Associations of maternal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, methyl mercury, and infant development in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study

Association between Prenatal Dietary Toxicants and Infant Neurodevelopment: The Role of Fish

More research is needed to understand how the maternal consumption of fish and fish-borne toxicants impacts infant neurodevelopment. The present analysis was conducted over 460 mother-infant pairs within the ECLIPSES study. Dietary intake of metals and persistent organic pollutants from fish (including white fish, blue fish, and seafood) was estimated in pregnant women. The infants underwent cognitive, language, and motor function assessments using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III at the 40-day postpartum. Associations between dietary toxicants and outcomes were assessed using multivariable linear regression models. Estimated prenatal exposure to fish-borne toxicants, such as arsenic, inorganic arsenic, methylmercury, dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs), and non-DL-PCBs, was associated with poorer language functions in infants, whereas no significant associations were found with motor or cognitive functions. Maternal fish consumption exceeding the Spanish recommendation of no more than 71 g per day was linked to these adverse effects on language abilities without affecting motor or cognitive development. This highlights the importance of vigilant monitoring of environmental toxicants and the provision of dietary guidance for pregnant women, with potential implications for public health and child development.

The Maternal Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Concentration in Early Pregnancy and Infant Neurodevelopment: The ECLIPSES Study

Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 LCPUFAs) play a key role in early neurodevelopment, but evidence from observational and clinical studies remains inconsistent. This study investigates the association between maternal n-3 LCPUFA, Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) concentrations during pregnancy and infant development functioning at 40 days. This study includes 348 mother-infant pairs. Maternal serum concentrations were assessed in the first and third trimesters alongside sociodemographic, clinical, nutritional, psychological, and obstetrical data. At 40 days, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (BSID-III) was administered. An adjusted analysis revealed that lower first-trimester n-3 LCPUFA and DHA concentrations are associated with better infant motor development. These results underscore the potential significance of the maternal n-3 LCPUFA status in early pregnancy for influencing fetal neurodevelopment. However, the complexity of these associations necessitates further investigation, emphasizing the urgent need for additional studies to comprehensively elucidate the nuanced interplay between the maternal n-3 LCPUFA status and infant neurodevelopment.

Relationship of mercury and selenium in ocean fish frequently consumed in the Seychelles: A comparison to levels in ocean fish consumed in the US

We characterized mercury and selenium in the fish consumed in the Seychelles Islands to determine if their levels are similar to fish consumed in the US. A secondary aim was to examine whether fish weight and species predict mercury and selenium in fish consumed in the Seychelles. We measured total mercury (THg) and selenium (Se) content of 10 samples from each of the 19 most frequently consumed fish species in Seychelles and for each calculated the Se:Hg molar ratios and the Selenium Health Benefit Value Index (HBV Se). Linear regression models examined associations with weight and species. Average MeHg levels in fish ranged from less than 0.01 ppm (streamlined spinefoot) to 0.7 ppm (bludger trevally) with an overall mean of 0.21 ± 0.23 ppm. Average Se levels ranged from 0.34 ppm (blue-barred parrot fish) to 0.93 ppm (blue-lined large-eye bream) with a mean of 0.54 ± 0.23 ppm. All fish species had a mean Se:Hg molar ratio > 1 and positive mean HBV Se index values. Weight was strongly predictive of MeHg and Se:Hg molar ratio, both across and within most species, but was less predictive of Se and HBV Se. Our study demonstrated that fish consumed in Seychelles have mercury and selenium content similar to that of fish consumed in the US. Fish in both countries have favorable positive values for Se:Hg molar ratios and HBV Se indexes. Because mercury and selenium concentrations in fish are similar to those in the US but fish consumption is substantially higher in Seychelles, the Seychellois make an ideal population in which to determine if there are adverse effects of prenatal, postnatal, and lifetime low dose MeHg exposure from fish consumption.

Maternal fish consumption and child neurodevelopment in Nutrition 1 Cohort: Seychelles Child Development Study

Maternal fish consumption exposes the fetus to beneficial nutrients and potentially adverse neurotoxicants. The current study investigated associations between maternal fish consumption and child neurodevelopmental outcomes. Maternal fish consumption was assessed in the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 1 (n 229) using 4-day food diaries. Neurodevelopment was evaluated at 9 and 30 months, and 5 and 9 years with test batteries assessing twenty-six endpoints and covering multiple neurodevelopmental domains. Analyses used multiple linear regression with adjustment for covariates known to influence child neurodevelopment. This cohort consumed an average of 8 fish meals/week and the total fish intake during pregnancy was 106·8 (sd 61·9) g/d. Among the twenty-six endpoints evaluated in the primary analysis there was one beneficial association. Children whose mothers consumed larger quantities of fish performed marginally better on the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (a test of nonverbal intelligence) at age 5 years (β 0·003, 95 % CI (0, 0·005)). A secondary analysis dividing fish consumption into tertiles found no significant associations when comparing the highest and lowest consumption groups. In this cohort, where fish consumption is substantially higher than current global recommendations, maternal fish consumption during pregnancy was not beneficially or adversely associated with children's neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intake during Complementary Feeding and Neurodevelopmental Outcome in Very Low Birth Weight Infants

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are vital for brain development, yet limited knowledge exists regarding PUFA intake during complementary feeding (CF) and its impact on neurodevelopmental outcomes in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. This secondary analysis of a randomized intervention trial, aimed to investigate the association between dietary intake of total PUFAs, arachidonic acid (AA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) during CF and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 12 and 24 months of corrected age (CA). Dietary intakes were assessed using monthly 3 day dietary protocols from 3 to 12 months CA. Neurodevelopmental outcome was evaluated using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III. Among the 177 randomized patients, PUFA intake and neurodevelopmental outcomes were evaluated in 140 (79%) infants. Higher total PUFA and DHA intakes significantly correlated with improved cognitive and motor function at 12 months CA, while increased AA intake notably enhanced motor scores at 12 months CA. However, median dietary intakes of AA and DHA (AA: 53.50-84.25 mg/d; DHA: 51.47-76.23 mg/d) fell short of recommended levels (AA: 140 mg/d; DHA: 100 mg/d) at any of the investigated timepoints. These findings emphasize the need to enhance total PUFA, DHA and AA intakes during CF, ensuring adherence to guidelines and unlocking the potential to improve neurodevelopmental outcomes in VLBW infants.

Our evolved understanding of the human health risks of mercury

Mercury (Hg) is a chemical of health concern worldwide that is now being acted upon through the Minamata Convention. Operationalizing the Convention and tracking its effectiveness requires empathy of the diversity and variation of mercury exposure and risk in populations worldwide. As part of the health plenary for the 15th International Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant (ICMGP), this review paper details how scientific understandings have evolved over time, from tragic poisoning events in the mid-twentieth century to important epidemiological studies in the late-twentieth century in the Seychelles and Faroe Islands, the Arctic and Amazon. Entering the twenty-first century, studies on diverse source-exposure scenarios (e.g., ASGM, amalgams, contaminated sites, cosmetics, electronic waste) from across global regions have expanded understandings and exemplified the need to consider socio-environmental variables and local contexts when conducting health studies. We conclude with perspectives on next steps for mercury health research in the post-Minamata Convention era.

The association of auditory function measures with low-level methylmercury from oceanic fish consumption and mercury vapor from amalgam: The Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition 1 Cohort

BACKGROUND

Some authors have reported that low-level exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) adversely impacts measures of auditory function. These reports, however, are not consistent in their findings. Consequently, we examined auditory function in a population exposed to low-level methylmercury (MeHg) exposure from fish consumption and to mercury vapor (Hg0) from dental amalgams. We analyzed their associations with the participants hearing acuity, absolute and interwave ABR latencies, and otoacoustic emissions (distortion product/DPOAE and click evoked/CEOAE).

DESIGN

We administered an audiometry test battery to 246 participants from the Seychelles Child Development Study (SCDS) Nutrition Cohort 1 (NC1) at 9 years of age. The test battery included standard pure-tone audiometry, tympanometry, Auditory Brainstem Responses (ABR) and Distortion Product and Click Evoked Otoacoustic Emissions (DPOAE and CEOAE) testing. We measured prenatal MeHg exposure in maternal hair and postnatal MeHg in children's hair. We approximated prenatal Hg0 exposure using maternal amalgam surface area and postnatal Hg0 using children amalgam surface area. Complete exposure records and audiometric data were available on 210 participants and in them we analyzed the association of MeHg and Hg0 exposures with auditory outcomes using covariate-adjusted linear regression models adjusted for sex and tympanometric pressure.

RESULTS

Hg exposures were similar for both sexes. Seven of the 210 evaluable participants examined had either a mild (5) or moderate (2) hearing loss. Four had a mild monaural hearing loss and 3 had either a mild (1) or moderate (2) bilateral hearing loss. No participant had greater than a moderate hearing loss in either ear. Hg exposures were higher in participants with either a mild or moderate hearing loss, but these differences were not statistically significant. Among the 210 with complete data, neither prenatal nor postnatal MeHg nor Hg0 exposure was statistically significantly associated with any of the ABR endpoints (p > 0.05 for all 72 associations). Neither prenatal nor postnatal Hg0 exposure was associated with any of the OAE endpoints (p > 0.05). MeHg exposure was statistically associated with 6 of the 56 DPOAE endpoints (p-values between 0.0001 and 0.023), but none of the 40 CEOAE endpoints. Two of the associations occurred with prenatal MeHg exposures and 1 of those would suggest a beneficial effect. Four of the other associations occurred with postnatal MeHg exposures with only 2 found in left ears of both males and females and the other 2 in the left and right ear of females at only one frequency.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these data do not present a clear and consistent pattern to suggest that the auditory system is negatively affected by low-level methylmercury exposure due to dietary consumption of oceanic fish or mercury vapor exposure from dental amalgams.

Associations of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids with bone mineral density and bone turnover in postmenopausal women

PURPOSE

The immunomodulatory properties of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) are reported to reduce bone loss through alteration of bone remodelling and n-3 LCPUFA, therefore, may benefit bone health in post-menopausal women, a vulnerable group at high risk of osteoporosis.

METHODS

Measures of bone mineral density (BMD) were determined using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) in 300 post-menopausal women. The bone turnover markers osteocalcin (OC), C-terminal telopeptides of type 1 collagen (CTX) and total alkaline phosphatase were quantified in serum along with urinary creatinine corrected deoxypyridinoline (DPD/Cr) and CTX/Cr and the CTX:OC ratio calculated. Total serum n-6 PUFA (LA + AA) and n - 3 LCPUFA (ALA + EPA + DPA + DHA) were measured and the n - 6:n - 3 ratio was calculated.

RESULTS

Mean (SD) age and body mass index (BMI) were 61 (6.4) years and 27.4 (4.8) kg/m², respectively with participants being 12.6 (7.6) years post-menopause. Multiple regression analysis identified no association between n-3 LCPUFA and any of the measures of T-score or BMD albeit a significant positive association between total n - 3 LCPUFA and femur BMD (β = 0.287; p = 0.043) was observed within those women with a low n - 6:n - 3 ratio. There was a significant inverse association between ALA and urinary DPD/Cr (β = - 0.141; p = 0.016).

CONCLUSION

A favourable low n - 6:n - 3 ratio was associated with higher femur BMD and a higher n - 3 LCPUFA (ALA) was associated with lower bone resorption. These results support a beneficial role for n - 3 LCPUFA in reducing postmenopausal bone resorption and favourably influencing BMD.

TRIAL NUMBER & DATE OF REGISTRATION

ISRCTN63118444, 2nd October 2009, "Retrospectively registered".

Prenatal Mercury Exposure and Infant Weight Trajectories in a UK Observational Birth Cohort

Mercury is highly toxic metal found in trace quantities in common foods. There is concern that exposure during pregnancy could impair infant development. Epidemiological evidence is mixed, but few studies have examined postnatal growth. Differences in nutrition, exposures, and the living environment after birth may make it easier to detect a negative impact from mercury toxicity on infant growth. This study includes 544 mother-child pairs from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Blood mercury was measured in early pregnancy and infant weight at 10 intervals between 4 and 61 months. Mixed-effect models were used to estimate the change in infant weight associated with prenatal mercury exposure. The estimated difference in monthly weight gain was -0.02 kg per 1 standard deviation increase in Hg (95% confidence intervals: -0.10 to 0.06 kg). When restricted to the 10th decile of Hg, the association with weight at each age level was consistently negative but with wide confidence intervals. The lack of evidence for an association may indicate that at Hg levels in this cohort (median 1.9 µg/L) there is minimal biological impact, and the effect is too small to be either clinically relevant or detectable.

Impact of prenatal exposure to mercury and selenium on neurodevelopmental delay in children in the Japan environment and Children's study using the ASQ-3 questionnaire: A prospective birth cohort

Neurodevelopmental delay is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Prenatal metal exposure can potentially cause neurodevelopmental delays in children. This study examines whether prenatal exposure to mercury (Hg) and selenium (Se) is associated with the risk of neurodevelopmental delays in children up to 4 years of age. Children enrolled in a prospective birth cohort of the Japan Environment and Children's Study were examined. Hg and Se levels in maternal (nchild = 48,731) and cord (nchild = 3,083) blood were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Neurodevelopmental delays were assessed in children between the ages of 0.5 to 4 years using the Ages and Stages Questionnaires, Third Edition. The association between exposure and outcomes was examined using the generalized estimation equation models. In maternal blood, compared to participants with Se levels in the first quartile (83.0 to < 156 ng/g), the odds ratio (95 % confidence intervals) for problem-solving ability in children of mothers in the third (168 to < 181 ng/g) and fourth quartiles (181 to 976 ng/g) were 1.08 (1.01 to 1.14) and 1.10 (1.04 to 1.17), respectively. Furthermore, communication, gross and fine motor skills, and problem-solving delays were also observed. However, prenatal Hg levels in maternal and cord blood and Se levels in the latter were not associated with neurodevelopmental delays in children. Thus, the findings of this study suggest an association between Se levels in maternal blood and slightly increased risks of neurodevelopmental delays in children up to the age of 4 years.

Impact of chronic exposure to legacy environmental contaminants on the corpus callosum microstructure: A diffusion MRI study of Inuit adolescents

Exposure to environmental contaminants is an important public health concern for the Inuit population of northern Québec, who have been exposed to mercury (Hg), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and lead (Pb). During the last 25 years, the Nunavik Child Development Study (NCDS) birth cohort has reported adverse associations between these exposures and brain function outcomes. In the current study, we aimed to determine whether contaminant exposure is associated with alterations of the corpus callosum (CC), which plays an important role in various cognitive, motor and sensory function processes. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was administered to 89 NCDS participants (mean age ± SD = 18.4 ± 1.2). Diffusion-weighted imaging was assessed to characterize the microstructure of the CC white matter in 7 structurally and functionally distinct regions of interest (ROIs) using a tractography-based segmentation approach. The following metrics were computed: fiber tract density, fractional anisotropy (FA), axial diffusivity (AD) and radial diffusivity (RD). Multiple linear regression models adjusted for sex, age, current alcohol/drug use and fish nutrients (omega-3 fatty acids and selenium) were conducted to assess the association between diffusion-weighted imaging metrics and Hg, PCB 153 and Pb concentrations obtained at birth in the cord blood and postnatally (mean values from blood samples at 11 and 18 years of age). Exposures were not associated with fiber tract density. Nor were significant associations found with cord and postnatal blood Pb concentrations for FA. However, pre- and postnatal Hg and PCB concentrations were significantly associated with higher FA of several regions of the CC, namely anterior midbody, posterior midbody, isthmus, and splenium, with the most pronounced effects observed in the splenium. FA results were mainly associated with lower RD. This study shows that exposure to Hg and PCB 153 alters the posterior microstructure of the CC, providing neuroimaging evidence of how developmental exposure to environmental chemicals can impair brain function and behavior in late adolescence.

Contribution of child ABC-transporter genetics to prenatal MeHg exposure and neurodevelopment

BACKGROUND

There is emerging evidence that exposure to prenatal methylmercury (MeHg) from maternal fish consumption during pregnancy can differ between individuals due to genetic variation. In previous studies, we have reported that maternal polymorphisms in ABC-transporter genes were associated with maternal hair MeHg concentrations, and with children's early neurodevelopmental tests. In this study, we add to these findings by evaluating the contribution of genetic variation in children's ABC-transporter genes to prenatal MeHg exposure and early child neurodevelopmental tests.

METHODS

We genotyped six polymorphisms (rs2032582, rs10276499 and rs1202169 in ABCB1; rs11075290 and rs215088 in ABCC1; rs717620 in ABCC2) in DNA from cord blood and maternal blood of the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2. We determined prenatal MeHg exposure by measuring total mercury (Hg) in cord blood by atomic fluorescence spectrometry. We assessed neurodevelopment in children at approximately 20 months using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II). We used linear regression models to analyze covariate-adjusted associations of child genotype with cord MeHg and BSID-II outcomes (Mental Developmental and Psychomotor Developmental Indexes). We also evaluated interactions between genotypes, cord MeHg, and neurodevelopmental outcomes. All models were run with and without adjustment for maternal genotype.

RESULTS

Of the six evaluated polymorphisms, only ABCC1 rs11075290 was associated with cord blood MeHg; children homozygous for the T-allele had on average 29.99 µg/L MeHg in cord blood while those homozygous for the C-allele had on average 38.06 µg/L MeHg in cord blood (p < 0.001). No polymorphisms in the children were associated with either subscale of the BSID. However, the association between cord MeHg and the Mental Developmental Index (MDI) of the BSID differed significantly across the three genotypes of ABCB1 rs10276499 (2df F-test, p = 0.045). With increasing cord MeHg, the MDI decreased (slope=-0.091, p = 0.014) among children homozygous for the rare C-allele.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support the possibility that child ABC genetics might influence prenatal MeHg exposure.

Adolescence as a sensitive period for neurotoxicity: Lifespan developmental effects of methylmercury

Neurotoxicity resulting from the environmental contaminant, methylmercury (MeHg), is a source of concern for many human populations that rely heavily on the consumption of fish and rice as stable ingredients in the diet. The developmental period of exposure is important both to the qualitative effects of MeHg and to the dose required to produce those effects. MeHg exposure during the sensitive prenatal period causes deleterious and long-lasting changes in neurodevelopment at particularly low doses. The effects include a wide host of cognitive and behavioral outcomes expressed in adulthood and sometimes not until aging. However, neurotoxic outcomes of methylmercury when exposure occurs during adolescence are only recently revealing impacts on human populations and animal models. This review examines the current body of work and showcases the sensitivity of adolescence, a period that straddles early development and adulthood, to methylmercury neurotoxicity and the implications such toxicity has in our understanding of methylmercury's effects in human populations and animal models.

Serum cytokines are associated with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and not with methylmercury measured in infant cord blood in the Seychelles child development study

BACKGROUND

Maternal fish consumption increases infant methylmercury (MeHg) exposure and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) concentrations. The n-3 PUFA are regulators of inflammation while MeHg may impact the cord cytokine profile and, subsequently, contribute to immune mediated outcomes. This study aimed to investigate associations between infant MeHg exposure and cord cytokine concentrations while adjusting for cord PUFA.

METHODS

We studied participants in the Seychelles Child Development Study (SCDS) Nutrition Cohort 2 (NC2), a large birth cohort in a high fish-eating population. Whole blood MeHg, serum PUFA and serum cytokine concentrations (IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-12p70, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, IL-6 and IL-8) were measured in cord blood collected at delivery (n = 878). Linear regression examined associations between infant MeHg exposure and cord cytokines concentrations, with and without adjustment for cord PUFA. An interaction model examined cord MeHg, cytokines and tertiles of the n-6:n-3 ratio (low/medium/high).

RESULTS

There was no overall association between cord MeHg (34.08 ± 19.98 μg/L) and cytokine concentrations, with or without adjustment for PUFA. Increased total n-3 PUFA (DHA, EPA and ALA) was significantly associated with lower IL-10 (β = -0.667; p = 0.007) and lower total Th2 (IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13) (β = -0.715; p = 0.036). In the interaction model, MeHg and IL-1β was positive and significantly different from zero in the lowest n-6:n-3 ratio tertile (β = 0.002, p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

Methylmercury exposure from fish consumption does not appear to impact markers of inflammation in cord blood. The association of cord n-3 PUFA with lower IL-10 and total Th2 cytokines suggests that they may have a beneficial influence on the regulation of the inflammatory milieu. These findings are important for public health advice and deserve to be investigated in follow up studies.

Associations between developmental exposure to environmental contaminants and spatial navigation in late adolescence

Inuit communities in Northern Quebec (Canada) are exposed to environmental contaminants, particularly to mercury, lead and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Previous studies reported adverse associations between these neurotoxicants and memory performance. Here we aimed to determine the associations of pre- and postnatal exposures to mercury, lead and PCB-153 on spatial navigation memory in 212 Inuit adolescents (mean age = 18.5 years) using a computer task which requires learning the location of a hidden platform based on allocentric spatial representation. Contaminant concentrations were measured in cord blood at birth and blood samples at 11 years of age and at time of testing. Multivariate regression models showed that adolescent mercury and prenatal PCB-153 exposures were associated with poorer spatial learning, whereas current exposure to PCB-153 was associated with altered spatial memory retrieval at the probe test trial. These findings suggest that contaminants might be linked to different aspects of spatial navigation processing at different stages.

Effects of Low-dose Mercury Exposure in Newborns on mRNA Expression Profiles

This study was designed to investigate the molecular mechanism of mercury (Hg) toxicity in the newborns by mRNA sequencing (mRNA-seq). A questionnaire survey, routine blood parameters of pregnant women, and umbilical cord blood (UCB) of newborns were collected. The median (25th percentile, 75th percentile) of total Hg (THg) concentrations in UCB of newborns was 3.63 (2.50, 6.19) µg/L. A total of 504 differentially expressed genes of mRNA were revealed between the case and control group, including 456 upregulated and 48 downregulated genes. The Gene Ontology (GO) analysis showed that differentially expressed genes were primarily involved in mitophagy, hemoglobin complex, and oxygen carrier activity. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis demonstrated that the most differentially expressed genes were annotated in Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. The qRT-PCR was used to validate the results of mRNA-seq. Low-dose Hg exposure could increase blood NE# and WBC in the pregnant women. This study provides scientific evidences on mechanism of Hg toxicity in newborns.

Role of Maternal Microbiota and Nutrition in Early-Life Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The rise in the prevalence of obesity and other related metabolic diseases has been paralleled by an increase in the frequency of neurodevelopmental problems, which has raised the likelihood of a link between these two phenomena. In this scenario, maternal microbiota is a possible linking mechanistic pathway. According to the “Developmental Origins of Health and Disease” paradigm, environmental exposures (in utero and early life) can permanently alter the body’s structure, physiology, and metabolism, increasing illness risk and/or speeding up disease progression in offspring, adults, and even generations. Nutritional exposure during early developmental stages may induce susceptibility to the later development of human diseases via interactions in the microbiome, including alterations in brain function and behavior of offspring, as explained by the gut–brain axis theory. This review provides an overview of the implications of maternal nutrition on neurodevelopmental disorders and the establishment and maturation of gut microbiota in the offspring.

Variation in Methylmercury Metabolism and Elimination in Humans: Physiological Pharmacokinetic Modeling Highlights the Role of Gut Biotransformation, Skeletal Muscle, and Hair

The biological half-life (t1/2) of methylmercury (MeHg) shows considerable individual variability (t1/2 < 30 to > 120 days), highlighting the importance of mechanisms controlling MeHg metabolism and elimination. Building on a prior physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, we elucidate parameters that have the greatest influence on variability of MeHg t1/2 in the human body. Employing a dataset of parameters for mean organ volumes and blood flow rates appropriate for man and woman (25-35 years) and child (4 - 6 years), we demonstrate model fitness by simulating data from our prior controlled study of MeHg elimination in people. Model predictions give MeHg t1/2 of 46.9, 38.9, and 31.5 days and steady-state blood MeHg of 2.6, 2.6, and 2.3 µg/l in man, woman, and child, respectively, subsequent to a weekly dose of 0.7 µg/kg body weight. The major routes of elimination are biotransformation to inorganic Hg in the gut lumen (73% in adults, 61% in child) and loss of MeHg via excretion within growing hair (13% in adults, 24% in child). Local and global sensitivity analyses of model parameters reveal that variation in biotransformation rate in the gut lumen, and rates of transport between gut lumen and gut tissue, have the greatest influence on MeHg t1/2. Volume and partition coefficients for skeletal muscle (SM) and gut tissue also show significant sensitivity affecting model output of MeHg t1/2. Our results emphasize the role of gut microbiota in MeHg biotransformation, transport kinetics at the level of the gut, and SM mass as moderators of MeHg kinetics in the human body.

Associations of prenatal methylmercury exposure and maternal polyunsaturated fatty acid status with neurodevelopmental outcomes at 7 years of age: results from the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2

BACKGROUND

Fish is a primary source of protein and n-3 PUFA but also contains methylmercury (MeHg), a naturally occurring neurotoxicant to which, at sufficient exposure levels, the developing fetal brain is particularly sensitive.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the association between prenatal MeHg and maternal status of n-3 and n-6 PUFA with neurodevelopment, and to determine whether PUFA might modify prenatal MeHg associations with neurodevelopment.

METHODS

We examined the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2 (NC2) at age 7 y. We used a sophisticated and extensive neurodevelopmental test battery that addressed 17 specific outcomes in multiple neurodevelopmental domains: cognition, executive and psychomotor function, language development, behavior, scholastic achievement, and social communication. Analyses were undertaken on 1237 mother-child pairs with complete covariate data (after exclusions) and a measure of at least 1 outcome. We examined the main and interactive associations of prenatal MeHg exposure (measured as maternal hair mercury) and prenatal PUFA status (measured in maternal serum at 28 weeks' gestation) on child neurodevelopmental outcomes using linear regression models. We applied the Bonferroni correction to account for multiple comparisons and considered P values <0.0029 to be statistically significant.

RESULTS

Prenatal MeHg exposure and maternal DHA and arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) (AA) status were not significantly associated with any neurodevelopmental outcomes. Findings for 4 outcomes encompassing executive function, cognition, and linguistic skills suggested better performance with an increasing maternal n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio (P values ranging from 0.004 to 0.05), but none of these associations were significant after adjusting for multiple comparisons. No significant interaction between MeHg exposure and PUFA status was present.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings do not support an association between prenatal MeHg exposure or maternal DHA and AA status with neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 7 y. The roles of n-6 and n-3 PUFA in child neurodevelopment need further research.

The influence of fish consumption on serum n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) concentrations in women of childbearing age: a randomised controlled trial (the iFish Study)

PURPOSE

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) can be synthesised endogenously from linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) in a pathway involving the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) genes. Endogenous synthesis is inefficient; therefore, dietary intake of preformed LCPUFA from their richest source of fish is preferred. This study investigated the effect of fish consumption on PUFA concentrations in women of childbearing age while stratifying by FADS genotype. The influence of fish consumption on lipid profile, and markers of inflammation and oxidative stress was also examined.

METHODS

Healthy women (n = 49) provided a buccal swab which was analysed for FADS2 genotype (rs3834458; T/deletion). Participants were stratified according to genotype and randomised to an intervention group to receive either no fish (n = 18), 1 portion (n = 14) or 2 portions (n = 17) (140 g per portion) of fish per week for a period of 8 weeks. Serum PUFA was analysed at baseline and post-intervention. Lipid profile, and markers of inflammation and oxidative stress were also analysed.

RESULTS

Participants consuming 2 portions of fish per week had significantly higher concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and total n-3 PUFA, and a lower n-6:n-3 ratio compared to those in the no fish or 1 portion per week group (all p < 0.05). Fish consumption did not have a significant effect on biomarkers of oxidative stress, inflammation and lipid profile in the current study.

CONCLUSION

Consumption of 2 portions of fish per week has beneficial effects on biological n-3 PUFA concentrations in women of childbearing age; however, no effects on oxidative stress, inflammation or lipid profile were observed. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03765580), registered December 2018.

Benefit-risk associated with the consumption of fish bycatch from tropical tuna fisheries

Mercury, omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) and macronutrients (fat and proteins) were quantified on a wet weight (ww) basis in 20 species of fish taken as bycatch in tropical tuna fisheries. Based on a hazard quotient taking into account mercury and omega-3 contents, a benefit-risk assessment for the consumption of these pelagic species was conducted for three people categories: young children, children and adults. All fish bycatch were found to be an excellent source of proteins (min‒max = 14.4-25.2 g/100 g fillet), had low omega-6/omega-3 ratios (<1, except for silky shark), and had mercury content below the safety limits defined by sanitary agencies. Silky shark and Istiophoridae had the highest mercury contents (min‒max = 0.029-0.317 ppm ww). Omega-3 contents were the lowest in silky shark (0.2 ± 0.2 mg/100 g fillet) and the highest in striped marlin (3.6 ± 3.2 g/100 g fillet). Billfishes (Istiophoridae, including striped marlin), minor tunas (Scombridae), and Carangidae had the highest omega-3 contents (min‒max = 0.68-7.28 g/100 g fillet). The highest hazard quotient values obtained for silky shark and great barracuda reflected a lower nutritional benefit (i.e., low omega-3 source) than risk (i.e., mercury exposure), making them not advisable for consumption. Eight species had low hazard quotients, and among them cottonmouth jack and flat needlefish were found of high health interest (high protein, moderate fat contents, and low omega-6/omega-3 ratio). A daily serving portion of 85-200 g (according to people category) can be recommended for these species. Batfish, and to a lower extent pompano dolphinfish and brassy chub, can also be consumed safely and would provide greater health benefits than risks. These results advocate for a better access of these species to local populations.

Endocannabinoids, endocannabinoid-like molecules and their precursors in human small intestinal lumen and plasma: does diet affect them?

PURPOSE

To determine the small intestinal concentration of endocannabinoids (ECs), N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and their precursors N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs) in humans. To identify relationships between those concentrations and habitual diet composition as well as individual inflammatory status.

METHODS

An observational study was performed involving 35 participants with an ileostomy (18W/17M, aged 18-70 years, BMI 17-40 kg/m²). Overnight fasting samples of ileal fluid and plasma were collected and ECs, NAEs and NAPEs concentrations were determined by LC-HRMS. Dietary data were estimated from self-reported 4-day food diaries.

RESULTS

Regarding ECs, N-arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA) was not detected in ileal fluids while 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) was identified in samples from two participants with a maximum concentration of 129.3 µg/mL. In contrast, mean plasma concentration of AEA was 2.1 ± 0.06 ng/mL and 2-AG was 4.9 ± 1.05 ng/mL. NAEs concentrations were in the range 0.72-17.6 µg/mL in ileal fluids and 0.014-0.039 µg/mL in plasma. NAPEs concentrations were in the range 0.3-71.5 µg/mL in ileal fluids and 0.19-1.24 µg/mL in plasma being more abundant in participants with obesity than normal weight and overweight. Significant correlations between the concentrations of AEA, OEA and LEA in biological fluids with habitual energy or fat intakes were identified. Plasma PEA positively correlated with serum C-reactive protein.

CONCLUSION

We quantified ECs, NAEs and NAPEs in the intestinal lumen. Fat and energy intake may influence plasma and intestinal concentrations of these compounds. The luminal concentrations reported would allow modulation of the homeostatic control of food intake via activation of GPR119 receptors located on the gastro-intestinal mucosa.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NUMBER AND WEBSITE

NCT04143139; www.clinicaltrials.gov .

Interactions between environmental pollutants and dietary nutrients: current evidence and implications in epidemiological research

Environmental pollutants and nutrients may be present in the same foodstuffs or dietary patterns; share internal mechanisms of transport, metabolism and cellular uptake; or target the same molecular signalling pathways and biological functions. Lipophilic pollutants and nutrients, like dioxins and polyunsaturated fatty acids, may often converge at all aforementioned levels and thus the interactions become more likely. Despite this fact, the topic seems overlooked in mainstream epidemiological research. In this essay, we illustrate different levels of documented interactions between pollutants and nutrients with experimental, interventional and epidemiological evidence, paying special attention to lipophilic chemicals. We first describe common pollutants and nutrients encountered in diets and the internal lipophilic interface such as adipose tissue and serum lipids. Next, we discuss the preventive effects of nutrients against absorption and the toxic effects of pollutants, as well as the pollutant-induced perturbation of nutrient metabolism. Finally, we discuss the implications of nutrient-pollutant interactions in epidemiology, providing some examples of negative confounding, modification effect and statistical interactions reported for different outcomes including fetal growth, diabetes and cancer. The evidence discussed in this essay supports that the health impacts of chemicals have likely been underestimated due to the high risk of residual and coexposure confounding in diseases where interactions between pollutants and nutrients may occur.

Impact of low-level mercury exposure on intelligence quotient in children via rice consumption

Wanshan is a city in southwest China that has several inactive mercury (Hg) mines. The local population are exposed to methylmercury (MeHg) due to the consumption of Hg contaminated rice. The relationship between Hg exposure and the cognitive functions of local children is unknown. This study investigated the relationship between hair Hg concentrations and the intelligence quotient (IQ) of 314 children aged 8-10 years, recruited from three local primary schools in Wanshan area in 2018 and 2019. IQ was evaluated using Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). The average THg concentration in children's hair samples was 1.53 μg g^-1 (range: 0.21-12.6 μg g^-1), and 65.6% exceeded the United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) recommended value of 1 μg g^-1. Results of logistic regression analysis showed that children with hair Hg ≥ 1 μg g^-1 were 1.58 times more likely to have an IQ score <80, which is the clinical cut-off for borderline intellectual disability (R² = 0.20, p = 0.03). Increasing of 1 μg g^-1 hair Hg resulted in 1 point of IQ loss in Wanshan children, which was.much higher than that via fish consumption. The economical cost due to Hg exposure was estimated to be $69.8 million (9.43% of total GDP) in the Wanshan area in 2018.

The role of mercury, selenium and the Se-Hg antagonism on cognitive neurodevelopment: A 40-month follow-up of the Italian mother-child PHIME cohort

Despite a 15-year long effort to define the "safety" of fish intake during pregnancy, there remains still uncertainty on this important public health issue. The evaluation of the toxic effects of contaminants, particularly mercury (Hg) in fish-eating populations is complicated by the fact that sea-food is also rich in beneficial nutrients, such as selenium (Se). There is toxicological plausibility of an antagonistic effects between Se and Hg, and some theoretical support for the inclusion of the Se-Hg interaction to better assess the risk linked with fish intake. To assess the effects of exposure to low-level Hg through fish consumption on the developing brain and the interaction between Hg and Se, we conducted an analysis at age 40 months in Italian children, enrolled in a prospective mother-child cohort, comparing additive and multiplicative models. Participant subjects were the 470 children born within the Northern Adriatic Cohort II (NAC-II) cohort who were tested by using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development third edition (Bayley-III) (BSID-III) at age 40. Family demographic and socioeconomic information, pregnancy and delivery history, parental and child medical history and food consumption were assessed through questionnaires. Maternal blood samples were collected during pregnancy, cord blood at birth and maternal milk 1 month after delivery. As other exposures of interest, we considered the level of Se in maternal and cord blood and in breast milk and the potential Se-Hg antagonism. Se and inverse of THg (1:THg) concentrations were categorized according to the tertiles of their distributions, in low, medium and high levels of exposure. The lower end of the composite cognitive score distribution closest to 20% was defined as suboptimal development. Multiple logistic regression were applied to assess the association between the dichotomized composite cognitive score and the categorized exposure to Se and 1:THg, and the antagonism between Se and 1:THg. In the recruiting period, 900 pregnant women were enrolled in the cohort; 767 of these remained in the study at delivery and 470 children at 40 months. After excluding preterm births, 456 children were used in the final analyses. The larger difference in risk for suboptimal neurodevelopment was observed for the category with High THg and Low Se with OR = 2.55 (90% CI 1.02; 6.41) under the multiplicative and OR = 1.33 (90% CI 0.80; 1.87) under the additive model. The category High THg and High Se showed a very slightly better fit of the additive model (OR = 1.07, 90% CI 0.65; 1.50) versus the multiplicative (OR = 1.66, 90% CI 0.73; 1.77). A negative - antagonistic - interaction term for this category was estimated under the multiplicative model giving an OR = 1.17 (90% CI 0.42; 3.28). Although this evidence of the effects of the Se-Hg antagonism on the children neuro-development needs to be confirmed, if Se can counterbalance Hg toxicity, the evaluation of the effect on human health of fish consumption, should also consider the diverse ratios between Se and Hg concentration in different fish species.

Effects of seafood consumption on mercury exposure in Norwegian pregnant women: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Seafood provides nutrients that are important for optimal development of the unborn child. However, seafood is also a source of contaminants including mercury (Hg) and methylmercury (MeHg) that may have adverse effects on neurodevelopment of the fetus. Humans are predominantly exposed to MeHg through seafood consumption, however, levels of MeHg vary considerably between species.

OBJECTIVES

Investigate, in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) during pregnancy, if an increased intake of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), a fish species with relatively low levels of MeHg contamination, influences total hair Hg (THHg) concentrations in humans.

METHODS

Pregnant women (n = 137) were enrolled in the RCT "Mommy's Food" (2016-2017), which was designed to increase iodine status. Participants were randomly assigned to intervention (400 g of cod fillets per week) or control (continued habitual diet) groups for 16 weeks (gestational week 20-36). THHg concentrations were measured at baseline and post-intervention using thermal decomposition, amalgamation, and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (US EPA method 7473). The trial is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02610959.

RESULTS

Post-intervention, the intervention group had median (inter-quartile range) THHg concentrations of 554 (392-805) µg/kg, and the control group 485 (341-740) µg/kg (p = 0.186). When adjusting for baseline THHg concentrations, there was a significant difference between the groups in those participants with baseline THHg concentrations below 534 µg/kg. Post-intervention, 8% of the study population exceeded the US EPA reference dose in hair (1,000 µg/kg) (intervention group: n = 6, control group: n = 4).

CONCLUSION

THHg concentrations were generally low in both study groups of pregnant women, despite the relatively high seafood intake. While the intervention with 400 g of cod per week slightly increased THHg concentrations, it did not lead to an increase in number of subjects exceeding the US EPA reference dose; a dose level at which no adverse effects are expected to occur over a period of lifetime exposure.

Maternal Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Status, Methylmercury Exposure, and Birth Outcomes in a High-Fish-Eating Mother-Child Cohort

BACKGROUND

Maternal status of long-chain PUFAs (LC-PUFAs) may be related to fetal growth. Maternal fish consumption exposes the mother to the neurotoxicant methylmercury (MeHg), which, in contrast, may restrict fetal growth.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to examine relations between maternal LC-PUFA status at 28 wk and birth outcomes (birth weight, length, and head circumference), controlling for MeHg exposure throughout pregnancy, in the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2. Our secondary aim was to examine the influence of maternal variation in genes regulating the desaturation of LC-PUFAs [fatty acid desaturase (FADS)] on birth outcomes.

METHODS

From nonfasting blood samples collected at 28 wk of gestation, we measured serum total LC-PUFA concentrations and FADS1 (rs174537, rs174561), FADS1-FADS2rs3834458, and FADS2rs174575 genotypes, with hair total mercury concentrations assessed at delivery. Data were available for n = 1236 mother-child pairs. Associations of maternal LC-PUFAs, MeHg, and FADS genotype with birth outcomes were assessed by multiple linear regression models, adjusting for child sex, gestational age, maternal age, BMI, alcohol use, socioeconomic status, and parity.

RESULTS

In our cohort of healthy mothers, neither maternal LC-PUFA status nor MeHg exposure were significant determinants of birth outcomes. However, when compared with major allele homozygotes, mothers who were heterozygous for the minor allele of FADS1 (rs174537 and rs174561, GT compared with TT, β = 0.205, P = 0.03; TC compared with CC, β = 0.203, P = 0.04) and FADS1-FADS2 (rs3834458, Tdel compared with DelDel, β = 0.197, P = 0.04) had infants with a greater head circumference (all P < 0.05). Homozygosity for the minor allele of FADS2 (rs174575) was associated with a greater birth weight (GG compared with CC, β = 0.109, P = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

In our mother-child cohort, neither maternal LC-PUFA status nor MeHg exposure was associated with birth outcomes. The observed associations of variation in maternal FADS genotype with birth outcomes should be confirmed in other populations.

Methylmercury and long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are associated with immune dysregulation in young adults from the Seychelles child development study

BACKGROUND

Exposure to the environmental toxicant mercury (Hg) has been associated with immune dysregulation, including autoimmune disease, but few human studies have examined methylmercury (MeHg) exposure from fish consumption.

OBJECTIVES

We examined associations between MeHg exposure and biological markers of autoimmunity and inflammation while adjusting for long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA).

METHOD

At age 19 years, hair total Hg (Y19Hg), LCPUFA status, a panel of 13 antinuclear antibodies (ANA), total serum immunoglobulins (Ig) IgG, IgA, and IgM and serum markers of inflammation (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, C-reactive protein (CRP), IFN-γ, TNF-α) were measured in the Seychelles Child Development Study (SCDS) Main Cohort (n = 497). Multivariable regression models investigated the association between Y19Hg and biomarkers, adjusting for prenatal total hair Hg (MatHg) and other relevant covariates, and with and without adjustment for LCPUFA.

RESULTS

With each 1 ppm increase in Y19Hg (mean 10.23 (SD 6.02) ppm) we observed a 4% increased odds in a positive Combined ANA following adjustment for the n6:n3 LCPUFA ratio (β = 0.036, 95%; CI: 0.001, 0.073). IgM was negatively associated with Y19Hg (β = -0.016, 95%CI: 0.016, -0.002) in models adjusted for n-3, n-6 LCPUFA and when separately adjusted for the n-6:n-3 LCPUFA ratio. No associations were observed with MatHg. Total n-3 LCPUFA status was associated with reduced odds of a positive anti-ribonuclear protein (RNP) A. The n-3 LCPUFA were negatively associated with IL-6, IL-10, CRP, IFN-γ, TNF-α and positively with TNF-α:IL-10. There were positive associations between the n-6:n-3 ratio and IL-6, IL-10, CRP, IFN-γ, TNF-α and a negative association with TNF-α:IL-10.

DISCUSSION

The Y19Hg exposure was associated with higher ANA and lower IgM albeit only following adjustment for the n-3 LCPUFA or the n-6:n-3 LCPUFA ratio. The clinical significance of these findings is unclear, but warrant follow up at an older age to determine any relationship to the onset of autoimmune disease.

Association of Audiometric Measures with plasma long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in a high-fish eating population: The Seychelles Child Development Study

OBJECTIVES

To determine if auditory function is associated with current long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) concentrations in a cohort of young adults who consume oceanic fish with naturally acquired methylmercury (MeHg). We measured participants plasma LCPUFA concentrations (total n-3, total n-6 and the n-6:n-3 ratio) and looked for an association with Auditory Brain Response (ABR) latencies and Otoacoustic Emissions (OAE) amplitudes.

DESIGN

Auditory function of 534 participants from the Seychelles Child Development Study (SCDS) main cohort was examined at 19 years of age. Tests included standard pure-tone audiometry, tympanometry, ABR and both Click-Evoked OAE (CEOAE) and Distortion-Product OAE (DPOAE). Associations of LCPUFA status, measured at the time of examination, and auditory outcomes were examined using covariate-adjusted linear regression models. All models were adjusted for sex, prenatal and current MeHg exposure and hearing status.

RESULTS

LCPUFA concentrations were similar for both sexes and when comparing participants with normal hearing (90.4 %) to those who had a sensorineural hearing loss in one or both ears (9.6 %). When looking at a subset of only hearing impaired participants, LCPUFA concentrations were similar in those participants who had a mild sensorineural hearing loss as compared with participants that had a moderate sensorineural hearing loss. LCPUFA concentrations were not correlated with current hair MeHg. LCPUFA concentrations were statistically significantly associated with only 6 of 174 ABR and OAE endpoints examined. Four of the 6 significant associations were present in only one sex. In female participants as n-6 concentrations increased, the ABR wave I absolute latency increased for a 60 dBnHL 19 click/sec stimulus. For male participants the interwave I-III latencies for a 60 dBnHL 69 clicks/sec stimulus increased as the n-6:n-3 LCPUFA ratio increased and the interwave I-V interval decreased for a 60 dBnHL 39 clicks/sec stimulus as the n-6 concentration increased. For both sexes interwave latencies were prolonged for the III-V interwave interval for an 80 dBnHL 39 clicks/sec as n-3 LCPUFA concentration increased. As the n-3 LCPUFA concentrations increased, the amplitude of the 6000 Hz DPOAE in the right ear increased for both sexes. As the n-6:n-3 ratio increased, the amplitude of the 1500 Hz DPOAE in the left ear decreased for females. The amplitude of the CEOAE was not associated with n-3, n-6 LCPUFA concentrations or the n-6:n-3 ratio.

CONCLUSION

There was no evidence to suggest LCPUFA status was associated with hearing acuity, ABR latencies or OAE amplitudes, even though our participants tended to have higher LCPUFA concentrations as compared to individuals consuming a more western diet. No association was observed between LCPUFA status and a participants hearing status (normal hearing or hearing loss). Although we found a few associations between current plasma LCPUFA status and ABR and OAE auditory endpoints examined, no clear pattern exists. Some of these associations would be considered detrimental resulting in prolonged ABR latencies or smaller OAE amplitudes, while others would be considered beneficial resulting in shortened ABR latencies or larger OAE amplitudes.

Modest improvement in CVD risk markers in older adults following quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) consumption: a randomized-controlled crossover study with a novel food product

PURPOSE

To investigate the effect of consuming quinoa biscuits on markers of CVD risk over 4 weeks in free-living older adults.

METHODS

A randomized-controlled, double-blind crossover trial was conducted in which consenting healthy adults aged 50-75 years (n = 40) consumed 15 g quinoa biscuits (60 g quinoa flour/100 g) or control iso-energetic biscuits (made using wheat flour) daily for 28 consecutive days (4 weeks), in addition to their normal diet. Following a 6-week washout, participants consumed the alternate biscuit for a final 4 weeks. Anthropometry and fasted blood samples were obtained before and after each intervention period.

RESULTS

At the beginning of the trial, mean ± SD total cholesterol concentrations were 6.02 ± 1.22 mmol/L (3.7-9.2 mmol/L); 33 participants (82.5%) had high cholesterol (> 5 mmol/L). No participants were lost to follow-up and there were no changes in habitual dietary intakes or levels of physical activity between each 4-week intervention period. Significantly greater decreases in total and LDL cholesterol concentrations (- 0.30 ± 0.58 and - 0.25 ± 0.38 mmol/L, respectively), TC: HDL ratio (- 0.11 ± 0.30), weight (- 0.61 ± 0.89 kg) and BMI (- 0.22 ± 0.34 kg/m²) were apparent following consumption of the quinoa versus control biscuits (all P < 0.05). Changes in triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, or PUFA or CRP concentrations were not significant between treatment groups.

CONCLUSION

Consumption of novel quinoa biscuits produced small, but favorable changes in body weight, BMI, and circulating cholesterol concentrations, all of which may contribute to lowered CVD risk in older adults.

Estimation of hazardous materials in water and their toxicity levels in Mahayel Aseer, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)

This work aims to evaluate the different water sources available in Mahayel Aseer, KSA, chemically, toxicology and microbiologically. Several water samples, such as tap water, differentially desalinated water and bottled water, were analysed. Moreover, different metal ions and anions, including sodium, potassium, calcium, lead, cadmium, manganese, bicarbonate, fluoride, chloride, sulphate, nitrate and nitrite, were evaluated and assessed for human health. Bacterial and fungal pollutions arising from various water sources were also investigated. This study was conducted on polymer bottles and the best storage conditions. In order to acquire purified water safe for human consumption, certain recommendations pertaining to the steps of water treatment can be recommended.

Elevated blood mercury level has a non-linear association with infertility in U.S. women: Data from the NHANES 2013-2016

Mercury is a ubiquitous toxic heavy metal associated with an increased risk of female infertility; however, the evidence supporting this is limited and controversial. We aimed to explore the relationship between the total blood mercury and infertility in 1796 selected participants from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) (2013-2016). We found no significant association between mercury and infertility based on a fully-adjusted model (OR 1.04; 95 % CI 0.91, 1.19), and the results remained robust in a series of sensitive analysis. However, a non-linear relationship was detected. By a two-piecewise linear regression model and recursive algorithm, we identified an inflection point of 5.278 μg/L, when blood mercury was >5.278 μg/L, a 1-unit increase in mercury (log2) was associated with 157 % greater adjusted odds of infertility (OR 2.57; 95 % CI 1.12, 5.87). Our findings provide new insights to advance the research of the link between mercury and infertility.

Joint and independent neurotoxic effects of early life exposures to a chemical mixture: A multi-pollutant approach combining ensemble learning and g-computation

BACKGROUND

Exposure to mercury (Hg) is associated with adverse developmental effects. However, Hg occurs with a multitude of chemicals. We assessed the associations of developmental exposure to multiple pollutants with children's neurodevelopment using a novel approach.

METHODS

Hg, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and perfluoroalkyl substances were measured in maternal and children's blood at 5-years (n=449 and 419). At 7-years, children were administered Boston Naming Test (BNT) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). We used the G-formula combined with SuperLearner to estimate independent and joint effects of chemicals at both ages. We constructed flexible exposure-response relationships and assessed interactions.

RESULTS

Most chemicals showed negative relationships with BNT scores. An inter-quartile range (IQR) increase in maternal Hg and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was associated with 0.15 standard deviation [SD] (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: -0.29,-0.03) and 0.14 SD (95%CI: -0.26,-0.05) lower scores in BNT, whereas a joint IQR increase in the mixture of chemicals was associated with 0.48 SD (95%CI: -0.69,-0.25) lower scores in BNT. An IQR increase in PFOA was associated with 0.11 SD (95%CI: 0.02,0.26) higher total SDQ difficulties scores. Maternal ∑PCBs concentrations were associated with lower SDQ scores (β=-0.09 SD; 95%CI: -0.19,0), whereas 5-years ∑PCBs showed a negative association (β=-0.09 SD; 95%CI: -0.21,0). Finally, a joint IQR increase in the mixture was associated with 0.22 SD (95%CI: 0.04,0.4) higher SDQ scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Using a novel statistical approach, we confirmed associations between prenatal mercury exposure and lower cognitive function. The potential developmental effects of PFASs need additional attention.

Prenatal and Early Postnatal Exposure to Total Mercury and Methylmercury from Low Maternal Fish Consumption

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of low fish consumption on prenatal and early postnatal exposure to mercury species. The samples of umbilical cord blood and maternal milk as well as interviewer-administered questionnaires were collected from 142 Slovak mother-child pairs. The mean total mercury (THg) concentrations in cord blood and milk were 0.949 μg/L and 0.376 μg/kg, respectively. The mean methylmercury (MeHg) concentration in cord blood was 0.504 μg/L. Fish eaters had significantly higher cord blood MeHg concentrations than non-fish eaters (p = 0.030); no difference was found in milk or cord blood THg concentrations. The bivariate analysis showed a positive correlation between cord blood MeHg and consumption of sea fish and shellfish (r_s = 0.320, p < 0.001); after adjustment for the potential confounders, the association was weakened (β = 0.173, p = 0.059). Nevertheless, the decision tree method showed sea fish and shellfish consumption to be the best predictor of cord blood MeHg. Furthermore, a negative association was found between THg concentrations in maternal milk and freshwater fish consumption (β = - 0.193, p = 0.017), which might indicate a beneficial effect of freshwater fish consumption. The results suggest there is a need for future research to investigate the benefits versus the adverse effects of low maternal fish consumption on child development.

Mercury levels in human hair in South India: baseline, artisanal goldsmiths and coal-fired power plants

India is a major emitter of mercury to the environment, mainly due to emissions from coal-fired power plants. Consumption of fish and rice, two important pathways for human exposure to mercury, is particularly high in South India. Here, we report concentrations of total mercury in hair (THg_hair) in 668 participants from South India. Three cities were covered: (i) a city on the east coast with four active coal-fired thermal power plants (Nellore), (ii) a city on the west coast with no major mercury source (Vasco da Gama), and (iii) a metropolitan city in the interior with no major mercury source (Hyderabad). Geometric mean of THg_hair of the entire study population is 0.14 µg/g (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.13-0.15 µg/g). Significant predictor variables are age, fish consumption, and occupations such as dental studies, subsistence fishing, and artisanal goldsmithing (which is different from artisanal scale gold mining). Our results support the hypothesis that people living in a city with active coal-fired power plants may have higher THg_hair than those in cities with no major mercury source.

Prenatal Omega-6:Omega-3 Ratio and Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether higher omega-6:omega-3 (n-6:n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio in cord plasma is associated with more symptoms of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) at 4 and 7 years of age.

STUDY DESIGN

This study was based on a population-based birth cohort in Spain. N-6 arachidonic acid and n-3 eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid concentrations were measured in cord plasma. At 4 years old, ADHD symptoms were reported by teachers through the ADHD Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed checklist (n = 580). At 7 years old, ADHD symptoms were reported by parents through the Conners' Rating Scale-Revised (short form; n = 642). The ADHD variable was treated as continuous (score) and as dichotomous (symptom diagnostic criteria). Child and family general characteristics were prospectively collected through questionnaires. We applied pooled zero-inflated negative binomial and logistic regressions adjusted for covariates.

RESULTS

A higher omega-6:omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio in cord plasma was associated with a higher ADHD index (incidence rate ratio, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.03, 1.23) at 7 years old. The association was not observed at 4 years old (incidence rate ratio, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.92-1.18). No associations were found using ADHD symptom diagnostic criteria.

CONCLUSIONS

High prenatal omega-6:omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio preceded the appearance of subclinical ADHD symptoms during mid-childhood. Our findings suggest that maternal diet during pregnancy may modulate the risk to develop long-term ADHD symptoms in the offspring.

Relation of prenatal low-level mercury exposure with early child neurobehavioral development and exploration of the effects of sex and DHA on it

BACKGROUND

The extent to which low-level, in utero mercury exposure affects child neurobehavioral development during early childhood has been inconclusive. In addition, the effects of sex and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on these relationships remain unclear and controversial.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to explore the associations between prenatal low-level mercury exposure and child neurobehavioral development during the neonatal and toddler periods and to examine the potential confounding or interactive effects of sex and DHA status on these relationships.

METHODS

This longitudinal study included 286 mother-child pairs in Shanghai, China, whose cord blood samples were analyzed for total mercury, DHA, other nutrients and coexposure contaminants possibly due to maternal consumption of seafood. Children's neurobehavioral development was assessed with the Neonatal Behavioral Neurological Assessment (NBNA) three days after birth and the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (BSID-III) at 18 months of age.

RESULTS

Cord blood mercury concentration, with geometric mean of 2.00 μg/l, was related to poorer NBNA performance but unrelated to BSID-III scores with adjustment for DHA and other covariates. Cord serum DHA was positively associated with motor development assessed by the BSID-III. The interaction was found between mercury and DHA on the NBNA score, and the inverse relation of cord blood mercury with NBNA was significant only among the children with lower DHA levels (<45.54 μg/ml). Additional adjustment for DHA didn't change the associations between cord blood mercury and neurodevelopmental outcomes substantially. The mercury by sex interaction for language of BSID-III was borderline significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research provides initial evidence for the negative effects of prenatal low-level mercury exposure on neonates' neurobehavioral development. Prenatal DHA status may modify the relationship between cord blood mercury level and neonatal neurobehavioral development, but the confounding effects of DHA were not observed. Further studies are warranted before the causality of the observed associations can be determined.

Global burden of intellectual disability resulting from prenatal exposure to methylmercury, 2015

We describe analyses to estimate the global burden of disease associated with methylmercury (MeHg). An intelligence quotient < 70, indicating intellectual disability (ID), was selected as the critical disease, maternal hair Hg concentration during pregnancy selected as the critical exposure biomarker, and a dose-effect relationship of an 0.18 point IQ reduction per µg/g increase in maternal hair Hg was assumed, based on a meta-analysis. A systematic review was conducted to obtain country-specific data on the distribution of maternal hair Hg concentrations. The country-specific incidence of MeHg-associated ID was calculated, and a random effects model was used to impute the incidence for countries for which no exposure data could be found. The global burden of MeHg-associated ID was quantified in terms of Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) using the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Health Estimates methodology, and presented by 14 subregions. In 2015, the global total for MeHg-associated cases of ID was 226,655; 210,074 of these cases (93%) were mild cases of ID. The highest rate of ID (6 cases per 100,000 population) was found in the Americas D subregion. The global DALY estimate was 1,963,869. The Western Pacific B subregion contributed the most to this total (696,417), although the Americas D subregion had the greatest rate (54 DALYs per 100,000 population). The burden of disease associated with MeHg is therefore highly subregion-dependent even in areas that are geographically related. The priority given to reducing this burden can therefore be expected to vary considerably by subregion depending on other health needs.

Associations of blood mercury and fatty acid concentrations with blood mitochondrial DNA copy number in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study

BACKGROUND

Fish contains methylmercury (MeHg) which can cause oxidative stress and neurodevelopmental toxicity at sufficiently high doses. Fish also contains polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) which have both antioxidant (n-3) and oxidant (n-6) properties. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is sensitive to oxidative stress but has not been previously studied in relation to MeHg exposure or PUFA status.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the associations between MeHg exposure and PUFA status during pregnancy with relative mitochondrial DNA copy number (RmtDNAcn) in mothers and their newborns.

METHODS

In total, 1488 mother-child pairs from the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2 were included in this study. Total Hg was measured in maternal blood collected at 28 weeks' gestation, maternal hair at delivery, and in fetal cord blood. PUFA (n-3 and n-6) were measured only in maternal blood. RmtDNAcn was measured by qPCR in both maternal and cord blood.

RESULTS

Increasing maternal blood Hg (β = 0.001, 95%CI: 0.000, 0.002) and n-3 PUFA concentrations (β = 0.183, 95%CI: 0.048, 0.317) were associated with higher maternal RmtDNAcn. Increasing maternal n-6 PUFA (β = -0.103, 95%CI: -0.145, -0.062) and n-6/n-3 ratio (β = -0.011, 95%CI: -0.017, -0.004) were associated with lower maternal RmtDNAcn. Increasing fetal cord blood Hg was associated with lower fetal RmtDNAcn (β = -0.002, 95%CI: -0.004, -0.000). Neither maternal blood Hg nor PUFA status was associated with fetal RmtDNAcn.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that MeHg and PUFA may influence mitochondrial homeostasis although the magnitude of these associations are small. Future studies should confirm the findings and explore the underlying mechanisms.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids and child neurodevelopment among a population exposed to DDT: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Child neurodevelopment has been positively linked to maternal intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) during pregnancy; however, it is unknown if that relationship persists among populations exposed to environmental neurotoxicants.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this work was to assess whether maternal dietary intake of PUFAs during pregnancy is positively associated with child neurodevelopment, whose mothers were environmentally exposed to 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT).

METHODS

A prospective cohort study with 276 mother-child pairs was performed in Mexico. Neurodevelopment was assessed by Bayley Scales II from children age 1 to 30 months. Dietary PUFAs intake was estimated by Food Frequency Questionnaire at 1st and 3rd trimester of pregnancy. DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethylene, the main metabolite of DDT) maternal serum levels were determined by electron capture gas chromatography. Longitudinal multivariate linear mixed-effects analysis, which combines mental (MDI) and motor (PDI) Bayley scales in a single model, were performed.

RESULTS

Our results show that in a sample environmentally exposed to DDT, maternal ingestion of DPA during the first trimester of pregnancy was positively associated with MDI (β = 0.10, 95% CI 0.02, 0.18) in children from 1 to 30 months. Likewise, our results suggest that dietary ALA may be also related to MDI.

CONCLUSION

DPA may benefit neurodevelopment even in populations exposed to DDT. Our results strengthen the importance of PUFAs intake during the prenatal period.

Very low-level prenatal mercury exposure and behaviors in children: the HOME Study

BACKGROUND

Mercury is toxic to the developing brain, but the lowest concentration associated with the development of behavior problems is unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between very low-level mercury exposure during fetal development and behavior problems in children.

METHODS

We used data from 389 mothers and children in a prospective pregnancy and birth cohort study. We defined mean prenatal mercury concentration as the mean of total whole blood mercury concentrations in maternal samples collected at 16- and 26-weeks of gestation, delivery, and neonatal cord blood samples. We assessed parent-reported child behavior up to five times from two to 8 years of age using the Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC-2). At 8 years of age, we assessed self-reported child anxiety using the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (SCAS). We used multiple linear mixed models and linear regression models to estimate the association between mean prenatal mercury concentrations and child behavior and anxiety, respectively.

RESULTS

The median prenatal total blood mercury concentrations was 0.67 μg/L. Overall, we did not find statistically significant associations between mean prenatal mercury concentrations and behavior problems scores, but a 2-fold increase in mercury concentrations at 16-weeks gestation was associated with 0.83 point (95% CI: 0.05, 1.62) higher BASC-2 anxiety scores. Maternal and cord blood mercury concentrations at delivery were associated with parent-reported anxiety at 8 years.

CONCLUSION

We found limited evidence of an association between very-low level prenatal mercury exposure and behaviors in children, with an exception of anxiety.

Associations of environmental exposures to methylmercury and selenium with female infertility: A case-control study

BACKGROUND

Methylmercury exposure is a common health risk resulting from daily fish intake. However, studies addressing the link between methylmercury and infertility are limited and also inconsistent. In addition, no previous epidemiological studies have accounted for the interaction between methylmercury and selenium. We aimed to investigate the association between environmental exposures to metals and female fertility.

METHODS

This case-control study included 98 infertile women receiving fertility treatment (infertile group) and 43 female workers in their thirties (control group) who provided blood samples and returned a questionnaire on lifestyles and dietary characteristics. Blood levels of mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, manganese, zinc, and selenium were compared between the groups. Spearman correlation analyses between anti-Müllerian hormone and the metals were conducted.

RESULTS

The mean selenium level in blood (± SD) and the selenium/mercury molar ratio were significantly lower in the infertile group (189 ± 25 μg/L and 94.6 ± 44.3, respectively) than in the control group (200 ± 25 μg/L and 118.4 ± 70.5). By contrast, blood mercury levels after adjusting for blood selenium and age were significantly higher in the infertile group than in the control group. Multiple logistic regression analyses with the adjustment for the other metals and potential confounders confirmed significant associations of infertility with elevated mercury and reduced selenium levels. No significant correlations were observed between anti-Müllerian hormone and metals.

CONCLUSIONS

Methylmercury and selenium exposures appear to have adverse and protective effects on female fertility, respectively. This is the first report to suggest the antagonistic interaction between methylmercury and selenium in relation to human female fertility.

Fatty fish, hair mercury and cognitive function in Norwegian preschool children: Results from the randomized controlled trial FINS-KIDS

BACKGROUND

The toxic effects of prenatal methylmercury (MeHg) include neurological abnormalities and developmental delay of which infants and children are particular susceptible. Studies on the effects of low and moderate exposure show conflicting results. Seafood is the main dietary source of MeHg, but also contributes with nutrients regarded as beneficial for development.

OBJECTIVES

To measure the change in total hair mercury concentration (THHg) after an intervention of lunch meals with fatty fish or meat in Norwegian preschool children, and to examine the associations between THHg and cognitive function.

METHODS

Children (n = 232) 4-6 years old were randomized to lunch meals with fatty fish (n = 114) or meat (n = 118) three times a week for 16 weeks. THHg was determined using a Direct Mercury Analyzer, and cognitive function was assessed by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Intelligence Scale-III (WPPSI-III) pre- and post-intervention. Linear mixed effect models were used to analyze changes in THHg and WPPSI-III scores.

RESULTS

The mean (SD) THHg pre-intervention was 0.373 (0.204) mg kg^-1. Children in the fish group had an increase in THHg (change 0.162, 95% CI 0.111, 0.213 mg kg^-1), whereas children in the meat group had decreased THHg (-0.053, 95% CI -0.103, -0.002 mg kg^-1). There were no notable associations between THHg and the WPPSI-III raw scores at baseline or after 16 weeks of the fish/meat intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Lunch meals including fatty fish led to a significant increase in THHg, but the values remain below the point of departures used for risk assessment by the EFSA, WHO and US-EPA. We observed no associations between THHg and cognitive function.

Associations of maternal immune response with MeHg exposure at 28 weeks' gestation in the Seychelles Child Development Study

PROBLEM

Maternal methylmercury (MeHg) exposure may be associated with immune response during pregnancy.

METHOD OF STUDY

In the high fish-eating Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2, we examined the association between maternal MeHg, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and immune markers (Th1:Th2; TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, MCP-1, TARC, sFlt-1, VEGF-D, CRP and IL-6) at 28 weeks' gestation. Linear regression examined associations between MeHg exposure and immune markers with and without adjustment for PUFA.

RESULTS

In all models, as MeHg concentrations increased, the Th1:Th2 ratio, total Th1 and individual Th1 (IL-1β, IL-2, TNF-α) concentrations decreased. MeHg was not associated with total Th2 cytokines but was associated with a decrease in IL-4 and IL-10. MeHg was positively associated with TARC and VEGF-D and negatively associated with CRP. There was a significant interaction between MeHg and the n-6:n-3 ratio, with MeHg associated with a larger decrease in Th1:Th2 at higher n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios. The n-3 PUFA were associated with lower CRP, IL-4 and higher IFN-γ. The n-6 PUFA were associated with higher IL-1β, IL-2, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-10, CRP and IL-6.

CONCLUSION

Maternal MeHg was associated with markers of immune function at 28 weeks' gestation. A significant interaction between MeHg and the n-6:n-3 ratio on the Th1:Th2 ratio suggests that the n-3 PUFA may mitigate any immunosuppressive associations of MeHg. The n-3 and n-6 PUFA were associated with suppressive and stimulatory immune responses, respectively. Overall, the associations were of small magnitude, and further research is required to determine the clinical significance.

Multiple low-level exposures: Hg interactions with co-occurring neurotoxic substances in early life

All chemical forms of Hg can affect neurodevelopment; however, low levels of organic Hg (methylmercury-MeHg and ethylmercury-EtHg in Thimerosal-containing vaccines, hereafter 'TCV') exposures during early life (pregnancy and lactation) co-occur with other environmental neurotoxic substances. These neurotoxicants may act in parallel, synergistically, or antagonistically to Hg. Nevertheless, the risks of neurotoxicity associated with multiple neuro-toxicants depend on type, time, combinations of exposure, and environmental and/or genetic-associated factors. Neurological developmental disorders, delays in cognition and behavioral outcomes associated with multiple exposures (which include Hg) may show transient or lasting outcomes depending on constitutional and/or environmental factors that can interact to neutralize, aggravate or attenuate these effects; often these studies are challenging to interpret. During pregnancy and lactation, fish-MeHg exposure is frequently confounded with the opposing effects of neuroactive nutrients (in fish) that lead to positive, negative, or no effects on neurobehavioral tests. In infancy, exposures to acute binary mixtures (TCV- EtHg and Al-adjuvants in infant immunizations) are associated with increased risks of tics and other developmental disorders. Despite the certitude that promulgates single environmental neurotoxicants, empirical comparisons of combined exposures indicate that Hg-related outcome is uneven. Hg in combination with other neurotoxic mixtures may elevate risks of neurotoxicity, but these risks arise in circumstances that are not yet predictable. Therefore, to achieve the goals of the Minamata treaty and to safeguard the health of children, low levels of mercury exposure (in any chemical form) needs to be further reduced whether the source is environmental (air- and food-borne) or iatrogenic (pediatric TCVs).

[Mercury as a Global Pollutant and Mercury Exposure Assessment and Health Effects]

Mercury and its compounds are classified into three main groups: metallic mercury (Hg⁰), inorganic mercury (Hg²⁺), and organic mercury (methyl mercury: CH₃Hg⁺, etc.). Metallic mercury is the only metal that is liquid at ambient temperature and normal pressure, which readily forms an amalgam with other metals. Therefore, mercury has long been used for refining various metals, and mercury amalgam has been used for dental treatment. Mercury has also been used in measuring instruments such as thermometers, barometers and blood pressure monitors, as well as electric appliances such as lighting equipment and dry batteries. Large amounts of metallic mercury are still used in other countries as a catalyst in the production of caustic soda by electrolysis. In addition, mercury compounds have been used in various chemicals such as mercurochrome, agricultural chemicals, and mildew-proofing agents. However, the use of mercury has also caused health problems for people. Minamata disease in Japan is a typical example. Also, since mercury is highly volatile, it is discharged as a product of industrial activities or derived from volcanoes, and it has been concluded on the basis of the findings of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) that it is circulating globally. Therefore, with the aim of establishing an internationally legally binding treaty for the regulation of mercury use to reduce risk, an intergovernmental negotiating committee was established in 2009. Japan actively contributed to this negotiation owing to its experience with Minamata disease, which led to the Convention on the regulation of mercury use being discharged as the "Minamata Convention on Mercury" and the treaty came into force on August 16, 2017. In this review, we introduce 1) the Global Mercury Assessment by UNEP; 2) mercury kinetics, exposure assessment and toxicity of different chemical forms; 3) large-scale epidemics of methylmercury poisoning; 4) methylmercury exposure assessment and health survey in whale-eating populations; 5) elemental mercury exposure assessment and health survey of mercury mine workers in China.

Methylmercury Exposure and Developmental Outcomes in Tohoku Study of Child Development at 18 Months of Age

Seafood is an important component in a healthy diet and may contain methylmercury or other contaminants. It is important to recognize the risks and benefits of consuming seafood. A longitudinal prospective birth cohort study has been conducted to clarify the effects of neurotoxicants on child development—the Tohoku Study of Child Development (TSCD) in Japan. TSCD comprises two cohorts; a polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) cohort (urban area) and a methylmercury cohort (coastal area). Our previous results from the coastal area showed prenatal methylmercury exposure affected psychomotor development in 18-month-olds, and boys appear to be more vulnerable to the exposure than girls. In this report, we have added the urban area cohort and we reanalyzed the impact of prenatal exposure to methylmercury, which gave the same results as before. These findings suggest prenatal exposure to low levels methylmercury may have adverse effects on child development, especially in boys.

Real-time microscopic assessment of fatty acid uptake kinetics in the human term placenta

INTRODUCTION

The placenta employs an efficient and selective fatty acid transport system to supply lipids for fetal development. Disruptions in placental fatty acid transport lead to restricted fetal growth along with cardiovascular and neurologic deficits. Nevertheless, little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in human placental fatty acid trafficking during the initial steps of uptake, or the importance of fatty acid chain length in determining uptake rates.

METHODS

We employed BODIPY fluorophore conjugated fatty acid analogues of three chain lengths, medium (BODIPY-C5), long (BODIPY-C12), and very-long (BODIPY-C16), to study fatty acid uptake in isolated human trophoblast and explants using confocal microscopy. The three BODIPY-labeled fatty acids were added to freshly isolated explants and tracked for up to 30 min. Fatty acid uptake kinetics were quantified in trophoblast (cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast together) and the fetal capillary lumen.

RESULTS

Long- (BODIPY-C12) and Very long-chain (BODIPY-C16) fatty acids accumulated more rapidly in the trophoblast layer than did medium-chain (BODIPY-C5) whereas BODIPY-C5 accumulated more rapidly in the fetal capillary than did the longer chain length fatty acids. The long-chain fatty acids, BODIPY-C12 and BODIPY-C16, are esterified and stored in lipid droplets in the cytotrophoblast layer, but medium-chain fatty acid, BODIPY-C5, is not.

DISCUSSION

Fatty acids accumulate in trophoblast and fetal capillaries inversely according to their chain length. BODIPY-C5 accumulates in the fetal capillary in concentrations far greater than in the trophoblast, suggesting that medium-chain length BODIPY-labeled fatty acids are capable of being transported against a concentration gradient.

Prenatal mercury exposure and child neurodevelopment outcomes at 18 months: Results from the Mediterranean PHIME cohort

INTRODUCTION

Neurotoxicity due to acute prenatal exposure to high-dose of mercury (Hg) is well documented. However, the effect of prenatal exposure to low Hg levels on child neurodevelopment and the question about "safety" of fish-eating during pregnancy remain controversial. International comparisons of Hg concentrations in mother-child biological samples and neurodevelopmental scores embedded in birth cohort studies may provide useful evidence to explore this issue.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Mediterranean (Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, and Greece) cohort study included 1308 mother-child pairs enrolled in the Public Health Impact of long-term, low-level, Mixed Element exposure in a susceptible population EU Sixth Framework Programme (PHIME). Maternal hair and venous blood, cord blood and breast milk samples were collected, and total Hg (THg) levels were measured. Demographic and socioeconomic information, lifestyles and nutritional habits were collected through questionnaires at different phases of follow-up. Children at 18 months of age underwent neurodevelopmental testing using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (BSID-III). Multivariate linear and logistic regressions were performed, for each country, to assess the association between THg and BSID-III scores, obtaining adjusted β coefficients and odds ratios (ORs). These values were used to conduct a meta-analysis, to explore possible heterogeneity among countries and to obtain combined estimates of the association between THg exposure and BSID-III scores.

RESULTS

Median THg (ng/g) was: 704 in maternal hair, 2.4 in maternal blood, 3.6 in cord blood, and 0.6 in breast milk. THg concentrations were highest in Greece and lowest in Slovenia. BSID-III neurodevelopmental scores were higher in Croatia and Slovenia. The meta-analysis of multivariate linear models found an overall positive association between language composite score and receptive communication scaled score and increasing THg in maternal hair (n = 1086; β = 0.55; 95%CI: 0.05-1.05 and n = 1075; β = 0.12; 95%CI: 0.02-0.22, respectively). The meta-analysis of logistic regression models showed that the overall adjusted OR between THg in cord blood and suboptimal gross motor score was borderline significant (n = 882; OR = 1.03; 95%CI: 1.00-1.07). Heterogeneity was found across the four sub-cohorts for language composite score in maternal blood, and for fine motor scaled score in cord blood and breast milk. Language composite score and THg concentrations in maternal venous blood were positively related (n = 58; β = 4.29; CI95% (-0.02, 8.60)) in Croatia and an increase of 1 ng/g of THg in maternal venous blood was associated with a reduced risk for children to fall in the lowest quintile of language score by 31% (n = 58; OR = 0.69; CI 95%: 0.37, 1.01). The comparison of β coefficients obtained by multiple linear regression model showed an inverse association between fine motor score and THg concentrations in cord blood for Croatia (n = 54; β = -0.53; CI 95%: -1.10, 0.04) and Slovenia (n = 225; β = -0.25; CI 95%: -0.49, -0.01). In Slovenia THg level in breast milk was associated with suboptimal fine motor performance (n = 195; OR = 5.25; CI 95%: 1.36, 21.10).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed an inverse relation between THg levels and developmental motor scores at 18 months, although the evidence was weak and partially internally and externally inconsistent. No evidence of detrimental effects of THg was found for cognitive and language outcomes at these concentrations and age.