A comprehensive approach to formulation of seaweed-enriched meat products: From technological development to assessment of healthy properties

Seaweed in the Diet as a Source of Bioactive Metabolites and a Potential Natural Immunity Booster: A Comprehensive Review

Seaweed plays an essential role in the survival of marine life, provides habitats and helps in nutrient recycling. It is rich in valuable nutritious compounds such as pigments, proteins, polysaccharides, minerals, vitamins, omega-rich oils, secondary metabolites, fibers and sterols. Pigments like fucoxanthin and astaxanthin and polysaccharides like laminarin, fucoidan, galactan and ulvan possess immune-modulatory and immune-enhancing properties. Moreover, they show antioxidative, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, anti-obesity, antimicrobial, anticoagulation and anti-aging properties and can prevent diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's and cardiovascular diseases. Though seaweed is frequently consumed by Eastern Asian countries like China, Japan, and Korea and has gained the attention of Western countries in recent years due to its nutritional properties, its consumption on a global scale is very limited because of a lack of awareness. Thus, to incorporate seaweed into the global diet and to make it familiar as a functional food, issues such as large-scale cultivation, processing, consumer acceptance and the development of seaweed-based food products need to be addressed. This review is intended to give a brief overview of the present status of seaweed, its nutritional value and its bioactive metabolites as functional foods for human health and diseases owing to its immunity-boosting potential. Further, seaweed as a source of sustainable food and its prospects along with its issues are discussed in this review.

Expanding our food supply: underutilized resources and resilient processing technologies

Many underutilized food resources have been traditionally used by regional and poor communities. The history of their consumption makes them potential new food sources for incorporation into the wider food supply. The ability to tap the potential of undervalued and underutilized food sources will reduce the world's reliance on a limited number of food sources and improve food security and sustainability. The expansion of the food diversity of the food supply to include underutilized food resources will require overcoming challenges in the efficient and profitable production of the raw material, application of suitable postharvest handling procedures to maintain the quality of perishable produce, and the use of appropriate traditional and emerging food processing technologies for conversion of the raw material into safe, nutritious and consumer-acceptable foods. Improvement of food processing technologies, particularly resource-efficient resilient food processes, are required to ensure the safety, quality and functionality of the whole food or extracts, and to develop ingredient formulations containing new foods for manufacture of consumer food products. Factors that help facilitate the social acceptance of new underutilized foods include increasing consumer knowledge and understanding of the contribution of new underutilized food resources to diet diversity for good nutrition, confidence in the safety and value of new foods, and their low environmental impact and importance for future sustainable food. The introduction of new underutilized food resources will increasingly require collaboration along the whole food value chain, including support from government and industry. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

The Effect of a Nutritional Intervention with the Use of Biofortified Beef Meat on Selected Biochemical Parameters in Blood from Older Adults

This study aimed to investigate the effects of meat biofortified with antioxidants and canola oil on the health of older adults through blood parameters. Eighty institutionalized older persons were divided into four groups who received the following treatments: C-control meat with 46 µg/kg of meat with selenium, 3.80 g/kg of meat with vitamin E and 0.78 g/100 g of meat with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA); A-antioxidant meat with 422 µg/kg of meat with selenium, 7.65 g/kg of meat with vitamin E and 0.85 g/100 g of meat with CLA; O-oil meat with 57 µg/kg of meat with selenium, 3.98 g/kg of meat with vitamin E and 1.27 g/100 g of meat with CLA; OA-oil and antioxidant meat with 367 µg/kg of meat with selenium, 7.78 g/kg of meat with vitamin E and 1.08 g/100 g of meat with CLA. Blood samples were collected at 0, 45 and 90 days after the start of meat intake. Older adults who consumed ANT (A and AO) meat had higher concentrations of selenium (p = 0.039), vitamin E and HDL (higher concentrations of high-density lipoprotein, p = 0.048) in their blood. This study demonstrates that the consumption of Se- and vitamin E-biofortified meat increases the concentration of these metabolites in blood from older adults.

Evaluation of the functional properties of a protein isolate from Arthrospira maxima and its application in a meat sausage

Arthrospira maxima is a microalga that has been collected in Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico since pre-Hispanic times and has been a traditional food source due to its high biomass production and protein content (50-60 %), making it promising for protein extraction. In this context, a protein isolate was obtained from powdered biomass of Arthrospira maxima (PbAm) by alkaline solubilization (pH 11) and isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.2). Arthrospira maxima protein isolate (AmPI) presented higher protein content (82.58 %) and total amino acids compared to PbAm. Functional properties of AmPI were evaluated in comparison with PbAm and soy protein isolate (SPI). Protein extraction resulted in a significant increase in protein solubility (PS) and foaming capacity (FC) of up to 87.78 % and 238.10 %, respectively. Emulsifying capacity (EC) of AmPI was superior to that of PbAm and SPI in pH range 5-7. Inclusion of AmPI as a partial substitute for SPI in the formulation of meat sausages was evaluated by implementing four treatments: T1 (15 % AmPI, 85 % SPI), T2 (10 % AmPI, 90 % SPI), T3 (5 % AmPI, 95 % SPI) and T4 (0 % AmPI, 100 % SPI). Although the texture attributes remained unchanged, a significant reduction in color parameters was observed as the concentration of AmPI increased. An inclusion of 15 % AmPI significantly enhanced the nutritional quality of meat sausages. Results highlight the excellent properties of AmPI, confirming Arthrospira maxima as a promising protein source in the food industry.

The green seaweed Ulva: tomorrow's "wheat of the sea" in foods, feeds, nutrition, and biomaterials

Ulva, a genus of green macroalgae commonly known as sea lettuce, has long been recognized for its nutritional benefits for food and feed. As the demand for sustainable food and feed sources continues to grow, so does the interest in alternative, plant-based protein sources. With its abundance along coastal waters and high protein content, Ulva spp. have emerged as promising candidates. While the use of Ulva in food and feed has its challenges, the utilization of Ulva in other industries, including in biomaterials, biostimulants, and biorefineries, has been growing. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current status, challenges and opportunities associated with using Ulva in food, feed, and beyond. Drawing on the expertise of leading researchers and industry professionals, it explores the latest knowledge on Ulva's nutritional value, processing methods, and potential benefits for human nutrition, aquaculture feeds, terrestrial feeds, biomaterials, biostimulants and biorefineries. In addition, it examines the economic feasibility of incorporating Ulva into aquafeed. Through its comprehensive and insightful analysis, including a critical review of the challenges and future research needs, this review will be a valuable resource for anyone interested in sustainable aquaculture and Ulva's role in food, feed, biomaterials, biostimulants and beyond.

Physicochemical Properties of Restructured Black Goat Jerky with Various Types of Ultra-Ground Seaweed Powders

This study investigated the effects of ultra-ground seaweed powders (USP) on the physicochemical properties (proximate composition, mineral contents, pH, color, shear force, sensory evaluation, electronic nose, and electronic tongue) of restructured black goat jerky. Restructured black goat jerky was prepared using three different treatments, i.e., 3% (w/w) each of ultra-ground sea tangle (ST; Undaria pinnatifida), sea mustard (SM; Saccharina japonica), and sea string (SS; Gracilaria verrucosa) powders. Moisture and ash contents were significantly higher in the USP-treated group than in the control (p<0.05). Potassium, calcium, and zinc contents were significantly higher in the SM than in the other USP-treated groups (p<0.05). In contrast, pH values were significantly higher in the ST and SM than in the control and SS (p<0.05). CIE L*, CIE a*, CIE b*, and shear force were significantly lower in the USP-treated groups than in the control (p<0.05). Sensory evaluation revealed no significant difference in taste, texture, seaweed-like odor, and goaty flavor (p<0.05). Principal component analysis (PCA) and peak graph analysis of the electronic nose showed that the SS differed the most from the control compared with the other USP-treated groups, owing to the seaweed odor of ultra-ground SS powder. The PCA and ranking analysis of the electronic tongue showed that the umami taste of the SM was higher than that of the control and other USP-treated groups. Therefore, the potassium, calcium, zinc contents, and umami taste of reconstituted black goat jerky were significantly higher in the SM than in the control and other USP-treated groups.

Scope and challenges of seaweed utilization in food and nutraceutical industry in India: a review

Seaweeds are an excellent source of unique antioxidant phytochemicals, dietary fibres, essential amino acids, vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids and minerals. The presence of such structurally diverse and high value bioactive compounds has led to popularization of seaweed as functional food ingredient in global health supplement market. India, with a long coastline of 8100 km and exclusive economic zone of 2.17 million km2, is rich in diverse seaweed resources belonging to almost 700 species. However, food and nutraceutical application of Indian seaweed is highly constrained. Apart from Kappaphycus alvarezii, there is no systematic commercial cultivation of seaweed in India. The regulatory framework for use of seaweed as food is still developing and consumer acceptance is still low. However, there is a timely and renewed interest from different government agencies and research organisations to develop a thriving food and nutraceutical industry using India's vast seaweed resources. The review briefly describes the nutritional and functional food potential of the seaweed and goes on to discuss the scope of seaweed utilization in food and nutraceutical industry in India. Further, the review has identified the regulatory challenges and quality control requirements for use of seaweeds in food and nutraceuticals.

Exploring consumer beliefs about novel fortified foods: A focus group study with UK-based older and younger adult consumers

Consuming 'nutritionally-enhanced' food products (including those that are fortified or enriched to deliver nutritional and functional properties) may help to improve overall diet quality and combat risks associated with malnutrition. However, fortification can negatively impact consumer acceptance, particularly where expected sensory properties of 'delivery' foods are affected by target ingredients. Here, we explored factors influencing consumer acceptability for six novel food products that had been fortified, including both savoury and sweet meal components (e.g., high protein dumplings, probiotic yoghurt drink). In person focus groups (25 consumers aged between 22 and 76 years old) were conducted with two stages; firstly, participants completed a blind taste test of products without awareness of fortification. Secondly, participants discussed products with awareness of additional ingredients and food properties. Reflexive thematic analysis showed that liking of sensory properties differed between foods, but informing participants about the fortification of products highlighted potential trade-offs between taste, health, price, and familiarity. Though taste and texture were generally prioritised by participants, positive perceptions of health benefits increased consumer willingness to buy, whilst both cost and uncertainty about product use were potential barriers. Trust of information was a key concern for labelling and product claims. These results highlight product features that may be optimised to support the success of fortified foods. Greater transparency when building product brands and improving consumer knowledge of fortification may also be important for longer-term consumer acceptance.

Potential Application of Marine Algae and Their Bioactive Metabolites in Brain Disease Treatment: Pharmacognosy and Pharmacology Insights for Therapeutic Advances

Seaweeds, also known as edible marine algae, are an abundant source of phytosterols, carotenoids, and polysaccharides, among other bioactive substances. Studies conducted in the past few decades have demonstrated that substances derived from seaweed may be able to pass through the blood-brain barrier and act as neuroprotectants. According to preliminary clinical research, seaweed may also help prevent or lessen the symptoms of cerebrovascular illnesses by reducing mental fatigue, preventing endothelial damage to the vascular wall of brain vessels, and regulating internal pressure. They have the ability to control neurotransmitter levels, lessen neuroinflammation, lessen oxidative stress, and prevent the development of amyloid plaques. This review aims to understand the application potential of marine algae and their influence on brain development, highlighting the nutritional value of this "superfood" and providing current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms in the brain associated with their dietary introduction.

The effect of incorporating dietary green seaweed (Ulva sp.) on growth performance, blood parameters, and carcass and meat quality characteristics of Jumbo quail

Seaweeds are functional aquatic plants that can be used in Jumbo quail (Coturnix sp.) feeds as sources of phytochemicals and nutrients. However, no studies have investigated the feed value of green seaweed (Ulva sp.) meal (SM) for the Jumbo quail. Thus, the impact of different dietary inclusion levels of SM on productive traits, serum biochemistry, haematology, visceral organ sizes, carcass features, and meat quality attributes in Jumbo quail was investigated. In a completely randomised design, one-week-old quail (n = 385; 67.7 ± 3.44 g body weight) were allotted to five treatments, with seven replicate pens (experimental unit). The treatments were produced by including 0 (SM0), 20 (SM20), 40 (SM40), 60 (SM60) and 80 g/kg (SM80) of green SM in a commercial grower diet. Regression results showed no linear or quadratic effects (P > 0.05) to different levels of SM for average weekly feed intake, overall weight gain, haematological indices, internal organs, carcass features, and meat quality characteristics of the birds. However, incorporating SM up to 80 g/kg in the diet linearly reduced overall gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) [R2 = 0.282; P = 0.0001] and slaughter weights [R2 = 0.159; P = 0.026]. Treatment SM80 promoted (P < 0.05) higher feed intake than diet SM60 in weeks 3, 4 and 5, but were comparable to the control treatment in weeks 4 and 5. Birds fed with diets SM0 and SM20 had higher (P < 0.05) overall weight gain than birds fed with diet SM60. Diet SM80 resulted in lower (P < 0.05) overall G:F (0.250) than diet SM0 (0.277). Higher slaughter weights were observed on SM0 and SM20 groups than the SM60 group. We concluded that the use of dietary green SM up to 80 g/kg in Jumbo quail feeds compromises gain-to-feed ratio and slaughter weights but not physiological and meat quality attributes.

Effects of whole seaweed consumption on humans: current evidence from randomized-controlled intervention trials, knowledge gaps, and limitations

Seaweed is often recognized for its potential health benefits, attributed to its abundance of dietary fibers, protein, and polyphenols. While human observational studies have shown promise, the collective evidence from human intervention trials remains limited. This narrative review aims to comprehensively analyze the effects of seaweed intake on humans, while critically assessing the methodology, including Cochrane risk-of-bias assessment. A search was conducted in online databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, covering the period from 2000 to May 2023. The focus was on randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs) evaluating the impact of whole seaweed, either consumed as capsules, integrated into food products or as part of meals. Various health outcomes were examined, including appetite, anthropometric measures, cardiometabolic risk factors, thyroid function, markers of oxidative stress, and blood mineral concentrations. Out of the 25 RCTs reviewed, the findings revealed limited yet encouraging evidence for effects of seaweed on blood glucose metabolism, blood pressure, anthropometric measures, and, to a lesser extent, blood lipids. Notably, these favorable effects were predominantly observed in populations with type-2 diabetes and hypertension. Despite most trials selecting a seaweed dose aligning with estimated consumption levels in Japan, considerable variability was observed in the pretreatment and delivery methods of seaweed across studies. Moreover, most studies exhibited a moderate-to-high risk of bias, posing challenges in drawing definitive conclusions. Overall, this review highlights the necessity for well-designed RCTs with transparent reporting of methods and results. Furthermore, there is a need for RCTs to explore seaweed species cultivated outside of Asia, with a specific emphasis on green and red species. Such studies will provide robust evidence-based support for the growing utilization of seaweed as a dietary component in regions with negligible seaweed consumption, e.g., Europe.

Nutritional and Health Benefits of the Brown Seaweed Himanthalia elongata

Himanthalia elongata is a brown seaweed containing several nutritional compounds and bioactive substances including antioxidants, dietary fibre, vitamins, fatty acids, amino acids, and macro- and trace- elements. A variety of bioactive compounds including phlorotannins, flavonoids, dietary fucoxanthin, hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, polyphenols and carotenoids are also present in this seaweed. Multiple comparative studies were carried out between different seaweed species, wherein H. elongata was determined to exhibit high antioxidant capacity, total phenolic content, fucose content and potassium concentrations compared to other species. H. elongata extracts have also shown promising anti-hyperglycaemic and neuroprotective activities. H. elongata is being studied for its potential industrial food applications. In new meat product formulations, it lowered sodium content, improved phytochemical and fiber content in beef patties, improved properties of meat gel/emulsion systems, firmer and tougher with improved water and fat binding properties. This narrative review provides a comprehensive overview of the nutritional composition, bioactive properties, and food applications of H. elongata.

Addressing Clean Label Trends in Commercial Meat Processing: Strategies, Challenges and Insights from Consumer Perspectives

BACKGROUND

The concept of a clean label is difficult to define, even in common language, as the interpretation of what a "clean" food is differs from one person to another and from one organisation to another. The lack of a unique definition and regulations of what the term "clean" means, along with the growing consumer demand for more "natural" and healthier foods, is posing new challenges for manufacturers and ingredient producers. The meat industry, in particular, has been affected by this new movement owing to negative attitudes and feelings consumers associate with consuming processed meat products. Scope and approach: The review scope is to describe attributes and associations around the "clean" label term by analysing the most recent ingredients, additives and processing methods currently available for meat manufacturers. Their application in meat, plant-based alternatives and hybrid meat/plant products, current limitations and challenges presented in consumer perception, safety and potential impacts on product quality are also presented.

KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The availability of a growing number of "clean" label ingredients provides a new suite of approaches that are available for application by meat processors to help overcome some of the negative connotations associated with processed meat products and also support plant-based meat alternatives and hybrids.

Brown algae and their multiple applications as functional ingredient in food production

Brown algae are considered one of the resources that can contribute to transforming our global food system by promoting healthier diets and reducing environmental impact. In this sense, this review article aims to provide up-to-date information on the nutritional and functional improvement of brown algae when they are applied to different food matrices. Brown algae present sulfated polysaccharides (alginates, fucoidans, and laminarins), proteins, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers, fatty acids, pigments, and bioactive compounds that can positively contribute to the development of highly nutritious food products, as well as used reformulate products already existing, to remove, reduce, increase, add and/or replace different components and obtain products that confer health-promoting properties. This review demonstrates that there is a tendency to use seaweed for the production of functional foods and that the number of commercially produced products from seaweed is increasing, that is, seaweed is a sector whose global market is expanding.

White and honey Chlorella vulgaris: Sustainable ingredients with the potential to improve nutritional value of pork frankfurters without compromising quality

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the chlorophyll-deficient microalgae mutants, honey (yellow) and white Chlorella vulgaris, (3%) on the nutritional, physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of frankfurters. The presence of microalgae resulted in increased PUFA content and higher PUFA/SFA ratio, but lower n-6/n-3 ratio and lipid indices (P < 0.05). C. vulgaris inclusion in frankfurters increased (P < 0.05) Na, K, Ca, P, and Zn and improved the Na/K ratio, but lowered Mn, and in the case of white C. vulgaris, Cu content, compared to the control. The higher protein content decreased water release from emulsions elaborated with microalgae. White C. vulgaris inclusion decreased cohesiveness and springiness of the frankfurters. Due to the presence of pigment, microalgae inclusion led to a decrease in redness and an increase in yellowness of frankfurters. The presence of microalgae resulted in lower (P < 0.05) bacterial counts and did not affect TBARs during storage. The addition of microalgae in frankfurters produced acceptable sensory characteristics but resulted in lower scores compared to reference products.

Biomolecules from Macroalgae-Nutritional Profile and Bioactives for Novel Food Product Development

Seaweed is in the spotlight as a promising source of nutrition for humans as the search for sustainable food production systems continues. Seaweed has a well-documented rich nutritional profile containing compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids and polysaccharides as well as proteins, fatty acids and minerals. Seaweed processing for the extraction of functional ingredients such as alginate, agar, and carrageenan is well-established. Novel pretreatments such as ultrasound assisted extraction or high-pressure processing can be incorporated to more efficiently extract these targeted ingredients. The scope of products that can be created using seaweed are wide ranging: from bread and noodles to yoghurt and milk and even as an ingredient to enhance the nutritional profile and stability of meat products. There are opportunities for food producers in this area to develop novel food products using seaweed. This review paper discusses the unique properties of seaweed as a food, the processes involved in seaweed aquaculture, and the products that can be developed from this marine biomass. Challenges facing the industry such as consumer hesitation around seaweed products, the safety of seaweed, and processing hurdles will also be discussed.

Seaweed for climate mitigation, wastewater treatment, bioenergy, bioplastic, biochar, food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics: a review

The development and recycling of biomass production can partly solve issues of energy, climate change, population growth, food and feed shortages, and environmental pollution. For instance, the use of seaweeds as feedstocks can reduce our reliance on fossil fuel resources, ensure the synthesis of cost-effective and eco-friendly products and biofuels, and develop sustainable biorefinery processes. Nonetheless, seaweeds use in several biorefineries is still in the infancy stage compared to terrestrial plants-based lignocellulosic biomass. Therefore, here we review seaweed biorefineries with focus on seaweed production, economical benefits, and seaweed use as feedstock for anaerobic digestion, biochar, bioplastics, crop health, food, livestock feed, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Globally, seaweeds could sequester between 61 and 268 megatonnes of carbon per year, with an average of 173 megatonnes. Nearly 90% of carbon is sequestered by exporting biomass to deep water, while the remaining 10% is buried in coastal sediments. 500 gigatonnes of seaweeds could replace nearly 40% of the current soy protein production. Seaweeds contain valuable bioactive molecules that could be applied as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, antifungal, anticancer, contraceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-coagulants, and in other cosmetics and skincare products.

Effect of compound dietary fiber of soybean hulls on the gel properties of myofibrillar protein and its mechanism in recombinant meat products

Response surface methodology was used to determine the optimum ratio of rice husk dietary fiber, soybean hull dietary fiber, and inulin as 1.40, 1.42, and 3.24%. The effects of compound and single dietary fiber on water holding capacity, gel strength, secondary structure, rheological properties, chemical action force, and microstructure of myofibrillar proteins (MP) gel were investigated. The application of composite dietary fiber significantly (P < 0.05) improved the gel strength, water holding capacity and storage modulus (G') of MP gel. Fourier transform infrared spectrum analysis shows that the addition of compound dietary fiber can make the gel structure more stable. The effect of dietary fiber complex on the chemical action of MP gel was further studied, and it was found that hydrophobic interaction and disulfide bond could promote the formation of compound gel. By comparing the microstructure of the MP gel with and without dietary fiber, the results showed that the MP gel with compound dietary fiber had smaller pores and stronger structure. Therefore, the rice hull dietary fiber, the soybean hull dietary fiber and the inulin are compounded and added into the low-fat recombinant meat product in a proper proportion, so that the quality characteristics and the nutritional value of the low-fat recombinant meat product can be effectively improved, the rice hull dietary fiber has the potential of being used as a fat substitute, and a theoretical basis is provided for the development of the functional meat product.

Recent advances in biological properties of brown algae-derived compounds for nutraceutical applications

The increasing demand for nutraceuticals in the circular economy era has driven the research toward studying bioactive compounds from renewable underexploited resources. In this regard, the exploration of brown algae has shown significant growth and maintains a great promise for the future. One possible explanation could be that brown algae are rich sources of nutritional compounds (polyunsaturated fatty acids, fiber, proteins, minerals, and vitamins) and unique metabolic compounds (phlorotannins, fucoxanthin, fucoidan) with promising biological activities that make them good candidates for nutraceutical applications with increased value-added. In this review, a deep description of bioactive compounds from brown algae is presented. In addition, recent advances in biological activities ascribed to these compounds through in vitro and in vivo assays are pointed out. Delivery strategies to overcome some drawbacks related to the direct application of algae-derived compounds (low solubility, thermal instability, bioavailability, unpleasant organoleptic properties) are also reviewed. Finally, current commercial and legal statuses of ingredients from brown algae are presented, considering future therapeutical and market perspectives as nutraceuticals.

Applications of algae to obtain healthier meat products: A critical review on nutrients, acceptability and quality

Meat constitutes one the main protein sources worldwide. However, ethical and health concerns have limited its consumption over the last years. To overcome this negative impact, new ingredients from natural sources are being applied to meat products to obtain healthier proteinaceous meat products. Algae is a good source of unsaturated fatty acids, proteins, essential amino acids, and vitamins, which can nutritionally enrich several foods. On this basis, algae have been applied to meat products as a functional ingredient to obtain healthier meat-based products. This paper mainly reviews the bioactive compounds in algae and their application in meat products. The bioactive ingredients present in algae can give meat products functional properties such as antioxidant, neuroprotective, antigenotoxic, resulting in healthier foods. At the same time, algae addition to foods can also contribute to delay microbial spoilage extending shelf-life. Additionally, other algae-based applications such as for packaging materials for meat products are being explored. However, consumers' acceptance for new products (particularly in Western countries), namely those containing algae, not only depends on their knowledge, but also on their eating habits. Therefore, it is necessary to further explore the nutritional properties of algae-containing meat products to overcome the gap between new meat products and traditional products, so that healthier algae-containing meat can occupy a significant place in the market.

The seaweed holobiont: from microecology to biotechnological applications

In the ocean, seaweed and microorganisms have coexisted since the earliest stages of evolution and formed an inextricable relationship. Recently, seaweed has attracted extensive attention worldwide for ecological and industrial purposes, but the function of its closely related microbes is often ignored. Microbes play an indispensable role in different stages of seaweed growth, development and maturity. A very diverse group of seaweed‐associated microbes have important functions and are dynamically reconstructed as the marine environment fluctuates, forming an inseparable ‘holobiont’ with their host. To further understand the function and significance of holobionts, this review first reports on recent advances in revealing seaweed‐associated microbe spatial and temporal distribution. Then, this review discusses the microbe and seaweed interactions and their ecological significance, and summarizes the current applications of the seaweed–microbe relationship in various environmental and biological technologies. Sustainable industries based on seaweed holobionts could become an integral part of the future bioeconomy because they can provide more resource‐efficient food, high‐value chemicals and medical materials. Moreover, holobionts may provide a new approach to marine environment restoration.

Supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE) as green extraction technology for high-value metabolites of algae, its potential trends in food and human health

Application of high-value algal metabolites (HVAMs) in cosmetics, additives, pigments, foods and medicines are very important. These HVAMs can be obtained from the cultivation of micro- and macro-algae. These metabolites can benefit human and animal health in a physiological and nutritional manner. However, because of conventional extraction methods and their energy and the use of pollutant solvents, the availability of HVAMs from algae remains insufficient. Receiving their sustainability and environmental benefits have recently made green extraction technologies for HVAM extractions more desirable. But very little information is available about the technology of green extraction of algae from these HVAM. This review, therefore, highlights the supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE) as principal green extraction technologyand theirideal parameters for extracting HVAMs. In first, general information is provided concerning the HVAMs and their components of macro and micro origin. The review also includes a description of SCFE technology's properties, instrumentation operation, solvents used, and the merits and demerits. Moreover, there are several HVAMs associated with their numerous high-level biological activities which include high-level antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antimicrobial activity and have potential health-beneficial effects in humans since they are all HVAMs, such as foods and nutraceuticals. Finally, it provides future insights, obstacles, and suggestions for selecting the right technologies for extraction.

Physicochemical, Sensory Properties and Lipid Oxidation of Chicken Sausages Supplemented with Three Types of Seaweed

The effect of the addition of three types of tropical edible seaweeds, Kappaphycus alvarezii (KA), Sargassum polycystum (SP), and Caulerpa lentilifira (CL), on sausages were studied. Nine sausage formulations with three levels of inclusion (2%, 4%, and 6%) of each seaweed were prepared, analysed, and compared with the control sample (without seaweed) in terms of their physicochemical properties, total phenolic content, and lipid oxidation. The modified sausages had low moisture and fat content (p < 0.05) but high ash and dietary fiber content (p < 0.05) compared to the control sausage. The addition of seaweed powder changed the texture of the sausages, mainly its hardness and chewiness (p < 0.05), but no significant difference in cohesiveness and springiness was found (p < 0.05). The modified sausages were shown to have high water holding capacities and cooking yields. The different types of seaweed modified the colour of the chicken sausages differently. In general, the L* (brightness) and b* (yellowness) values was low for all sausage samples containing seaweed powder (p < 0.05), while the a* (redness) value increased with the addition of the KA and SP seaweed powder but decreased for the sausage sample with added CL seaweed powder (p < 0.05). Moreover, the modified sausages have higher total phenolic contents and high antioxidant capacities, which contributed to slowing the oxidation of lipid in sausages during storage (p < 0.05). Sensory evaluation showed that the panellists found up to 4% of KA and 2% of SP to be acceptable. Overall, the seaweeds, especially KA and SP, could potentially be developed as excellent additives for the manufacture of highly technological high-quality meat products.

Do Consumers Want Seaweed in Their Food? A Study Evaluating Emotional Responses to Foods Containing Seaweed

Seaweeds are nutrient-dense marine organisms that have been proposed as a key ingredient to produce new functional foods. This study's first objective was to identify consumers' emotional responses and purchase intent towards a variety of food products containing seaweed. The secondary objective was to evaluate how hunger status and lifestyle affect consumers' emotional responses. Participants (n = 108) were asked to evaluate pictures of different food items containing seaweed (beef burger, cheddar cheese, fettuccine, fish filet, sausage, bread, yogurt, and dried seaweed) using the CATA variant of EsSense25 Profile® and a purchase-intent scale. The consumers also answered questions about their hunger status, food neophobia, food-related lifestyle, as well as open-ended comment questions about seaweed. Participants' purchase-intent scores were highest for bread and dried seaweed, which they associated with positive emotions. The participants disliked yogurt and sausage, indicating that they were disgusted with them. Participants believed seaweed could be added to fish, savoury, and cereal grains-based foods. The participants' hunger status as well as their food neophobia and lifestyle impacted their emotional responses. Future research should continue to investigate how emotions affect purchase intent, how participant's hunger status affects their emotions, and how participants' lifestyle changes how they perceive new food products.

Functional Meat Products as Oxidative Stress Modulators: A Review

High meat consumption has been associated with increased oxidative stress mainly due to the generation of oxidized compounds in the body, such as malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxy-nonenal, oxysterols, or protein carbonyls, which can induce oxidative damage. Meat products are excellent matrices for introducing different bioactive compounds, to obtain functional meat products aimed at minimizing the pro-oxidant effects associated with high meat consumption. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the concept and preparation of healthy and functional meat, which could benefit antioxidant status. Likewise, the key strategies regarding meat production and storage as well as ingredients used (e.g., minerals, polyphenols, fatty acids, walnuts) for developing these functional meats are detailed. Although most effort has been made to reduce the oxidation status of meat, newly emerging approaches also aim to improve the oxidation status of consumers of meat products. Thus, we will delve into the relation between functional meats and their health effects on consumers. In this review, animal trials and intervention studies are discussed, ascertaining the extent of functional meat products' properties (e.g., neutralizing reactive oxygen species formation and increasing the antioxidant response). The effects of functional meat products in the frame of diet-gene interactions are analyzed to 1) discover target subjects that would benefit from their consumption, and 2) understand the molecular mechanisms that ensure precision in the prevention and treatment of diseases, where high oxidative stress takes place. Long-term intervention-controlled studies, testing different types and amounts of functional meat, are also necessary to ascertain their positive impact on degenerative diseases.

Effect of Microalgae and Macroalgae Extracts on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

The present review aims to gather scientific evidence regarding the beneficial effects of microalgae and macroalgae extracts on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The described data show that both microalgae and macroalgae improved this alteration. The majority of the reported studies analysed the preventive effects because algae were administered to animals concurrent with the diet that induced NAFLD. The positive effects were demonstrated using a wide range of doses, from 7.5 to 300 mg/kg body weight/day or from 1 to 10% in the diet, and experimental periods ranged from 3 to 16 weeks. Two important limitations on the scientific knowledge available to date are that very few studies have researched the mechanisms of action underlying the preventive effects of microalgae on NAFLD and that, for the majority of the algae studied, a single paper has been reported. For these reasons, it is not possible to establish the best conditions in order to know the beneficial effects that these algae could bring. In this scenario, further studies are needed. Moreover, the beneficial effects of algae observed in rodent need to be confirmed in humans before we can start considering these products as new tools in the fight against fatty liver disease.

Antimicrobials from Seaweeds for Food Applications

The exponential growth of emerging multidrug-resistant microorganisms, including foodborne pathogens affecting the shelf-life and quality of foods, has recently increased the needs of the food industry to search for novel, natural and eco-friendly antimicrobial agents. Macroalgae are a bio-diverse group distributed worldwide, known to produce multiple compounds of diverse chemical nature, different to those produced by terrestrial plants. These novel compounds have shown promising health benefits when incorporated into foods, including antimicrobial properties. This review aims to provide an overview of the general methods and novel compounds with antimicrobial properties recently isolated and characterized from macroalgae, emphasizing the molecular pathways of their antimicrobial mechanisms of action. The current scientific evidence on the use of macroalgae or macroalgal extracts to increase the shelf-life of foods and prevent the development of foodborne pathogens in real food products and their influence on the sensory attributes of multiple foods (i.e., meat, dairy, beverages, fish and bakery products) will also be discussed, together with the main challenges and future trends of the use of marine natural products as antimicrobials.

Whole Alga, Algal Extracts, and Compounds as Ingredients of Functional Foods: Composition and Action Mechanism Relationships in the Prevention and Treatment of Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus

Type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major systemic disease which involves impaired pancreatic function and currently affects half a billion people worldwide. Diet is considered the cornerstone to reduce incidence and prevalence of this disease. Algae contains fiber, polyphenols, ω-3 PUFAs, and bioactive molecules with potential antidiabetic activity. This review delves into the applications of algae and their components in T2DM, as well as to ascertain the mechanism involved (e.g., glucose absorption, lipids metabolism, antioxidant properties, etc.). PubMed, and Google Scholar databases were used. Papers in which whole alga, algal extracts, or their isolated compounds were studied in in vitro conditions, T2DM experimental models, and humans were selected and discussed. This review also focuses on meat matrices or protein concentrate-based products in which different types of alga were included, aimed to modulate carbohydrate digestion and absorption, blood glucose, gastrointestinal neurohormones secretion, glycosylation products, and insulin resistance. As microbiota dysbiosis in T2DM and metabolic alterations in different organs are related, the review also delves on the effects of several bioactive algal compounds on the colon/microbiota-liver-pancreas-brain axis. As the responses to therapeutic diets vary dramatically among individuals due to genetic components, it seems a priority to identify major gene polymorphisms affecting potential positive effects of algal compounds on T2DM treatment.

Functional foods and bioactive ingredients harnessed from the ocean: current status and future perspectives

With an increase in life expectancy and decrease of quality-of-life couple with the high prevalence of diseases, diet is expected to play a key function in sustaining human health. Nutritionists, food technologists and medical experts are working in synergy to cater for the increasing demand of food with associated therapeutic benefits, commonly known as functional food, that may improve well-being and reduce the risk of diseases. Interestingly, the marine ecosystem, due to its abundant and phenomenal biodiversity of marine organisms, constitutes a vital source of a panoply of healthy foods supply for the thriving functional food industry. Marine organisms such as seaweeds, sea cucumbers, sponges, and mollusks amongst others are sources of thousands of biologically active metabolites with antioxidant, anti-parasitic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. Given the growing number of research and interest to probe into the therapeutic roles of marine products, this review was designed to provide a comprehensive summary of the therapeutic properties of marine organisms (macroalgae, sea cucumbers and fish among others) which are consumed worldwide, in addition to their potentials and as sources of functional ingredients for developing novel food and fostering wellness. The gap between research development and actual commercialization, and future prospects of marine-based products also summarized to some extent.

Consumer acceptability and chemical composition of whole-wheat breads incorporated with brown seaweed (Ascophyllum nodosum) or red seaweed (Chondrus crispus)

BACKGROUND

Seaweeds have been eaten in the diets of coastal cultures for centuries; however, consumption of seaweeds has been limited in Western diets owing to undesirable sensory characteristics and lack of familiarity. Apart from healthful bioactive metabolites, seaweeds are good sources of fibre and minerals. They are nearly a complete protein and have a low fat content (mainly mono- or polyunsaturated). The objectives were (i) to investigate if the addition of brown seaweed, Ascophyllum nodosum, or red seaweed, Chondrus crispus, altered the chemical composition and sensory properties of whole-wheat bread; and (ii) to determine what percentage the addition of brown or red seaweed to whole-wheat bread is acceptable to consumers. The two seaweeds were incorporated into separate batches of whole-wheat bread by percentage weight flour at 0% (control), 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%.

RESULTS

The products containing the highest amounts of A. nodosum and C. crispus had the highest ash and total dietary fibre. A. nodosum and C. crispus breads were acceptable at 4% and 2% levels respectively. The attributes of no aftertaste, soft, and chewy drove consumer liking of the whole-wheat bread, whereas attributes dry, dense, strong aftertaste, and saltiness detracted from liking.

CONCLUSION

This project's significance is to demonstrate the acceptability of seaweed in a Western population, which may lay the groundwork to encourage and promote the consumption of seaweed or to exemplify seaweed incorporation into foodstuffs. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Strategies to Improve Meat Products' Quality

Meat products represent an important component of the human diet, their consumption registering a global increase over the last few years. These foodstuffs constitute a good source of energy and some nutrients, such as essential amino acids, high biological value proteins, minerals like iron, zinc, selenium, manganese and B-complex vitamins, especially vitamin B12. On the other hand, nutritionists have associated high consumption of processed meat with an increased risk of several diseases. Researchers and processed meat producers are involved in finding methods to eliminate nutritional deficiencies and potentially toxic compounds, to obtain healthier products and at the same time with no affecting the sensorial quality and safety of the meat products. The present review aims to summarize the newest trends regarding the most important methods that can be applied to obtain high-quality products. Nutritional enrichment with natural bioactive plant compounds (antioxidants, dietary fibers) or probiotics, reduction of harmful components (salt, nitrate/nitrite, N-nitrosamines) and the use of alternative technologies (high-pressure processing, cold plasma, ultrasounds) are the most used current strategies to accomplish this aim.

Macroalgae-A Sustainable Source of Chemical Compounds with Biological Activities

Nowadays, one of the most important research directions that concerns the scientific world is to exploit the earth's resources in a sustainable way. Considering the increasing interest in finding new sources of bioactive molecules and functional products, many research studies focused their interest on demonstrating the sustainability of exploiting marine macroalgal biomass as feedstock for wastewater treatment and natural fertilizer, conversion into green biofuels, active ingredients in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical products, or even for the production of functional ingredients and integration in the human food chain. The objective of the present paper was to provide an overview on the recent progress in the exploitation of different macroalgae species as a source of bioactive compounds, mainly emphasizing the latter published data regarding their potential bioactivities, health benefits, and industrial applications.

Formulating Reduced-fat Sausages with Quinoa or Teff Flours: Effects on Emulsion Characteristics and Product Quality

This study dealt with the use of quinoa flour (QF) or teff flour (TF) as partial beef fat replacers in the formulation of emulsion-type sausages. A control (C) group was manufactured with 20% beef fat, while the other three groups were formulated with 10% beef fat plus 5% QF (Q), 5% TF (T), and 2.5% QF+2.5% TF (QT). Water-holding capacity of the emulsions was higher in Q (81.81%), T (82.20%), and QT (84.10%) samples than in C (64.83%) samples. Total expressible fluid and expressible fat were the lowest in Q and T samples, indicating the highest emulsion stability of those groups. Incorporation of QF and TF into formulations increased moisture and carbohydrate contents while decreased fat and energy values. Besides, the use of QF was effective to increase protein and dietary fiber contents. T sausages had lower luminosity (L*) and higher yellowness (b*) than C sausages, whilst Q sausages did not result in significant color changes. Higher cook yield values were recorded in Q (97.96%), T (98.21%), and QT (98.15%) samples compared with C (96.44%) samples. Inclusion of QF and TF to formulation led to lower hardness and gumminess, while utilization of TF was also effective to decrease chewiness. Consequently, healthier emulsified sausages were obtained by the inclusion of QF or TF that could decrease the fat content more than 50% without sacrificing overall quality, bringing advantages by quinoa over teff for increasing nutritional value and leading minimal modifications on color and texture.

Can Meat and Meat-Products Induce Oxidative Stress?

High meat and meat-products consumption has been related to degenerative diseases. In addition to their saturated fatty acids and cholesterol contents, oxidation products generated during their production, storage, digestion, and metabolization have been largely implicated. This review begins by summarizing the concept of meat and meat-products by the main international regulatory agencies while highlighting the nutritional importance of their consumption. The review also dials in the controversy of white/red meat classification and insists in the need of more accurate classification based on adequate scores. Since one of the negative arguments that meat receives comes from the association of its consumption with the increase in oxidative stress, main oxidation compounds (malondialdehyde, thermaloxidized compounds, 4-hydroxy-nonenal, oxysterols, or protein carbonyls) generated during its production, storage, and metabolization, are included as a central aspect of the work. The review includes future remarks addressed to study the effects meat consumption in the frame of diet-gene interactions, stressing the importance of knowing the genetic variables that make individuals more susceptible to a possible oxidative stress imbalance or antioxidant protection. The importance of consumed meat/meat-products in the frame of a personalized nutrition reach in plant-food is finally highlighted considering the importance of iron and plant biophenols on the microbiota abundance and plurality, which in turn affect several aspects of our physiology and metabolism.

Bioactive Polysaccharides from Seaweeds

Bioactive compounds with diverse chemical structures play a significant role in disease prevention and maintenance of physiological functions. Due to the increase in industrial demand for new biosourced molecules, several types of biomasses are being exploited for the identification of bioactive metabolites and techno-functional biomolecules that are suitable for the subsequent uses in cosmetic, food and pharmaceutical fields. Among the various biomasses available, macroalgae are gaining popularity because of their potential nutraceutical and health benefits. Such health effects are delivered by specific diterpenes, pigments (fucoxanthin, phycocyanin, and carotenoids), bioactive peptides and polysaccharides. Abundant and recent studies have identified valuable biological activities of native algae polysaccharides, but also of their derivatives, including oligosaccharides and (bio)chemically modified polysaccharides. However, only a few of them can be industrially developed and open up new markets of active molecules, extracts or ingredients. In this respect, the health and nutraceutical claims associated with marine algal bioactive polysaccharides are summarized and comprehensively discussed in this review.

Reduction of Salt and Fat in Frankfurter Sausages by Addition of Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus Flour

The reduction of fat and salt and the incorporation of fiber-rich compounds in frankfurters is a trend to improve their nutritional profile. The objective of this study was to evaluate the partial replacement of 30 and 50% of pork backfat and 50% of salt by adding edible mushroom flour (2.5 and 5%) from Agaricus bisporus (Ab) and Pleurotus ostreatus (Po) on physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties of frankfurters sausages during cold storage. The addition of flours increased the moisture, and the dietary fiber contents in frankfurters, keeping the amino acid profile. Lipid oxidation remained under acceptable values despite not antioxidant effect was observed by mushrooms flours. Only spore-forming bacteria were found during cold storage. Color and texture was modified by addition of mushroom, being the Ab samples darker, while Po flour addition resulted in softer and less cohesive sausages. Although lower color, flavor, and taste scores were given to the mushroom samples than the control, they ranked in the acceptable level confirming that the inclusion of 2.5 and 5% of Ab and Po flours in fat- and salt-reduced frankfurter sausages resulted a feasible strategy to enhance the nutritional profile these products.

Effects of Palmaria palmata on lipid metabolism and glycemic control in participants with hypercholesterolemia in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Red algae have been reported to improve lipid and glucose metabolism in rats. We investigated the effects of Palmaria palmata (P. palmata), a red alga from northern Japan, on lipid metabolism and glycemic control in participants with hypercholesterolemia.

METHODS

We conducted an 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, and parallel-group comparison trial. The study enrolled Japanese participants with a serum low-density protein cholesterol (LDL-C) ≥120 mg/dL. The participants were randomly assigned to take either capsules containing P. palmata (2 g/day) or placebo capsules. The primary endpoint was the change in LDL-C from baseline to week 8 and the secondary endpoints were the changes in other lipid parameters and glycemic control.

RESULTS

Of the 104 participants completed the study protocol. There were no significant differences in change in LDL-C, body mass index, waist circumference, or glycemic control between the two groups. However, serum triglyceride showed significantly greater improvement in women in the P. palmata group (-9.0 [-25.0, +5.0]) vs. those in the placebo group (-1.0 [-11.0, +19.0]; p = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study did not show that P. palmata had significant effect on serum LDL-C nor glycemic control, but hypertriglyceridemia could be ameliorated by administration of P. palmata in women.

Development of New Canned Chub Mackerel Products Incorporating Edible Seaweeds-Influence on the Minerals and Trace Elements Composition

This study aimed to develop new canned chub mackerel products incorporating edible seaweeds (Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus spiralis, Saccorhiza polyschides, Chondrus crispus, Porphyra sp. and Ulva sp.) harvested in the Portuguese North-Central coast, with simultaneous sensory improvement and minerals enrichment. Two processes were compared, namely the addition of seaweeds in i) the canning step and ii) in the brining step (as the replacement for salt). The concentrations of four macrominerals (Na, K, Ca and Mg), chloride, and twelve trace elements (Co, Cu, Fe, I, Li, Mn, Mo, Rb, Se, Sr, V and Zn) were determined by high-resolution continuum source flame atomic absorption spectrometry (HR-CS-FAAS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. Results showed that canned chub mackerel incorporating C. crispus and F. spiralis was found to be the preferred sensory option, also exhibiting contents enriched with Cl, Co, Cu, Fe, I, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Rb, Se, and Sr. This effect was more pronounced when both seaweed species were added to replace the salt added in the brining step.

Dietary Supplementation with the Red Seaweed Porphyra umbilicalis Protects against DNA Damage and Pre-Malignant Dysplastic Skin Lesions in HPV-Transgenic Mice

Some diet profiles are associated with the risk of developing cancer; however, some nutrients show protective effects. Porphyra umbilicalis is widely consumed, having a balanced nutritional profile; however, its potential for cancer chemoprevention still needs comprehensive studies. In this study, we incorporated P. umbilicalis into the diet of mice transgenic for the human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16), which spontaneously develop pre-malignant and malignant lesions, and determined whether this seaweed was able to block lesion development. Forty-four 20-week-old HPV^+/− and HPV^−/− mice were fed either a base diet or a diet supplemented with 10% seaweed. At the end of the study, skin samples were examined to classify HPV16-induced lesions. The liver was also screened for potential toxic effects of the seaweed. Blood was used to study toxicological parameters and to perform comet and micronucleus genotoxicity tests. P. umbilicalis significantly reduced the incidence of pre-malignant dysplastic lesions, completely abrogating them in the chest skin. These results suggest that P. umbilicalis dietary supplementation has the potential to block the development of pre-malignant skin lesions and indicate its antigenotoxic activity against HPV-induced DNA damage. Further studies are needed to establish the seaweed as a functional food and clarify the mechanisms whereby this seaweed blocks multistep carcinogenesis induced by HPV.