TiO2–NPs with n-CEO bionanocomposites may be useful as a coating for chicken breast fillets to control microbial growth and reduce weight loss during cold storage.
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20
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Yilmaz IC, Dunuroglu E, Ayanoglu IC, Ipekoglu EM, Yildirim M, Girginkardesler N, Ozbel Y, Toz S, Ozbilgin A, Aykut G, Gursel I, Gursel M. Leishmania kinetoplast DNA contributes to parasite burden in infected macrophages: Critical role of the cGAS-STING-TBK1 signaling pathway in macrophage parasitemia. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1007070. [PMID: 36405710 PMCID: PMC9667060 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1007070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania parasites harbor a unique network of circular DNA known as kinetoplast DNA (kDNA). The role of kDNA in leishmania infections is poorly understood. Herein, we show that kDNA delivery to the cytosol of Leishmania major infected THP-1 macrophages provoked increased parasite loads when compared to untreated cells, hinting at the involvement of cytosolic DNA sensors in facilitating parasite evasion from the immune system. Parasite proliferation was significantly hindered in cGAS- STING- and TBK-1 knockout THP-1 macrophages when compared to wild type cells. Nanostring nCounter gene expression analysis on L. major infected wild type versus knockout cells revealed that some of the most upregulated genes including, Granulysin (GNLY), Chitotriosidase-1 (CHIT1), Sialomucin core protein 24 (CD164), SLAM Family Member 7 (SLAMF7), insulin-like growth factor receptor 2 (IGF2R) and apolipoprotein E (APOE) were identical in infected cGAS and TBK1 knockout cells, implying their involvement in parasite control. Amlexanox treatment (a TBK1 inhibitor) of L. major infected wild type cells inhibited both the percentage and the parasite load of infected THP-1 cells and delayed footpad swelling in parasite infected mice. Collectively, these results suggest that leishmania parasites might hijack the cGAS-STING-TBK1 signaling pathway to their own advantage and the TBK1 inhibitor amlexanox could be of interest as a candidate drug in treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismail Cem Yilmaz
- Basic and Translational Research Program, Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center, Izmir, Turkey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Emre Dunuroglu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ihsan Cihan Ayanoglu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Emre Mert Ipekoglu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Muzaffer Yildirim
- Molecular Biology and Genetics Department, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nogay Girginkardesler
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey
| | - Yusuf Ozbel
- Department of Parasitology, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Seray Toz
- Department of Parasitology, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Ozbilgin
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey
| | - Gamze Aykut
- Molecular Biology and Genetics Department, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ihsan Gursel
- Basic and Translational Research Program, Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center, Izmir, Turkey
- Molecular Biology and Genetics Department, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mayda Gursel
- Basic and Translational Research Program, Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center, Izmir, Turkey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
- *Correspondence: Mayda Gursel,
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21
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Lv J, Xing C, Chen Y, Bian H, Lv N, Wang Z, Liu M, Su L. The STING in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Diseases: Potential Therapeutic Targets in Inflammation-Carcinogenesis Pathway. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:1241. [PMID: 36297353 PMCID: PMC9611148 DOI: 10.3390/ph15101241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), an important chronic disease, is one of the major causes of high mortality and creates a substantial financial burden worldwide. The various immune cells in the liver, including macrophages, NK cells, dendritic cells, and the neutrophils involved in the innate immune response, trigger inflammation after recognizing the damage signaled from infection or injured cells and tissues. The stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is a critical molecule that binds to the cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs) generated by the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) to initiate the innate immune response against infection. Previous studies have demonstrated that the cGAS-STING pathway plays a critical role in inflammatory, auto-immune, and anti-viral immune responses. Recently, studies have focused on the role of STING in liver diseases, the results implying that alterations in its activity may be involved in the pathogenesis of liver disorders. Here, we summarize the function of STING in the development of NAFLD and present the current inhibitors and agonists targeting STING.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Lv
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Chunlei Xing
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Yuhong Chen
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
- School of Pharmacy, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, China
| | - Huihui Bian
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Nanning Lv
- Lianyungang Second People’s Hospital, Lianyungang 222002, China
| | - Zhibin Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, School of Anesthesiology, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200020, China
- School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Mingming Liu
- Lianyungang Second People’s Hospital, Lianyungang 222002, China
| | - Li Su
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
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22
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Li Z, Zhang Y, Hong W, Wang B, Chen Y, Yang P, Zhou J, Fan J, Zeng Z, Du S. Gut microbiota modulate radiotherapy-associated antitumor immune responses against hepatocellular carcinoma Via STING signaling. Gut Microbes 2022; 14:2119055. [PMID: 36093568 PMCID: PMC9467592 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2022.2119055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of the gut-liver axis have enhanced our understanding of the pathophysiology of various liver diseases and the mechanisms underlying the regulation of the effectiveness of therapies. Radiotherapy (RT) is an important therapeutic option for patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the role of the microbiome in regulating the response to RT remains unclear. The present study characterizes the gut microbiome of patients responsive or non-responsive to RT and investigates the molecular mechanisms underlying the differences in patient response. We collected fecal samples for 16S rRNA sequencing from a prospective longitudinal trial of 24 HCC patients receiving RT. We used fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), flow cytometry, and transcriptome sequencing to explore the effects of dysbiosis on RT. We also examined the role of stimulator of interferon genes (STING) in RT-associated antitumor immune responses mediated by gut microbiota in STING- (Tmem173-/-) and cGAS-knockout (Mb21d1-/-) mouse models. We propose that primary resistance to RT could be attributed to the disruption of the gut microbiome. Mechanistically, gut microbiome dysbiosis impairs antitumor immune responses by suppressing antigen presentation and inhibiting effector T cell functions through the cGAS-STING-IFN-I pathway. Cyclic-di-AMP - an emerging second messenger of bacteria - may act as a STING agonist and is thus a potential target for the prediction and modulation of responses to RT in HCC patients. Our study highlights the therapeutic potential of modulating the gut microbiome in HCC patients receiving RT and provides a new strategy for the radiosensitization of liver cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongjuan Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weifeng Hong
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Biao Wang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yixing Chen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Yang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Zhou
- Department of Liver Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jia Fan
- Department of Liver Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaochong Zeng
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shisuo Du
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China,CONTACT Shisuo Du Department of Radiation Oncology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai200032, China; Zhaochong Zeng
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23
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Cheng X, Ning J, Xu X, Zhou X. The role of bacterial cyclic di-adenosine monophosphate in the host immune response. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:958133. [PMID: 36106081 PMCID: PMC9465037 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.958133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclic di-adenosine monophosphate (c-di-AMP) is a second messenger which is widely used in signal transduction in bacteria and archaea. c-di-AMP plays an important role in the regulation of bacterial physiological activities, such as the cell cycle, cell wall stability, environmental stress response, and biofilm formation. Moreover, c-di-AMP produced by pathogens can be recognized by host cells for the activation of innate immune responses. It can induce type I interferon (IFN) response in a stimulator of interferon genes (STING)-dependent manner, activate the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, inflammasome, and host autophagy, and promote the production and secretion of cytokines. In addition, c-di-AMP is capable of triggering a host mucosal immune response as a mucosal adjuvant. Therefore, c-di-AMP is now considered to be a new pathogen-associated molecular pattern in host immunity and has become a promising target in bacterial/viral vaccine and drug research. In this review, we discussed the crosstalk between bacteria and host immunity mediated by c-di-AMP and addressed the role of c-di-AMP as a mucosal adjuvant in boosting evoked immune responses of subunit vaccines. The potential application of c-di-AMP in immunomodulation and immunotherapy was also discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingqun Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jia Ning
- The School and Hospital of Stomatology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xuedong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Xuedong Zhou,
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24
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Wang M, Wamp S, Gibhardt J, Holland G, Schwedt I, Schmidtke KU, Scheibner K, Halbedel S, Commichau FM. Adaptation of Listeria monocytogenes to perturbation of c-di-AMP metabolism underpins its role in osmoadaptation and identifies a fosfomycin uptake system. Environ Microbiol 2022; 24:4466-4488. [PMID: 35688634 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The human pathogen Listeria monocytogenes synthesizes and degrades c-di-AMP using the diadenylate cyclase CdaA and the phosphodiesterases PdeA and PgpH respectively. c-di-AMP is essential because it prevents the uncontrolled uptake of osmolytes. Here, we studied the phenotypes of cdaA, pdeA, pgpH and pdeA pgpH mutants with defects in c-di-AMP metabolism and characterized suppressor mutants restoring their growth defects. The characterization of the pdeA pgpH mutant revealed that the bacteria show growth defects in defined medium, a phenotype that is invariably suppressed by mutations in cdaA. The previously reported growth defect of the cdaA mutant in rich medium is suppressed by mutations that osmotically stabilize the c-di-AMP-free strain. We also found that the cdaA mutant has an increased sensitivity against isoleucine. The isoleucine-dependent growth inhibition of the cdaA mutant is suppressed by codY mutations that likely reduce the DNA-binding activity of encoded CodY variants. Moreover, the characterization of the cdaA suppressor mutants revealed that the Opp oligopeptide transport system is involved in the uptake of the antibiotic fosfomycin. In conclusion, the suppressor analysis corroborates a key function of c-di-AMP in controlling osmolyte homeostasis in L. monocytogenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyi Wang
- FG Synthetic Microbiology, Institute for Biotechnology, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 01968, Senftenberg, Germany.,Department of General Microbiology, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Goettingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.,FG Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Sabrina Wamp
- Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert-Koch-Institute, 38855, Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Johannes Gibhardt
- FG Synthetic Microbiology, Institute for Biotechnology, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 01968, Senftenberg, Germany.,Department of General Microbiology, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Goettingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.,Research Complex NanoBio, Peter the Great Saint Petersburg Polytechnic University, Politekhnicheskaya ulitsa 29A, Saint Petersburg, 195251, Russia
| | - Gudrun Holland
- ZBS4 - Advanced Light and Electron Microscopy, Robert-Koch-Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - Inge Schwedt
- FG Synthetic Microbiology, Institute for Biotechnology, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 01968, Senftenberg, Germany.,FG Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Kai-Uwe Schmidtke
- FG Enzyme Technology, Institute for Biotechnology, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 01968, Senftenberg, Germany
| | - Katrin Scheibner
- FG Enzyme Technology, Institute for Biotechnology, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 01968, Senftenberg, Germany
| | - Sven Halbedel
- Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert-Koch-Institute, 38855, Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Fabian M Commichau
- FG Synthetic Microbiology, Institute for Biotechnology, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 01968, Senftenberg, Germany.,FG Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Biology, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
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25
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Salmonella Induces the cGAS-STING-Dependent Type I Interferon Response in Murine Macrophages by Triggering mtDNA Release. mBio 2022; 13:e0363221. [PMID: 35604097 PMCID: PMC9239183 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03632-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) elicited strong innate immune responses in macrophages. To activate innate immunity, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in host cells can recognize highly conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Here, we showed that S. Typhimurium induced a robust type I interferon (IFN) response in murine macrophages. Exposure of macrophages to S. Typhimurium activated a Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-dependent type I IFN response. Next, we showed that type I IFN and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) were elicited in a TBK1-IFN-dependent manner. Furthermore, cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and immune adaptor protein stimulator of interferon genes (STING) were also required for the induction of type I IFN response during infection. Intriguingly, S. Typhimurium infection triggered mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release into the cytosol to activate the type I IFN response. In addition, we also showed that bacterial DNA was enriched in cGAS during infection, which may contribute to cGAS activation. Finally, we showed that cGAS and STING deficient mice and cells were more susceptible to S. Typhimurium infection, signifying the critical role of the cGAS-STING pathway in host defense against S. Typhimurium infection. In conclusion, in addition to TLR4-dependent innate immune response, we demonstrated that S. Typhimurium induced the type I IFN response in a cGAS-STING-dependent manner and the S. Typhimurium-induced mtDNA release was important for the induction of type I IFN. This study elucidated a new mechanism by which bacterial pathogen activated the cGAS-STING pathway and also characterized the important role of cGAS-STING during S. Typhimurium infection.
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26
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Cabezas A, Costas MJ, Canales J, Pinto RM, Rodrigues JR, Ribeiro JM, Cameselle JC. Enzyme Characterization of Pro-virulent SntA, a Cell Wall-Anchored Protein of Streptococcus suis, With Phosphodiesterase Activity on cyclic-di-AMP at a Level Suited to Limit the Innate Immune System. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:843068. [PMID: 35391727 PMCID: PMC8981391 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.843068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus suis and Streptococcus agalactiae evade the innate immune system of the infected host by mechanisms mediated by cell wall-anchored proteins: SntA and CdnP, respectively. The former has been reported to interfere with complement responses, and the latter dampens STING-dependent type-I interferon (IFN) response by hydrolysis of bacterial cyclic-di-AMP (c-di-AMP). Both proteins are homologous but, while CdnP has been studied as a phosphohydrolase, the enzyme activities of SntA have not been investigated. The core structure of SntA was expressed in Escherichia coli as a GST-tagged protein that, after affinity purification, was characterized as phosphohydrolase with a large series of substrates. This included 3′-nucleotides, 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotides, cyclic and linear dinucleotides, and a variety of phosphoanhydride or phosphodiester compounds, most of them previously considered as substrates of E. coli CpdB, a periplasmic protein homologous to SntA and CdnP. Catalytic efficiency was determined for each SntA substrate, either by dividing parameters kcat/KM obtained from saturation curves or directly from initial rates at low substrate concentrations when saturation curves could not be obtained. SntA is concluded to act as phosphohydrolase on two groups of substrates with efficiencies higher or lower than ≈ 105 M–1 s–1 (average value of the enzyme universe). The group with kcat/KM ≥ 105 M–1 s–1 (good substrates) includes 3′-nucleotides, 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotides, and linear and cyclic dinucleotides (notably c-di-AMP). Compounds showing efficiencies <104 M–1 s–1 are considered poor substrates. Compared with CpdB, SntA is more efficient with its good substrates and less efficient with its poor substrates; therefore, the specificity of SntA is more restrictive. The efficiency of the SntA activity on c-di-AMP is comparable with the activity of CdnP that dampens type-I IFN response, suggesting that this virulence mechanism is also functional in S. suis. SntA modeling revealed that Y530 and Y633 form a sandwich with the nitrogen base of nucleotidic ligands in the substrate-binding site. Mutants Y530A-SntA, Y633A-SntA, and Y530A+Y633A-SntA were obtained and kinetically characterized. For orientation toward the catalytic site, one tyrosine is enough, although this may depend on the substrate being attacked. On the other hand, both tyrosines are required for the efficient binding of good SntA substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - María Jesús Costas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - José Canales
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Rosa María Pinto
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Joaquim Rui Rodrigues
- Laboratório Associado Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria, Leiria, Portugal
| | - João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
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27
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Zhang Y, Xu Z, Luo H, Hao X, Li M. 细菌c-di-AMP特异性磷酸二酯酶的研究进展. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2022. [DOI: 10.1360/tb-2022-0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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28
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Si W, Liang H, Bugno J, Xu Q, Ding X, Yang K, Fu Y, Weichselbaum RR, Zhao X, Wang L. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG induces cGAS/STING- dependent type I interferon and improves response to immune checkpoint blockade. Gut 2022; 71:521-533. [PMID: 33685966 PMCID: PMC8710942 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-323426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Our goals were to evaluate the antitumour efficacy of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) in combination with immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) immunotherapies on tumour growth and to investigate the underlying mechanisms. DESIGN We used murine models of colorectal cancer and melanoma to evaluate whether oral administration of LGG improves the efficacy of ICB therapies. We performed the whole genome shotgun metagenome sequencing of intestinal contents and RNA sequencing of dendritic cells (DCs). In a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments, we further defined the immunological and molecular mechanisms of LGG-mediated antitumour immunity. RESULTS We demonstrate that oral administration of live LGG augmented the antitumour activity of anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) immunotherapy by increasing tumour-infiltrating DCs and T cells. Moreover, the combination treatment shifted the gut microbial community towards enrichment in Lactobacillus murinus and Bacteroides uniformis, that are known to increase DC activation and CD8+tumour recruitment. Mechanistically, treatment with live LGG alone or in combination with anti-PD-1 antibody triggered type I interferon (IFN) production in DCs, enhancing the cross-priming of antitumour CD8+ T cells. In DCs, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)/stimulator of IFN genes (STING) was required for IFN-β induction in response to LGG, as evidenced by the significant decrease in IFN-β levels in cGAS or STING-deficient DCs. LGG induces IFN-β production via the cGAS/STING/TANK binding kinase 1/interferon regulatory factor 7 axis in DCs. CONCLUSION Our findings have offered valuable insight into the molecular mechanisms of live LGG-mediated antitumour immunity and establish an empirical basis for developing oral administration of live LGG as a combination agent with ICB for cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Si
- Department of Animal Science, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Hua Liang
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA,The Ludwig Center for Metastasis Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Jason Bugno
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA,The Committee on Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Qi Xu
- Department of Animal Science, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Xingchen Ding
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Kaiting Yang
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA,The Ludwig Center for Metastasis Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Yanbin Fu
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA,The Ludwig Center for Metastasis Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Ralph R Weichselbaum
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA .,The Ludwig Center for Metastasis Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Xin Zhao
- Department of Animal Science, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Liangliang Wang
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA .,The Ludwig Center for Metastasis Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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29
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Qin X, Zou H, Niu C. The STING pathway: An uncharacterized angle beneath the gut-retina axis. Exp Eye Res 2022; 217:108970. [PMID: 35114214 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.108970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The gut-retina axis is an emerging concept that describes a close interaction between the gut host-microbiota interface and the retina. Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is a universally expressed adaptor protein localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. When activated by the cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS), STING induces the activation of the transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Downstream effects include inflammation, autophagy, and programmed cell death. Dysregulation of the STING pathway has emerged as a crucial pathogenic mechanism underpinning a broad range of inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Recently, a positive feedback loop between dysbiosis and aberrant activation of the intestinal STING pathway has been demonstrated, concurrently related to increased intestinal permeability. Alternations in the STING pathway have also been reported in the retina of patients with ocular diseases and retinal cells treated with pathological stimuli. Collectively, there is a chance that dysbiosis in patients with retinal diseases disrupts intestinal homeostasis and exacerbates barrier dysfunction through the erroneous accumulation of STING in the gut. Subsequent translocation of microbial products into the bloodstream allows access to the eye via the impaired blood-retina barrier, inducing the chronic activation of the STING pathway in the retina to participate in the disease progression. In this review, we explore how the alterations in the STING pathway could contribute to the gut disturbance and retinal pathologies and discuss its potential as a therapeutic target to treat the gut-retina axis-related diseases, which sheds some light on the better understanding of the crosstalk between the gut and retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinran Qin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Haidong Zou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Eye Diseases Prevention & Treatment Center, Shanghai Eye Hospital, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China; National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China.
| | - Chen Niu
- FosunLead Lingzhi Biomedical Technology Co. Ltd, Shanghai, China
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30
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Evidence for cGAS-STING signaling in the female genital tract resistance to Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Infect Immun 2022; 90:e0067021. [PMID: 34978925 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00670-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexually transmitted Chlamydia trachomatis can ascend to the upper genital tract due to its resistance to innate immunity in the lower genital tract. C. trachomatis can activate cGAS-STING signaling pathway in cultured cells via either cGAS or STING. The current study was designed to evaluate the role of the cGAS-STING pathway in innate immunity against C. trachomatis in the mouse genital tract. Following intravaginal inoculation, C. trachomatis significantly declined by day 5 following a peak infection on day 3 while the mouse-adapted C. muridarum continued to rise for >1 week, indicating that C. trachomatis is susceptible to the innate immunity in the female mouse genital tract. This conclusion was supported by the observation of a similar shedding course in mice deficient in adaptive immunity. Thus, C. trachomatis can be used to evaluate innate immunity in the female genital tract. It was found that mice deficient in either cGAS or STING significantly increased the yields of live C. trachomatis on day 5, indicating an essential role of the cGAS-STING signaling pathway in innate immunity of the mouse genital tract. Comparison of live C. trachomatis recovered from different genital tissues revealed that the cGAS-STING-dependent immunity against C. trachomatis was restricted to the mouse lower genital tract regardless of whether C. trachomatis was inoculated intravaginally or transcervically. Thus, we have demonstrated an essential role of the cGAS-STING signaling pathway in innate immunity against chlamydial infection, laying a foundation for further illuminating the mechanisms of the innate immunity in the female lower genital tract.
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31
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Ragland SA, Kagan JC. Cytosolic detection of phagosomal bacteria-Mechanisms underlying PAMP exodus from the phagosome into the cytosol. Mol Microbiol 2021; 116:1420-1432. [PMID: 34738270 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The metazoan innate immune system senses bacterial infections by detecting highly conserved bacterial molecules, termed pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). PAMPs are detected by a variety of host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), whose function is to coordinate downstream immune responses. PRR activities are, in part, regulated by their subcellular localizations. Accordingly, professional phagocytes can detect extracellular bacteria and their PAMPs via plasma membrane-oriented PRRs. Conversely, phagocytosed bacteria and their PAMPs are detected by transmembrane PRRs oriented toward the phagosomal lumen. Even though PAMPs are unable to passively diffuse across membranes, phagocytosed bacteria are also detected by PRRs localized within the host cell cytosol. This phenomenon is explained by phagocytosis of bacteria that specialize in phagosomal escape and cytosolic residence. Contrary to this cytosolic lifestyle, most bacteria studied to date spend their entire intracellular lifestyle contained within phagosomes, yet they also stimulate cytosolic PRRs. Herein, we will review our current understanding of how phagosomal PAMPs become accessible to cytosolic PRRs, as well as highlight knowledge gaps that should inspire future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie A Ragland
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jonathan C Kagan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Mudgal S, Manikandan K, Mukherjee A, Krishnan A, Sinha KM. Cyclic di-AMP: Small molecule with big roles in bacteria. Microb Pathog 2021; 161:105264. [PMID: 34715302 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.105264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cyclic dinucleotides are second messengers that are present in all the three domains of life, bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. These dinucleotides have important physiological and pathophysiological roles in bacteria. Cyclic di-AMP (cdA) is one of the recently discovered cyclic dinucleotides present predominantly in gram-positive bacteria. cdA is synthesized through diadenylate cyclase (DAC) activity from ATP in a two-step process and hydrolyzed to linear dinucleotide pApA (and to 5' AMP in certain cases) by specific phosphodiesterases. cdA regulates various physiological processes like K+ transport and osmotic balance, DNA repair, cell wall homeostasis, drug resistance, central metabolism either by binding directly to the target protein or regulating its expression. It also participates in host-pathogen interaction by binding to host immune receptors ERAdP, RECON, and STING.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhanshu Mudgal
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Haryana, India
| | - Kasi Manikandan
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Haryana, India
| | - Ahana Mukherjee
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Haryana, India
| | - Anuja Krishnan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India.
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Kundra S, Lam LN, Kajfasz JK, Casella LG, Andersen MJ, Abranches J, Flores-Mireles AL, Lemos JA. c-di-AMP Is Essential for the Virulence of Enterococcus faecalis. Infect Immun 2021; 89:e0036521. [PMID: 34424750 PMCID: PMC8519298 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00365-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Second messenger nucleotides are produced by bacteria in response to environmental stimuli and play a major role in the regulation of processes associated with bacterial fitness, including but not limited to osmoregulation, envelope homeostasis, central metabolism, and biofilm formation. In this study, we uncovered the biological significance of c-di-AMP in the opportunistic pathogen Enterococcus faecalis by isolating and characterizing strains lacking genes responsible for c-di-AMP synthesis (cdaA) and degradation (dhhP and gdpP). Using complementary approaches, we demonstrated that either complete loss of c-di-AMP (ΔcdaA strain) or c-di-AMP accumulation (ΔdhhP, ΔgdpP, and ΔdhhP ΔgdpP strains) drastically impaired general cell fitness and virulence of E. faecalis. In particular, the ΔcdaA strain was highly sensitive to envelope-targeting antibiotics, was unable to multiply and quickly lost viability in human serum or urine ex vivo, and was virtually avirulent in an invertebrate (Galleria mellonella) and in two catheter-associated mouse infection models that recapitulate key aspects of enterococcal infections in humans. In addition to evidence linking these phenotypes to altered activity of metabolite and peptide transporters and inability to maintain osmobalance, we found that the attenuated virulence of the ΔcdaA strain also could be attributed to a defect in Ebp pilus production and activity that severely impaired biofilm formation under both in vitro and in vivo conditions. Collectively, these results demonstrate that c-di-AMP signaling is essential for E. faecalis pathogenesis and a desirable target for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivani Kundra
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Ling Ning Lam
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Jessica K. Kajfasz
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Leila G. Casella
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Marissa J. Andersen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Norte Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Jacqueline Abranches
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Ana L. Flores-Mireles
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Norte Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - José A. Lemos
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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Kelliher JL, Grunenwald CM, Abrahams RR, Daanen ME, Lew CI, Rose WE, Sauer JD. PASTA kinase-dependent control of peptidoglycan synthesis via ReoM is required for cell wall stress responses, cytosolic survival, and virulence in Listeria monocytogenes. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009881. [PMID: 34624065 PMCID: PMC8528326 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic bacteria rely on protein phosphorylation to adapt quickly to stress, including that imposed by the host during infection. Penicillin-binding protein and serine/threonine-associated (PASTA) kinases are signal transduction systems that sense cell wall integrity and modulate multiple facets of bacterial physiology in response to cell envelope stress. The PASTA kinase in the cytosolic pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, PrkA, is required for cell wall stress responses, cytosolic survival, and virulence, yet its substrates and downstream signaling pathways remain incompletely defined. We combined orthogonal phosphoproteomic and genetic analyses in the presence of a β-lactam antibiotic to define PrkA phosphotargets and pathways modulated by PrkA. These analyses synergistically highlighted ReoM, which was recently identified as a PrkA target that influences peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis, as an important phosphosubstrate during cell wall stress. We find that deletion of reoM restores cell wall stress sensitivities and cytosolic survival defects of a ΔprkA mutant to nearly wild-type levels. While a ΔprkA mutant is defective for PG synthesis during cell wall stress, a double ΔreoM ΔprkA mutant synthesizes PG at rates similar to wild type. In a mouse model of systemic listeriosis, deletion of reoM in a ΔprkA background almost fully restored virulence to wild-type levels. However, loss of reoM alone also resulted in attenuated virulence, suggesting ReoM is critical at some points during pathogenesis. Finally, we demonstrate that the PASTA kinase/ReoM cell wall stress response pathway is conserved in a related pathogen, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Taken together, our phosphoproteomic analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the PASTA kinase targets of an important model pathogen and suggests that a critical role of PrkA in vivo is modulating PG synthesis through regulation of ReoM to facilitate cytosolic survival and virulence. Many antibiotics target bacterial cell wall biosynthesis, justifying continued study of this process and the ways bacteria respond to cell wall insults during infection. Penicillin-binding protein and serine/threonine-associated (PASTA) kinases are master regulators of cell wall stress responses in bacteria and are conserved in several major pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. We previously showed that the PASTA kinase in L. monocytogenes, PrkA, is essential for the response to cell wall stress and for virulence. In this work, we combined proteomic and genetic approaches to identify PrkA substrates in L. monocytogenes. We show that regulation of one candidate from both screens, ReoM, increases synthesis of the cell wall component peptidoglycan and that this regulation is required for pathogenesis. We also demonstrate that the PASTA kinase-ReoM pathway regulates cell wall stress responses in another significant pathogen, methicillin-resistant S. aureus. Additionally, we uncover a PrkA-independent role for ReoM in vivo in L. monocytogenes, suggesting a need for nuanced modulation of peptidoglycan synthesis during infection. Cumulatively, this study provides new insight into how bacterial pathogens control cell wall synthesis during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Kelliher
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Caroline M. Grunenwald
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Rhiannon R. Abrahams
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - McKenzie E. Daanen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Cassandra I. Lew
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Warren E. Rose
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - John-Demian Sauer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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NAD+ pool depletion as a signal for the Rex regulon involved in Streptococcus agalactiae virulence. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009791. [PMID: 34370789 PMCID: PMC8376106 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In many Gram-positive bacteria, the redox-sensing transcriptional repressor Rex controls central carbon and energy metabolism by sensing the intra cellular balance between the reduced and oxidized forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; the NADH/NAD+ ratio. Here, we report high-resolution crystal structures and characterization of a Rex ortholog (Gbs1167) in the opportunistic pathogen, Streptococcus agalactiae, also known as group B streptococcus (GBS). We present structures of Rex bound to NAD+ and to a DNA operator which are the first structures of a Rex-family member from a pathogenic bacterium. The structures reveal the molecular basis of DNA binding and the conformation alterations between the free NAD+ complex and DNA-bound form of Rex. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that GBS Rex controls not only central metabolism, but also expression of the monocistronic rex gene as well as virulence gene expression. Rex enhances GBS virulence after disseminated infection in mice. Mechanistically, NAD+ stabilizes Rex as a repressor in the absence of NADH. However, GBS Rex is unique compared to Rex regulators previously characterized because of its sensing mechanism: we show that it primarily responds to NAD+ levels (or growth rate) rather than to the NADH/NAD+ ratio. These results indicate that Rex plays a key role in GBS pathogenicity by modulating virulence factor gene expression and carbon metabolism to harvest nutrients from the host.
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Rørvik GH, Naemi A, Edvardsen PKT, Simm R. The c-di-AMP signaling system influences stress tolerance and biofilm formation of Streptococcus mitis. Microbiologyopen 2021; 10:e1203. [PMID: 34459556 PMCID: PMC8289670 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.1203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus mitis is a commensal bacterial species of the oral cavity, with the potential for opportunistic pathogenesis. For successful colonization, S. mitis must be able to adhere to surfaces of the oral cavity and survive and adapt to frequently changing environmental conditions. Cyclic-di-AMP (c-di-AMP) is a nucleotide second messenger, involved in the regulation of stress responses and biofilm formation in several bacterial species. Cyclic-di-AMP is produced by diadenylate cyclases and degraded by phosphodiesterases. We have previously shown that in S. mitis, one diadenylate cyclase (CdaA) and at least two phosphodiesterases (Pde1 and Pde2) regulate the intracellular concentration of c-di-AMP. In this study, we utilized S. mitis deletion mutants of cdaA, pde1, and pde2 to analyze the role of c-di-AMP signaling in various stress responses, biofilm formation, and adhesion to eukaryotic cells. Here, we demonstrate that the Δpde1 mutant displayed a tendency toward increased susceptibility to acetic acid at pH 4.0. Deletion of cdaA increases auto-aggregation of S. mitis but reduces biofilm formation on an abiotic surface. These phenotypes are more pronounced under acidic extracellular conditions. Inactivation of pde1 or pde2 reduced the tolerance to ciprofloxacin, and UV radiation and the Δpde1 mutant was more susceptible to Triton X-100, indicating a role for c-di-AMP signaling in responses to DNA damage and cell membrane perturbation. Finally, the Δpde2 mutant displayed a tendency toward a reduced ability to adhere to oral keratinocytes. Taken together, our results indicate an important role for c-di-AMP signaling in cellular processes important for colonization of the mouth.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Per Kristian Thorén Edvardsen
- Institute of Oral BiologyUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
- Present address:
Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food ScienceNorwegian University of Life SciencesÅsNorway
| | - Roger Simm
- Institute of Oral BiologyUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
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Research Advances on Tilapia Streptococcosis. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10050558. [PMID: 34066313 PMCID: PMC8148123 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10050558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae, often referred to as group B streptococci (GBS), is a severe pathogen that can infect humans as well as other animals, including tilapia, which is extremely popular in commercial aquaculture. This pathogen causes enormous pecuniary loss, and typical symptoms of streptococcosis—the disease caused by S. agalactiae—include abnormal behavior, exophthalmos, and meningitis, among others. Multiple studies have examined virulence factors associated with S. agalactiae infection, and vaccines were explored, including studies of subunit vaccines. Known virulence factors include capsular polysaccharide (CPS), hemolysin, Christie-Atkins-Munch-Peterson (CAMP) factor, hyaluronidase (HAase), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and serine-threonine protein kinase (STPK), and effective vaccine antigens reported to date include GapA, Sip, OCT, PGK, FbsA, and EF-Tu. In this review, I summarize findings from several studies about the etiology, pathology, virulence factors, and vaccine prospects for S. agalactiae. I end by considering which research areas are likely to yield success in the prevention and treatment of tilapia streptococcosis.
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Cabezas A, López-Villamizar I, Costas MJ, Cameselle JC, Ribeiro JM. Substrate Specificity of Chimeric Enzymes Formed by Interchange of the Catalytic and Specificity Domains of the 5 '-Nucleotidase UshA and the 3 '-Nucleotidase CpdB. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26082307. [PMID: 33923386 PMCID: PMC8071527 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26082307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The 5′-nucleotidase UshA and the 3′-nucleotidase CpdB from Escherichia coli are broad-specificity phosphohydrolases with similar two-domain structures. Their N-terminal domains (UshA_Ndom and CpdB_Ndom) contain the catalytic site, and their C-terminal domains (UshA_Cdom and CpdB_Cdom) contain a substrate-binding site responsible for specificity. Both enzymes show only partial overlap in their substrate specificities. So, it was decided to investigate the catalytic behavior of chimeras bearing the UshA catalytic domain and the CpdB specificity domain, or vice versa. UshA_Ndom–CpdB_Cdom and CpdB_Ndom–UshA_Cdom were constructed and tested on substrates specific to UshA (5′-AMP, CDP-choline, UDP-glucose) or to CpdB (3′-AMP), as well as on 2′,3′-cAMP and on the common phosphodiester substrate bis-4-NPP (bis-4-nitrophenylphosphate). The chimeras did show neither 5′-nucleotidase nor 3′-nucleotidase activity. When compared to UshA, UshA_Ndom–CpdB_Cdom conserved high activity on bis-4-NPP, some on CDP-choline and UDP-glucose, and displayed activity on 2′,3′-cAMP. When compared to CpdB, CpdB_Ndom–UshA_Cdom conserved phosphodiesterase activities on 2′,3′-cAMP and bis-4-NPP, and gained activity on the phosphoanhydride CDP-choline. Therefore, the non-nucleotidase activities of UshA and CpdB are not fully dependent on the interplay between domains. The specificity domains may confer the chimeras some of the phosphodiester or phosphoanhydride selectivity displayed when associated with their native partners. Contrarily, the nucleotidase activity of UshA and CpdB depends strictly on the interplay between their native catalytic and specificity domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (A.C.); (I.L.-V.); (M.J.C.); (J.C.C.)
| | - Iralis López-Villamizar
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (A.C.); (I.L.-V.); (M.J.C.); (J.C.C.)
- Manlab, Diagnóstico Bioquímico y Genómico, Calle Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear 2263, 1122 Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Jesús Costas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (A.C.); (I.L.-V.); (M.J.C.); (J.C.C.)
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (A.C.); (I.L.-V.); (M.J.C.); (J.C.C.)
| | - João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (A.C.); (I.L.-V.); (M.J.C.); (J.C.C.)
- Correspondence:
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The analog of cGAMP, c-di-AMP, activates STING mediated cell death pathway in estrogen-receptor negative breast cancer cells. Apoptosis 2021; 26:293-306. [PMID: 33840002 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-021-01669-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Immune adaptor protein like STING/MITA regulate innate immune response and plays a critical role in inflammation in the tumor microenvironment and regulation of metastasis including breast cancer. Chromosomal instability in highly metastatic cells releases fragmented chromosomal parts in the cytoplasm, hence the activation of STING via an increased level of cyclic dinucleotides (cDNs) synthesized by cGMP-AMP synthase (cGAS). Cyclic dinucleotides 2' 3'-cGAMP and it's analog can potentially activate STING mediated pathways leading to nuclear translocation of p65 and IRF-3 and transcription of inflammatory genes. The differential modulation of STING pathway via 2' 3'-cGAMP and its analog and its implication in breast tumorigenesis is still not well explored. In the current study, we demonstrated that c-di-AMP can activate type-1 IFN response in ER negative breast cancer cell lines which correlate with STING expression. c-di-AMP binds to STING and activates downstream IFN pathways in STING positive metastatic MDA-MB-231/MX-1 cells. Prolonged treatment of c-di-AMP induces cell death in STING positive metastatic MDA-MB-231/MX-1 cells mediated by IRF-3. c-di-AMP induces IRF-3 translocation to mitochondria and initiates Caspase-9 mediated cell death and inhibits clonogenicity of triple-negative breast cancer cells. This study suggests that c-di-AMP can activate and modulates STING pathway to induce mitochondrial mediated apoptosis in estrogen-receptor negative breast cancer cells.
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Lannes-Costa PS, de Oliveira JSS, da Silva Santos G, Nagao PE. A current review of pathogenicity determinants of Streptococcus sp. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:1600-1620. [PMID: 33772968 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The genus Streptococcus comprises important pathogens, many of them are part of the human or animal microbiota. Advances in molecular genetics, taxonomic approaches and phylogenomic studies have led to the establishment of at least 100 species that have a severe impact on human health and are responsible for substantial economic losses to agriculture. The infectivity of the pathogens is linked to cell-surface components and/or secreted virulence factors. Bacteria have evolved sophisticated and multifaceted adaptation strategies to the host environment, including biofilm formation, survival within professional phagocytes, escape the host immune response, amongst others. This review focuses on virulence mechanism and zoonotic potential of Streptococcus species from pyogenic (S. agalactiae, S. pyogenes) and mitis groups (S. pneumoniae).
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Lannes-Costa
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Physiology of Streptococci, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - J S S de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Physiology of Streptococci, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - G da Silva Santos
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Physiology of Streptococci, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - P E Nagao
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Physiology of Streptococci, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Yin W, Cai X, Ma H, Zhu L, Zhang Y, Chou SH, Galperin MY, He J. A decade of research on the second messenger c-di-AMP. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2021; 44:701-724. [PMID: 32472931 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuaa019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic dimeric adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (c-di-AMP) is an emerging second messenger in bacteria and archaea that is synthesized from two molecules of ATP by diadenylate cyclases and degraded to pApA or two AMP molecules by c-di-AMP-specific phosphodiesterases. Through binding to specific protein- and riboswitch-type receptors, c-di-AMP regulates a wide variety of prokaryotic physiological functions, including maintaining the osmotic pressure, balancing central metabolism, monitoring DNA damage and controlling biofilm formation and sporulation. It mediates bacterial adaptation to a variety of environmental parameters and can also induce an immune response in host animal cells. In this review, we discuss the phylogenetic distribution of c-di-AMP-related enzymes and receptors and provide some insights into the various aspects of c-di-AMP signaling pathways based on more than a decade of research. We emphasize the key role of c-di-AMP in maintaining bacterial osmotic balance, especially in Gram-positive bacteria. In addition, we discuss the future direction and trends of c-di-AMP regulatory network, such as the likely existence of potential c-di-AMP transporter(s), the possibility of crosstalk between c-di-AMP signaling with other regulatory systems, and the effects of c-di-AMP compartmentalization. This review aims to cover the broad spectrum of research on the regulatory functions of c-di-AMP and c-di-AMP signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Xia Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Hongdan Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Li Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Yuling Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Shan-Ho Chou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Michael Y Galperin
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20894, USA
| | - Jin He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
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López-Villamizar I, Cabezas A, Pinto RM, Canales J, Ribeiro JM, Rodrigues JR, Costas MJ, Cameselle JC. Molecular Dissection of Escherichia coli CpdB: Roles of the N Domain in Catalysis and Phosphate Inhibition, and of the C Domain in Substrate Specificity and Adenosine Inhibition. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041977. [PMID: 33671286 PMCID: PMC7922932 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CpdB is a 3′-nucleotidase/2′3′-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase, active also with reasonable efficiency on cyclic dinucleotides like c-di-AMP (3′,5′-cyclic diadenosine monophosphate) and c-di-GMP (3′,5′-cyclic diadenosine monophosphate). These are regulators of bacterial physiology, but are also pathogen-associated molecular patterns recognized by STING to induce IFN-β response in infected hosts. The cpdB gene of Gram-negative and its homologs of gram-positive bacteria are virulence factors. Their protein products are extracytoplasmic enzymes (either periplasmic or cell–wall anchored) and can hydrolyze extracellular cyclic dinucleotides, thus reducing the innate immune responses of infected hosts. This makes CpdB(-like) enzymes potential targets for novel therapeutic strategies in infectious diseases, bringing about the necessity to gain insight into the molecular bases of their catalytic behavior. We have dissected the two-domain structure of Escherichia coli CpdB to study the role of its N-terminal and C-terminal domains (CpdB_Ndom and CpdB_Cdom). The specificity, kinetics and inhibitor sensitivity of point mutants of CpdB, and truncated proteins CpdB_Ndom and CpdB_Cdom were investigated. CpdB_Ndom contains the catalytic site, is inhibited by phosphate but not by adenosine, while CpdB_Cdom is inactive but contains a substrate-binding site that determines substrate specificity and adenosine inhibition of CpdB. Among CpdB substrates, 3′-AMP, cyclic dinucleotides and linear dinucleotides are strongly dependent on the CpdB_Cdom binding site for activity, as the isolated CpdB_Ndom showed much-diminished activity on them. In contrast, 2′,3′-cyclic mononucleotides and bis-4-nitrophenylphosphate were actively hydrolyzed by CpdB_Ndom, indicating that they are rather independent of the CpdB_Cdom binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iralis López-Villamizar
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (I.L.-V.); (A.C.); (R.M.P.); (J.C.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.C.)
| | - Alicia Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (I.L.-V.); (A.C.); (R.M.P.); (J.C.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.C.)
| | - Rosa María Pinto
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (I.L.-V.); (A.C.); (R.M.P.); (J.C.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.C.)
| | - José Canales
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (I.L.-V.); (A.C.); (R.M.P.); (J.C.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.C.)
| | - João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (I.L.-V.); (A.C.); (R.M.P.); (J.C.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.C.)
| | - Joaquim Rui Rodrigues
- Laboratório Associado LSRE-LCM, Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal;
| | - María Jesús Costas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (I.L.-V.); (A.C.); (R.M.P.); (J.C.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.C.)
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; (I.L.-V.); (A.C.); (R.M.P.); (J.C.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-924-289-470
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Karanja CW, Yeboah KS, Sintim HO. Identification of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis Cyclic Dinucleotide Phosphodiesterase Inhibitor. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:309-317. [PMID: 33492938 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Immune cells sense bacteria-derived c-di-GMP and c-di-AMP as well as host-derived cGAMP, which is synthesized by cGAS upon binding to the pathogen's DNA, to mount an immunological response (cytokine production) via the STING-TBK1 pathway. Successful pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and group B streptococcus, harbor phosphodiesterases (PDEs) that can cleave bacterial c-di-AMP as well as host-derived cGAMP to blunt the host's response to infection. Selective inhibitors of bacterial cyclic dinucleotide (CDN) PDEs are needed as tool compounds to study the role(s) of CDN PDEs during infection and they could also become bona fide antivirulence compounds, but there is a paucity of such compounds. Using a high-throughput assay, we identified six inhibitors of MTB CDN PDE (CdnP). The most potent inhibitor, C82 with an IC50 of ∼18 μM, did not inhibit the enzymatic activities of three other bacterial CDN PDEs (Yybt, RocR, and GBS-CdnP), a viral CDN PDE (poxin) or mammalian ENPP1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline W. Karanja
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2084, United States
| | - Kofi S. Yeboah
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2084, United States
| | - Herman O. Sintim
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2084, United States
- Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, 610 Purdue Mall, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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44
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Peignier A, Parker D. Impact of Type I Interferons on Susceptibility to Bacterial Pathogens. Trends Microbiol 2021; 29:823-835. [PMID: 33546974 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2021.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Interferons (IFNs) are a broad class of cytokines that have multifaceted roles. Type I IFNs have variable effects when it comes to host susceptibility to bacterial infections, that is, the resulting outcomes can be either protective or deleterious. The mechanisms identified to date have been wide and varied between pathogens. In this review, we discuss recent literature that provides new insights into the mechanisms of how type I IFN signaling exerts its effects on the outcome of infection from the host's point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeline Peignier
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Dane Parker
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA.
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45
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Identification of cGAS as an innate immune sensor of extracellular bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. iScience 2021; 24:101928. [PMID: 33385121 PMCID: PMC7772558 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) is reported essential for detecting intracellular bacteria. However, it remains to be determined whether and how cGAS is involved in extracellular bacterial infection. Here, we report that cGAS is essential for mediating type I interferon (IFN) production in infection by multiple extracellular pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus. In addition, the canonical cGAS-stimulator of interferon gene (STING)-IFN axis is required for protecting mice from P. aeruginosa-induced mouse acute pulmonary infection, confirmed in cGAS pathway-specific gene deficiency mouse models. cGAS -/- and STING -/- mice exhibited reduced type I IFNs production, excessive inflammatory response accompanied with decreased resistance to P. aeruginosa challenge. Unfolded protein response was also modulated by cGAS through IRF3 and type I IFNs under P. aeruginosa infection. Collectively, these findings uncover the importance of cGAS in initiating immune responses against extracellular bacterial infection.
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46
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Balka KR, De Nardo D. Molecular and spatial mechanisms governing STING signalling. FEBS J 2020; 288:5504-5529. [PMID: 33237620 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Detection of microbial nucleic acids via innate immune receptors is critical for establishing host defence against pathogens. The DNA-sensing cGAS-STING pathway has gained increasing attention in the last decade as a key pathway for combating viral and bacterial infections. cGAS-STING activation primarily promotes the secretion of antiviral type I IFNs via the key transcription factor, IRF3. In addition, cGAS-STING signalling also elicits proinflammatory cytokines through NF-κB activity. Activation of IRF3 and NF-κB is mediated by the chief signalling receptor protein STING. Interestingly, STING undergoes significant trafficking events across multiple subcellular locations, which regulates both the activation of downstream signalling pathways, as well as appropriate termination of the responses. Studies to date have provided a comprehensive view of the regulation and role of the IRF3-IFN pathway downstream of STING. However, many aspects of STING signalling remain relatively poorly defined. This review will explore the current understanding of the mechanisms through which STING elicits inflammatory and antimicrobial responses, focusing on the precise signalling and intracellular trafficking events that occur. We will also discuss exciting and emerging concepts in the field, including the importance of IFN-independent STING responses for host defence and during STING-related disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R Balka
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
| | - Dominic De Nardo
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
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47
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The Many Roles of the Bacterial Second Messenger Cyclic di-AMP in Adapting to Stress Cues. J Bacteriol 2020; 203:JB.00348-20. [PMID: 32839175 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00348-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria respond to changes in environmental conditions through adaptation to external cues. Frequently, bacteria employ nucleotide signaling molecules to mediate a specific, rapid response. Cyclic di-AMP (c-di-AMP) was recently discovered to be a bacterial second messenger that is essential for viability in many species. In this review, we highlight recent work that has described the roles of c-di-AMP in bacterial responses to various stress conditions. These studies show that depending on the lifestyle and environmental niche of the bacterial species, the c-di-AMP signaling network results in diverse outcomes, such as regulating osmolyte transport, controlling plant attachment, or providing a checkpoint for spore formation. c-di-AMP achieves this signaling specificity through expression of different classes of synthesis and catabolic enzymes as well as receptor proteins and RNAs, which will be summarized.
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48
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Liu Y, Lee C, Li F, Trček J, Bähre H, Guo RT, Chen CC, Chernobrovkin A, Zubarev R, Römling U. A Cyclic di-GMP Network Is Present in Gram-Positive Streptococcus and Gram-Negative Proteus Species. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:2672-2687. [PMID: 32786278 PMCID: PMC7551669 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The ubiquitous cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) network is highly redundant with numerous GGDEF domain proteins as diguanylate cyclases and EAL domain proteins as c-di-GMP specific phosphodiesterases comprising those domains as two of the most abundant bacterial domain superfamilies. One hallmark of the c-di-GMP network is its exalted plasticity as c-di-GMP turnover proteins can rapidly vanish from species within a genus and possess an above average transmissibility. To address the evolutionary forces of c-di-GMP turnover protein maintenance, conservation, and diversity, we investigated a Gram-positive and a Gram-negative species, which preserved only one single clearly identifiable GGDEF domain protein. Species of the family Morganellaceae of the order Enterobacterales exceptionally show disappearance of the c-di-GMP signaling network, but Proteus spp. still retained one diguanylate cyclase. As another example, in species of the bovis, pyogenes, and salivarius subgroups as well as Streptococcus suis and Streptococcus henryi of the genus Streptococcus, one candidate diguanylate cyclase was frequently identified. We demonstrate that both proteins encompass PAS (Per-ARNT-Sim)-GGDEF domains, possess diguanylate cyclase catalytic activity, and are suggested to signal via a PilZ receptor domain at the C-terminus of type 2 glycosyltransferase constituting BcsA cellulose synthases and a cellulose synthase-like protein CelA, respectively. Preservation of the ancient link between production of cellulose(-like) exopolysaccharides and c-di-GMP signaling indicates that this functionality is even of high ecological importance upon maintenance of the last remnants of a c-di-GMP signaling network in some of today's free-living bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liu
- Department
of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology and Department of Medical Biochemistry
and Biophysics, Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Changhan Lee
- Department
of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology and Department of Medical Biochemistry
and Biophysics, Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fengyang Li
- Department
of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology and Department of Medical Biochemistry
and Biophysics, Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Janja Trček
- Faculty
of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Department of Biology, University
of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Heike Bähre
- Research
Core Unit Metabolomics, Hannover Medical
School, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Rey-Ting Guo
- State
Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative
Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei
Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, P.R. China
| | - Chun-Chi Chen
- State
Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative
Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei
Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, P.R. China
| | - Alexey Chernobrovkin
- Department
of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology and Department of Medical Biochemistry
and Biophysics, Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Roman Zubarev
- Department
of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology and Department of Medical Biochemistry
and Biophysics, Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department
of Pharmacological & Technological Chemistry, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, 119146, Russia
| | - Ute Römling
- Department
of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology and Department of Medical Biochemistry
and Biophysics, Biomedicum, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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49
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Zheng J, Mo J, Zhu T, Zhuo W, Yi Y, Hu S, Yin J, Zhang W, Zhou H, Liu Z. Comprehensive elaboration of the cGAS-STING signaling axis in cancer development and immunotherapy. Mol Cancer 2020; 19:133. [PMID: 32854711 PMCID: PMC7450153 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-020-01250-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular recognition of microbial DNA is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism by which the innate immune system detects pathogens. Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and its downstream effector, stimulator of interferon genes (STING), are involved in mediating fundamental innate antimicrobial immunity by promoting the release of type I interferons (IFNs) and other inflammatory cytokines. Accumulating evidence suggests that the activation of the cGAS-STING axis is critical for antitumor immunity. The downstream cytokines regulated by cGAS-STING, especially type I IFNs, serve as bridges connecting innate immunity with adaptive immunity. Accordingly, a growing number of studies have focused on the synthesis and screening of STING pathway agonists. However, chronic STING activation may lead to a protumor phenotype in certain malignancies. Hence, the cGAS-STING signaling pathway must be orchestrated properly when STING agonists are used alone or in combination. In this review, we discuss the dichotomous roles of the cGAS-STING pathway in tumor development and the latest advances in the use of STING agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juyan Zheng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Engineering Research Center for applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics of Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Junluan Mo
- Shenzhen center for chronic disease control and Prevention, Shenzhen, 518020, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Zhu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Engineering Research Center for applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics of Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhuo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Engineering Research Center for applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics of Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Yueneng Yi
- Hunan Yineng Biological Medicine Co., Ltd, Changsha, 410205, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuo Hu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Key Laboratory of Biological Nanotechnology of National Health Commission, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiye Yin
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Engineering Research Center for applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics of Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Engineering Research Center for applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics of Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Honghao Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China.,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Engineering Research Center for applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics of Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaoqian Liu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, People's Republic of China. .,Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Engineering Research Center for applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics of Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, People's Republic of China.
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50
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Rørvik GH, Liskiewicz KA, Kryuchkov F, Naemi AO, Aasheim HC, Petersen FC, Küntziger TM, Simm R. Cyclic Di-adenosine Monophosphate Regulates Metabolism and Growth in the Oral Commensal Streptococcus mitis. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8091269. [PMID: 32825526 PMCID: PMC7570391 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8091269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic di-adenosine monophosphate (c-di-AMP) has emerged as an important bacterial signaling molecule that functions both as an intracellular second messenger in bacterial cells and an extracellular ligand involved in bacteria-host cross-talk. In this study, we identify and characterize proteins involved in controlling the c-di-AMP concentration in the oral commensal and opportunistic pathogen Streptococcusmitis (S. mitis). We identified three known types of c-di-AMP turnover proteins in the genome of S. mitis CCUG31611: a CdaA-type diadenylate cyclase as well as GdpP-, and DhhP-type phosphodiesterases. Biochemical analyses of purified proteins demonstrated that CdaA synthesizes c-di-AMP from ATP whereas both phosphodiesterases can utilize c-di-AMP as well as the intermediary metabolite of c-di-AMP hydrolysis 5'-phosphadenylyl-adenosine (pApA) as substrate to generate AMP, albeit at different catalytic efficiency. Using deletion mutants of each of the genes encoding c-di-AMP turnover proteins, we show by high resolution MS/MS that the intracellular concentration of c-di-AMP is increased in deletion mutants of the phosphodiesterases and non-detectable in the cdaA-mutant. We also detected pApA in mutants of the DhhP-type phosphodiesterase. Low and high levels of c-di-AMP were associated with longer and shorter chains of S. mitis, respectively indicating a role in regulation of cell division. The deletion mutant of the DhhP-type phosphodiesterase displayed slow growth and reduced rate of glucose metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gro Herredsvela Rørvik
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (G.H.R.); (K.A.L.); (A.-O.N.); (H.-C.A.); (F.C.P.); (T.M.K.)
| | - Krystyna Anna Liskiewicz
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (G.H.R.); (K.A.L.); (A.-O.N.); (H.-C.A.); (F.C.P.); (T.M.K.)
| | - Fedor Kryuchkov
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Ali-Oddin Naemi
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (G.H.R.); (K.A.L.); (A.-O.N.); (H.-C.A.); (F.C.P.); (T.M.K.)
| | - Hans-Christian Aasheim
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (G.H.R.); (K.A.L.); (A.-O.N.); (H.-C.A.); (F.C.P.); (T.M.K.)
| | - Fernanda C. Petersen
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (G.H.R.); (K.A.L.); (A.-O.N.); (H.-C.A.); (F.C.P.); (T.M.K.)
| | - Thomas M. Küntziger
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (G.H.R.); (K.A.L.); (A.-O.N.); (H.-C.A.); (F.C.P.); (T.M.K.)
| | - Roger Simm
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (G.H.R.); (K.A.L.); (A.-O.N.); (H.-C.A.); (F.C.P.); (T.M.K.)
- Correspondence:
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