Maternal Obesity as a Risk Factor for Brain Development and Mental Health in the Offspring

High fat diet consumption and social instability stress impair stress adaptation and maternal care in C57Bl/6 dams

Poor maternal diet and psychosocial stress represent two environmental factors that can significantly impact maternal health during pregnancy. While various mouse models have been developed to study the relationship between maternal and offspring health and behaviour, few incorporate multiple sources of stress that mirror the complexity of human experiences. Maternal high-fat diet (HF) models in rodents are well-established, whereas use of psychosocial stress interventions in female mice are still emerging. The social instability stress (SIS) paradigm, serves as a chronic and unpredictable form of social stress. To evaluate the combined effects of a poor maternal diet and intermittent social stress on maternal health and behaviour, we developed a novel maternal stress model using adult female C57Bl/6 mice. We observed that all HF+ mice demonstrated rapid weight gain, elevated fasting blood glucose levels and impaired glucose tolerance independent of the presence (+) or absence (-) of SIS. Behavioural testing output revealed anxiety-like behaviours remained similar across all groups prior to pregnancy. However, integrated anxiety z-scores revealed a mixed anxious profile amongst HF+/SIS+ females prior to pregnancy. HF+/SIS+ females also did not show reduced plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels that were observed in our other HF+ and HF- stress groups after SIS exposure. Further, HF+/SIS+ females demonstrated significant postpartum maternal neglect, resulting in fewer numbers of live offspring. These findings suggest that prolonged maternal HF diet consumption, coupled with previous exposure to SIS, places a significant burden on the maternal stress response system, resulting in reduced parental investment and negative postpartum behaviour towards offspring.

The communication mechanism of the gut-brain axis and its effect on central nervous system diseases: A systematic review

Gut microbiota is involved in intricate and active metabolic processes the host's brain function, especially its role in immune responses, secondary metabolism, and symbiotic connections with the host. Gut microbiota can promote the production of essential metabolites, neurotransmitters, and other neuroactive chemicals that affect the development and treatment of central nervous system diseases. This article introduces the relevant pathways and manners of the communication between the brain and gut, summarizes a comprehensive overview of the current research status of key gut microbiota metabolites that affect the functions of the nervous system, revealing those adverse factors that affect typical communication between the brain-gut axis, and outlining the efforts made by researchers to alleviate these neurological diseases through targeted microbial interventions. The relevant pathways and manners of communication between the brain and gut contribute to the experimental design of new treatment plans and drug development. The factors that may cause changes in gut microbiota and affect metabolites, as well as current intervention methods are summarized, which helps improve gut microbiota brain dialogue, prevent adverse triggering factors from interfering with the gut microbiota system, and minimize neuropathological changes.

Adipokines measured during pregnancy and at birth are associated with infant negative affect

BACKGROUND

Increased adiposity during pregnancy may be related to offspring risk for mental health disorders, although the biological mechanisms are poorly understood. One promising hypothesis is that factors secreted from adipocytes such as leptin and adiponectin may explain this association. The current study examined whether pregnancy or umbilical cord blood concentrations of leptin and/or adiponectin a) predict elevated infant negative affect at 6 months (an early life marker of risk for psychopathology); and b) help explain the association between pregnancy adiposity and increased infant negative affect.

METHODS

Data came from a prospective cohort (N = 305) of pregnant individuals and their offspring. Second trimester adiposity was assessed using air displacement plethysmography. Concentrations of leptin and adiponectin were measured in second trimester plasma and umbilical cord plasma. Infant negative affect was assessed by standardized observation at 6 months. Second trimester inflammation was assessed using a comprehensive panel of cytokines.

RESULTS

Lower second trimester adiponectin was associated with elevated infant negative affect, and mediated the effect of pregnancy adiposity on infant negative affect. This association was independent of the effect of second trimester inflammation. Umbilical cord leptin also predicted higher infant negative affect and mediated the association between pregnancy adiposity and infant negative affect.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to link pregnancy adiponectin or cord blood leptin to infant markers of risk for psychopathology, and the first to demonstrate that these adipokines mediate the association between pregnancy adiposity and offspring behavioral outcomes, suggesting novel markers of risk and potential mechanisms of effect.

A systematic review of MRI studies on the effects of maternal obesity on offspring brain structure and function

Maternal obesity before or during pregnancy has been associated previously in offspring with a wide range of poor neurodevelopmental outcomes and mental health problems. The effects of maternal obesity on offspring brain structure and function that may be responsible for these poor outcomes are not well understood. We, therefore, undertook a systematic review of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies that have assessed the associations of maternal obesity with brain measures in offspring. A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and PsycINFO on August 20, 2023. Of 15 eligible studies, seven employed functional MRI (fMRI), five diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and four anatomical MRI (one used both DTI and anatomical MRI) in the offspring. The ages of offspring varied widely: one was a study of fetuses in utero, five of neonates, one of infants, five of school-aged children, two of both neonates and infants, and one of both children and adults. Collectively, 12 studies reported significant associations of maternal obesity with structural or functional alterations of the offspring's brain, most frequently in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. In conclusion, maternal obesity appears to have a profound influence on offspring brain development, particularly within the prefrontal and limbic networks that regulate emotion and behavior. Further studies are needed to identify how changes in brain structure and function mediate the effects of maternal obesity on long-term emotional and behavioral outcomes, as well as the molecular pathways through which maternal obesity alters offspring brain development.

Stress in pregnancy - Implications for fetal BDNF in amniotic fluid at birth

Introduction

At the maternal-fetal interface in pregnancy, stress during pregnancy can lead to an increased vulnerability to later psychopathology of the fetus. Potential mediators of this association have scarcely been studied and may include early alterations of fetal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Amniotic fluid is of particular interest for effects on fetal endocrine alterations, as the assessment in amniotic fluid allows for measurements over a time integral. This study hypothesized that maternal psychometrics, socioeconomic status and glucocorticoids are related to BDNF levels in amniotic fluid at birth. The association of fetal BDNF with newborn anthropometrics was tested.

Methods

Women near term who underwent elective cesarean section and their newborns were investigated (n = 37). Maternal psychometrics, socioeconomic status and glucocorticoids (the sum of cortisol and cortisone) in amniotic fluid at birth were analyzed for an association with fetal BDNF in amniotic fluid at birth. Newborn anthropometrics were assessed by length, weight, head circumference and gestational age at birth.

Results

In bivariate analysis, maternal psychometrics and socioeconomic status were not related to fetal BDNF in amniotic fluid at birth. The sum of cortisol and cortisone related to increased fetal BDNF in amniotic fluid at birth (r = 0.745, p < 0.001). BDNF in amniotic fluid was associated negatively with fetal birth weight per gestational age (r = -0.519, p < 0.001), length per gestational age (r = -0.374, p = 0.023), head circumference per gestational age (r = -0.508, p = 0.001), but not with gestational age at birth. In multiple regression analysis, the sum of cortisol and cortisone (p < 0.001) and birth weight per gestational age (p = 0.012) related to higher fetal BDNF levels in amniotic fluid at birth (R2 = 0.740, p < 0.001) when controlling for fetal sex and maternal age. Head circumference per gestational age predicted fetal BDNF with borderline significance (p = 0.058) when controlling for confounders.

Conclusion

Glucocorticoids in amniotic fluid were positively associated with high fetal BDNF at birth, which may be an adaptive fetal response. Maternal psychological variables and socioeconomic status did not link to fetal BDNF. Birth weight and head circumference per gestational age were inversely associated with fetal BDNF at birth, which may represent a compensatory upregulation of BDNF in fetuses with low anthropometrics. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess the role of stress during pregnancy on later offspring development. The analysis of additional fetal growth factors and inflammation upon maternal stress in further biomaterials such as the placenta is warranted, to understand mechanistic alterations of how maternal stress links to fetal development and an increased vulnerability for psychopathology.

Fetal cortical development and neurosonographic findings in obese pregnant women: a case control study from a tertiary hospital

PURPOSE

To investigate the effect of obesity on fetal cortical development.

METHODS

This prospective cross-sectional study was conducted with 91 pregnant women. Fetal neurosonography scans were performed in the third trimester, and according to body mass index (BMI) values, the patients were evaluated in two groups: obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) and normal weight (BMI < 30 kg/m2). During neurosonography, fetal insular depth and Sylvian fissures, parieo-occipital and cingulate fissure depth, frontal lobe length, and the sizes of the corpus callosum and cavum septum pellucidum were measured using a transvaginal approach. Fetal cortical development and Sylvian fissure operculization were graded.

RESULTS

The number of patients with grade 2 fetal cortical development was significantly higher among the pregnant women in the obese group compared to the normal weight group (n = 17, 41.5% and n = 8, 16.0%, respectively; p = 0.007). In the obese group, the number of pregnant women with grade 4 or below fetal Sylvian fissure operculization was significantly higher (n = 13, 31.7%), and the number of those with grade 9 or above operculization was significantly lower (n = 1, 2.5%) (p = 0.003). The fetal insular depth, frontal lobe anterior-posterior diameter, cingulate fissure depth, and corpus callosum thickness were lower in the obese group, albeit with no significant difference. Parieto-occipital depth significantly decreased in the obese group [6.8 (6) mm)] compared to the control group [10.5 (7.2) mm)] (p = 0.008). The fetal Sylvian fissure ratio and the cavum septum pellucidum ratio were found to be similar between the groups.

CONCLUSION

The data obtained from this study showed that obesity caused fetal cortical changes in pregnant women.

Investigating the association between metabolic syndrome conditions and perinatal mental illness: a national administrative claims study

BACKGROUND

Although the association between mental disorder and metabolic syndrome as a bidirectional relationship has been demonstrated, there is little knowledge of the cumulative and individual effect of these conditions on peripartum mental health. This study aims to investigate the association between metabolic syndrome conditions (MetS-C) and maternal mental illness in the perinatal period, while exploring time to incident mental disorder diagnosis in postpartum women.

METHODS

This observational study identified perinatal women continuously enrolled 1 year prior to and 1 year post-delivery using Optum's de-identified Clinformatics® Data Mart Database (CDM) from 2014 to 2019 with MetS-C i.e. obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, high triglycerides, or low HDL (1-year prior to delivery); perinatal comorbidities (9-months prior to and 4-month postpartum); and mental disorder (1-year prior to and 1-year post-delivery). Additionally, demographics and the number of days until mental disorder diagnosis were evaluated in this cohort. The analysis included descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression. MetS-C, perinatal comorbidities, and mental disorder were assessed using the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth, and Tenth Revision diagnosis codes.

RESULTS

372,895 deliveries met inclusion/exclusion criteria. The prevalence of MetS-C was 13.43%. Multivariable logistic regression revealed prenatal prevalence (1.64, CI = 1.59-1.70) and postpartum incident (1.30, CI = 1.25-1.34) diagnosis of mental health disorder were significantly higher in those with at least one MetS-C. Further, the adjusted odds of having postpartum incident mental illness were 1.51 times higher (CI = 1.39-1.66) in those with 2 MetS-C and 2.12 times higher (CI = 1.21-4.01) in those with 3 or more MetS-C. Young women (under the age of 18 years) were more likely to have an incident mental health diagnosis as opposed to other age groups. Lastly, time from hospital discharge to incident mental disorder diagnosis revealed an average of 157 days (SD = 103 days).

CONCLUSION

The risk of mental disorder (both prenatal and incident) has a significant association with MetS-C. An incremental relationship between incident mental illness diagnosis and the number of MetS-C, a significant association with younger mothers along with a relatively long period of diagnosis mental illness highlights the need for more screening and treatment during pregnancy and postpartum.

Maternal early pregnancy body mass index and bipolar disorder in the offspring

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association between maternal early pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and offspring bipolar disorder (BPD).

METHODS

We conducted a nationwide cohort study among 1,507,056 non-malformed singleton live-births in Sweden born 1983-2004. Using national registries with prospectively recorded information, we followed participants for a BPD diagnosis from ages 13 to up to 35 years. We compared BPD risks by early pregnancy BMI using hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) from adjusted Cox models. We also conducted sibling-controlled analyses among 874,047 full siblings.

RESULTS

There were 9970 BPD diagnoses. Risk of BPD was 0.72% through 25 years of age. Maternal early pregnancy BMI was positively associated with offspring BPD risk. Compared with normal BMI (18.5-24.9), adjusted HR (95% CI) for overweight (BMI 25-29.9), obesity grade 1 (BMI 30-34.9), and obesity grades 2-3 (BMI ≥35) were 1.08 (1.02, 1.15), 1.26 (1.14, 1.40), and 1.31 (1.07, 1.60), respectively. Adjusted HR per unit BMI was 1.015 (95% CI 1.009, 1.021). A similar trend was observed among siblings. Pregnancy and neonatal complications did not substantially mediate the association between maternal obesity (BMI ≥30) and offspring BPD.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal BMI ≥25 is associated with offspring BPD risk in a dose-response manner.

The impact of excessive maternal weight on the risk of neuropsychiatric disorders in offspring-a narrative review of clinical studies

The global prevalence of overweight and obesity is a significant public health concern that also largely affects women of childbearing age. Human epidemiological studies indicate that prenatal exposure to excessive maternal weight or excessive gestational weight gain is linked to various neurodevelopmental disorders in children, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, internalizing and externalizing problems, schizophrenia, and cognitive/intellectual impairment. Considering that inadequate maternal body mass can induce serious disorders in offspring, it is important to increase efforts to prevent such outcomes. In this paper, we review human studies linking excessive maternal weight and the occurrence of mental disorders in children.

Associations between maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and infant striatal mean diffusivity

BACKGROUND

It is well-established that parental obesity is a strong risk factor for offspring obesity. Further, a converging body of evidence now suggests that maternal weight profiles may affect the developing offspring's brain in a manner that confers future obesity risk. Here, we investigated how pre-pregnancy maternal weight status influences the reward-related striatal areas of the offspring's brain during in utero development.

METHODS

We used diffusion tensor imaging to quantify the microstructure of the striatal brain regions of interest in neonates (N = 116 [66 males, 50 females], mean gestational weeks at birth [39.88], SD = 1.14; at scan [43.56], SD = 1.05). Linear regression was used to test the associations between maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and infant striatal mean diffusivity.

RESULTS

High maternal pre-pregnancy BMI was associated with higher mean MD values in the infant's left caudate nucleus. Results remained unchanged after the adjustment for covariates.

CONCLUSIONS

In utero exposure to maternal adiposity might have a growth-impairing impact on the mean diffusivity of the infant's left caudate nucleus. Considering the involvement of the caudate nucleus in regulating eating behavior and food-related reward processing later in life, this finding calls for further investigations to define the prognostic relevance of early-life caudate nucleus development and weight trajectories of the offspring.

Associations of polymetabolic risk of high maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index with pregnancy complications, birth outcomes, and early childhood neurodevelopment: findings from two pregnancy cohorts

BACKGROUND

A substantial proportion of maternal pregnancy complications, adverse birth outcomes and neurodevelopmental delay in children may be attributable to high maternal pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index (BMI). However, BMI alone is insufficient for the identification of all at-risk mothers and children as many women with non-obesity(< 30 kg/m2) or normal weight(18.5-24.99 kg/m2) and their children may suffer from adversities. Evidence suggests that BMI-related metabolic changes during pregnancy may predict adverse mother-child outcomes better than maternal anthropometric BMI.

METHODS

In a cohort of 425 mother-child dyads, we identified maternal BMI-defined metabolome based on associations of 95 metabolic measures measured three times during pregnancy with maternal pre-pregnancy BMI. We then examined whether maternal BMI-defined metabolome performed better than anthropometric BMI in predicting gestational diabetes, hypertensive disorders, gestational weight gain (GWG), Caesarian section delivery, child gestational age and weight at birth, preterm birth, admission to neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and childhood neurodevelopment. Based on metabolic measures with the highest contributions to BMI-defined metabolome, including inflammatory and glycolysis-related measures, fatty acids, fluid balance, ketone bodies, lipids and amino acids, we created a set of maternal high BMI-related polymetabolic risk scores (PMRSs), and in an independent replication cohort of 489 mother-child dyads tested their performance in predicting the same set of mother-child outcomes in comparison to anthropometric BMI.

RESULTS

BMI-defined metabolome predicted all of the studied mother-child outcomes and improved their prediction over anthropometric BMI, except for gestational hypertension and GWG. BMI-related PMRSs predicted gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, Caesarian section delivery, admission to NICU, lower gestational age at birth, lower cognitive development score of the child, and improved their prediction over anthropometric BMI. BMI-related PMRSs predicted gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, Caesarean section delivery, NICU admission and child's lower gestational age at birth even at the levels of maternal non-obesity and normal weight.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal BMI-defined metabolome improves the prediction of pregnancy complications, birth outcomes, and neurodevelopment in children over anthropometric BMI. The novel, BMI-related PMRSs generated based on the BMI-defined metabolome have the potential to become biomarkers identifying at-risk mothers and their children for timely targeted interventions even at the level of maternal non-obesity and normal weight.

Types of diabetes during pregnancy and risk of depression and anxiety in offspring from childhood to young adulthood

AIMS

To assess maternal pre-existing type 1 diabetes (T1D), type 2 diabetes (T2D), gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) during pregnancy and risk of depression and anxiety from childhood to young adulthood in offspring.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This birth cohort included singletons born during 1995-2015, followed using electronic medical records through 2020. Cox regression was used to estimate hazard ratio (HR) of depression or anxiety diagnosis during follow-up associated with in-utero exposure to maternal diabetes.

RESULTS

Among 439 590 offspring, 29 891 (6.8%) had depression and 51 918 (11.8%) had anxiety. T1D, followed by T2D and GDM requiring antidiabetes medication were associated with risk of depression and anxiety in offspring. Compared with no diabetes during pregnancy, the adjusted HRs (95% confidence interval) of depression in offspring associated with T1D, T2D or GDM requiring medications were 1.44 (1.09-1.91), 1.30 (1.15-1.47) and 1.18 (1.11-1.26) respectively; conversely, HRs were 0.97 (0.82-1.15) for T2D and 0.99 (0.94-1.04) for GDM without medications. The associations with anxiety followed similar patterns. The significant associations were observed for offspring ages 5-12 and >12-18 years and attenuated for 18-25 years.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that the severity of diabetes (T1D vs. T2D requiring medications vs. GDM requiring medications) during pregnancy may increase the vulnerability of offspring for depression or anxiety.

Bdnf-Nrf-2 crosstalk and emotional behavior are disrupted in a sex-dependent fashion in adolescent mice exposed to maternal stress or maternal obesity

Maternal obesity has been recognized as a stressor affecting the developing fetal brain, leading to long-term negative outcomes comparable to those resulting from maternal psychological stress, although the mechanisms have not been completely elucidated. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that adverse prenatal conditions as diverse as maternal stress and maternal obesity might affect emotional regulation and stress response in the offspring through common pathways, with a main focus on oxidative stress and neuroplasticity. We contrasted and compared adolescent male and female offspring in two mouse models of maternal psychophysical stress (restraint during pregnancy - PNS) and maternal obesity (high-fat diet before and during gestation - mHFD) by combining behavioral assays, evaluation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity, immunohistochemistry and gene expression analysis of selected markers of neuronal function and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus, a key region involved in stress appraisal. Prenatal administration of the antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) was used as a strategy to protect fetal neurodevelopment from the negative effects of PNS and mHFD. Our findings show that these two stressors produce overlapping effects, reducing brain anti-oxidant defenses (Nrf-2) and leading to sex-dependent impairments of hippocampal Bdnf expression and alterations of the emotional behavior and HPA axis functionality. Prenatal NAC administration, by restoring the redox balance, was able to exert long-term protective effects on brain development, suggesting that the modulation of redox pathways might be an effective strategy to target common shared mechanisms between different adverse prenatal conditions.

Alteration of stool pH and its association with biomarkers of gut enteropathy among slum-dwelling women of reproductive age in Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

Recent evidence suggests that measures of maternal gut enteropathy are associated with unfavorable fetal outcomes. It is, therefore, crucial to identify and treat the features of intestinal enteropathy among reproductive-age women living in areas where enteropathy is highly prevalent. However, there is a lack of non-invasive diagnostic tests to determine EED, making it difficult to identify the disease in field settings. In this study, we tested the potential of fecal pH as a biomarker of gut enteropathy and investigated its relationship with fecal biomarkers of intestinal enteropathy in reproductive-age women living in resource-limited environments.

METHODS

Data on socio-demographic information, anthropometry, and biological samples were collected from 78 apparently healthy women aged between 20 and 27 years from November 2018 to December 2019. The association of stool pH with two fecal biomarkers of gut enteropathy (i.e., intestinal alkaline phosphatase [IAP] and fecal lipocalin-2 [LCN-2] was investigated using multiple linear regression models after adjusting for relevant covariates.

RESULTS

In the adjusted models, alkaline stool pH (pH > 7.2) was found to be significantly associated with a decrease in the fecal IAP level by 1.05 unit (95% CI: -1.68, -0.42; p < 0.001) in the log scale, and acidic stool pH (pH < 6) was found to be significantly associated with an increase in the fecal LCN-2 level by 0.89 units (95% CI: 0.12, 1.67; p < 0.025) in the log scale.

CONCLUSIONS

The study findings demonstrated an association of fecal pH with biomarkers of gut enteropathy indicating its applicability as a simple tool for understanding intestinal enteropathy among reproductive-age women living in resource-limited settings.

Integrated bioinformatics and statistical approach to identify the common molecular mechanisms of obesity that are linked to the development of two psychiatric disorders: Schizophrenia and major depressive disorder

Obesity is a chronic multifactorial disease characterized by the accumulation of body fat and serves as a gateway to a number of metabolic-related diseases. Epidemiologic data indicate that Obesity is acting as a risk factor for neuro-psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, major depression disorder and vice versa. However, how obesity may biologically interact with neurodevelopmental or neurological psychiatric conditions influenced by hereditary, environmental, and other factors is entirely unknown. To address this issue, we have developed a pipeline that integrates bioinformatics and statistical approaches such as transcriptomic analysis to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and molecular mechanisms in patients with psychiatric disorders that are also common in obese patients. Biomarker genes expressed in schizophrenia, major depression, and obesity have been used to demonstrate such relationships depending on the previous research studies. The highly expressed genes identify commonly altered signalling pathways, gene ontology pathways, and gene-disease associations across disorders. The proposed method identified 163 significant genes and 134 significant pathways shared between obesity and schizophrenia. Similarly, there are 247 significant genes and 65 significant pathways that are shared by obesity and major depressive disorder. These genes and pathways increase the likelihood that psychiatric disorders and obesity are pathogenic. Thus, this study may help in the development of a restorative approach that will ameliorate the bidirectional relation between obesity and psychiatric disorder. Finally, we also validated our findings using genome-wide association study (GWAS) and whole-genome sequence (WGS) data from SCZ, MDD, and OBE. We confirmed the likely involvement of four significant genes both in transcriptomic and GWAS/WGS data. Moreover, we have performed co-expression cluster analysis of the transcriptomic data and compared it with the results of transcriptomic differential expression analysis and GWAS/WGS.

How prenatal cortisol levels relate to grandmother-mother relationships among a cohort of Latina women

INTRODUCTION

As part of the human reproductive strategy, mothers receive childcare assistance from others. For kin, allomothers are adaptively incentivized to provide assistance due to inclusive fitness benefits. Previous studies across a broad range of populations identify grandmothers as particularly consistent allomothers. Minimal attention has been paid to the possibility that allomothers may begin investing in offspring quality during the prenatal stage of life. Here, we innovate within the area of grandmother allocare research by examining the prenatal stage of life and biopsychosocial mechanisms by which prenatal grandmother effects may be enacted.

METHODS

Data derive from the Mothers' Cultural Experiences study, a cohort of 107 pregnant Latina women in Southern California. At <16 weeks' gestation, we administered questionnaires, collected morning urine samples, and measured cortisol by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, correcting for specific gravity. We measured the soon-to-be maternal and paternal grandmothers' relationship quality, social support, frequency of seeing each other, communicating, and geographic proximity to pregnant mothers, that is, their daughters and daughters-in-law. These measures were self-reported by the pregnant mothers. We assessed how grandmother constructs related to the pregnant women's depression, stress, anxiety, and cortisol levels.

RESULTS

We observed benefits conferred by maternal grandmothers for mothers' prenatal mental health and lower cortisol levels. Paternal grandmothers also conferred mental health benefits to pregnant daughters-in-law, but higher cortisol levels.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that grandmothers, especially maternal grandmothers, are able to improve their inclusive fitness by caring for pregnant daughters, and allomother support may positively impact prenatal health. This work extends the traditional cooperative breeding model by identifying a prenatal grandmother effect, and, by examining a maternal biomarker.

Mouse models of preeclampsia with preexisting comorbidities

Preeclampsia is a pregnancy-specific condition and a leading cause of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. It is thought to occur due to abnormal placental development or dysfunction, because the only known cure is delivery of the placenta. Several clinical risk factors are associated with an increased incidence of preeclampsia including chronic hypertension, diabetes, autoimmune conditions, kidney disease, and obesity. How these comorbidities intersect with preeclamptic etiology, however, is not well understood. This may be due to the limited number of animal models as well as the paucity of studies investigating the impact of these comorbidities. This review examines the current mouse models of chronic hypertension, pregestational diabetes, and obesity that subsequently develop preeclampsia-like symptoms and discusses how closely these models recapitulate the human condition. Finally, we propose an avenue to expand the development of mouse models of preeclampsia superimposed on chronic comorbidities to provide a strong foundation needed for preclinical testing.

Cannabidiol treatment improves metabolic profile and decreases hypothalamic inflammation caused by maternal obesity

Introduction

The implications of maternal overnutrition on offspring metabolic and neuroimmune development are well-known. Increasing evidence now suggests that maternal obesity and poor dietary habits during pregnancy and lactation can increase the risk of central and peripheral metabolic dysregulation in the offspring, but the mechanisms are not sufficiently established. Furthermore, despite many studies addressing preventive measures targeted at the mother, very few propose practical approaches to treat the damages when they are already installed.

Methods

Here we investigated the potential of cannabidiol (CBD) treatment to attenuate the effects of maternal obesity induced by a cafeteria diet on hypothalamic inflammation and the peripheral metabolic profile of the offspring in Wistar rats.

Results

We have observed that maternal obesity induced a range of metabolic imbalances in the offspring in a sex-dependant manner, with higher deposition of visceral white adipose tissue, increased plasma fasting glucose and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) levels in both sexes, but the increase in serum cholesterol and triglycerides only occurred in females, while the increase in plasma insulin and the homeostatic model assessment index (HOMA-IR) was only observed in male offspring. We also found an overexpression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), interleukin (IL) 6, and interleukin (IL) 1β in the hypothalamus, a trademark of neuroinflammation. Interestingly, the expression of GFAP, a marker for astrogliosis, was reduced in the offspring of obese mothers, indicating an adaptive mechanism to in utero neuroinflammation. Treatment with 50 mg/kg CBD oil by oral gavage was able to reduce white adipose tissue and revert insulin resistance in males, reduce plasma triglycerides in females, and attenuate plasma LPS levels and overexpression of TNFα and IL6 in the hypothalamus of both sexes.

Discussion

Together, these results indicate an intricate interplay between peripheral and central counterparts in both the pathogenicity of maternal obesity and the therapeutic effects of CBD. In this context, the impairment of internal hypothalamic circuitry caused by neuroinflammation runs in tandem with the disruptions of important metabolic processes, which can be attenuated by CBD treatment in both ends.

Effects of parental overweight and obesity on offspring's mental health: A meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Children of parents who were overweight/obese prior to pregnancy face a variety of neurodevelopmental challenges. The goal of this meta-analysis is to compile evidence about the impact of parental overweight/obesity on their children's mental health.

METHODS

The databases Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Pubmed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science were searched until May 2022. The pooled effect size was calculated using the fixed and random effect models. We also performed I2 index, subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, quality assessment, and publication bias analysis. The protocol was registered on the PROSPERO database (CRD42022334408).

RESULTS

For maternal exposure (35 studies), both maternal overweight [OR 1.14 (95% CI 1.10,1.18)] and maternal obesity [OR 1.39 (95% CI (1.33, 1.45)] were significantly associated with offspring's mental disorders. Maternal pre-pregnancy overweight/obesity increased the risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [OR 1.55 (95% CI 1.42,1.70)], autism spectrum disorder (ASD) [OR 1.37 (95% CI 1.22,1.55)], cognitive/intellectual delay [OR 1.40 (95% CI 1.21,1.63)], behavioral problems [OR 1.50 (95% CI 1.35,1.66)] and other mental diseases [OR 1.30 (95% CI 1.23,1.37)]. For paternal exposure (6 studies), paternal obesity [OR 1.17 (95% CI 1.06, 1.30)] but not overweight [OR 1.03 (95% CI 0.95,1.11)] was significantly associated with offspring's mental disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental overweight/obesity might have negative consequences on offspring's mental health and pre-pregnancy weight control is advised.

The Molecular Gut-Brain Axis in Early Brain Development

Millions of nerves, immune factors, and hormones in the circulatory system connect the gut and the brain. In bidirectional communication, the gut microbiota play a crucial role in the gut-brain axis (GBA), wherein microbial metabolites of the gut microbiota regulate intestinal homeostasis, thereby influencing brain activity. Dynamic changes are observed in gut microbiota as well as during brain development. Altering the gut microbiota could serve as a therapeutic target for treating abnormalities associated with brain development. Neurophysiological development and immune regulatory disorders are affected by changes that occur in gut microbiota composition and function. The molecular aspects relevant to the GBA could help develop targeted therapies for neurodevelopmental diseases. Herein, we review the findings of recent studies on the role of the GBA in its underlying molecular mechanisms in the early stages of brain development. Furthermore, we discuss the bidirectional regulation of gut microbiota from mother to infant and the potential signaling pathways and roles of posttranscriptional modifications in brain functions. Our review summarizes the role of molecular GBA in early brain development and related disorders, providing cues for novel therapeutic targets.

Inflammatory Signatures of Maternal Obesity as Risk Factors for Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Role of Maternal Microbiota and Nutritional Intervention Strategies

Obesity is a main risk factor for the onset and the precipitation of many non-communicable diseases. This condition, which is associated with low-grade chronic systemic inflammation, is of main concern during pregnancy leading to very serious consequences for the new generations. In addition to the prominent role played by the adipose tissue, dysbiosis of the maternal gut may also sustain the obesity-related inflammatory milieu contributing to create an overall suboptimal intrauterine environment. Such a condition here generically defined as “inflamed womb” may hold long-term detrimental effects on fetal brain development, increasing the vulnerability to mental disorders. In this review, we will examine the hypothesis that maternal obesity-related gut dysbiosis and the associated inflammation might specifically target fetal brain microglia, the resident brain immune macrophages, altering neurodevelopmental trajectories in a sex-dependent fashion. We will also review some of the most promising nutritional strategies capable to prevent or counteract the effects of maternal obesity through the modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress or by targeting the maternal microbiota.

From Dementia to Eumentia: A New Approach to Dementia Prevention

BACKGROUND

During the past 40 years, dementia prevention approaches have ranged from searching for a drug to prevent progression to Alzheimer's disease to prevention of dementia through multi-domain lifestyle interventions. Current Approaches: The search for a silver bullet has yielded good science but no clinical results. The multi-model lifestyle intervention approach has shown encouraging results. The largest proportion of resources in prevention have been devoted to finding a drug to prevent, mitigate or delay what is being called "Alzheimer's disease of late onset." The reality is that Alzheimer pathology is common among the elderly, but it seldom only occurs alone. The only treatable and preventable pathology currently is vascular. Hence arose the concept of "vascular cognitive impairment" meaning any vascular cause or risk factor associated with cognitive impairment. The majority of cases of cognitive in the elderly have a vascular component that is treatable and preventable and identifiable by several means, including a simple ischemic score.

CONCLUSION

Since environmental, socioeconomic and individual risk factors contribute to dementia, we proposed a Comprehensive, Customized, Cost-effective APProach (The CCC-APP) implemented in actionable units with the focus on promoting brain health (eumentia).

Prenatal psychological or metabolic stress increases the risk for psychiatric disorders: the "funnel effect" model

Adverse stressful experiences in utero can redirect fetal brain development, ultimately leading to increased risk for psychiatric disorders. Obesity during pregnancy can have similar effects as maternal stress, affecting mental health in the offspring. In order to explain how similar outcomes may originate from different prenatal conditions, we propose a "funnel effect" model whereby maternal psychological or metabolic stress triggers the same evolutionarily conserved response pathways, increasing vulnerability for psychopathology. In this context, the placenta, which is the main mother-fetus interface, appears to facilitate such convergence, re-directing "stress" signals to the fetus. Characterizing converging pathways activated by different adverse environmental conditions is fundamental to assess the emergence of risk signatures of major psychiatric disorders, which might enable preventive measures in risk populations, and open up new diagnostics, and potentially therapeutic approaches for disease prevention and health promotion already during pregnancy.

Early-Life Environment Influence on Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease

With the expand of the population's average age, the incidence of neurodegenerative disorders has dramatically increased over the last decades. Alzheimer disease (AD) which is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease is mostly sporadic and primarily characterized by cognitive deficits and neuropathological lesions such as amyloid -β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyper- and/or abnormally phosphorylated Tau protein. AD is considered a complex disease that arises from the interaction between environmental and genetic factors, modulated by epigenetic mechanisms. Besides the well-described cognitive decline, AD patients also exhibit metabolic impairments. Metabolic and cognitive perturbations are indeed frequently observed in the Developmental Origin of Health and Diseases (DOHaD) field of research which proposes that environmental perturbations during the perinatal period determine the susceptibility to pathological conditions later in life. In this review, we explored the potential influence of early environmental exposure to risk factors (maternal stress, malnutrition, xenobiotics, chemical factors … ) and the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms on the programming of late-onset AD. Animal models indicate that offspring exposed to early-life stress during gestation and/or lactation increase both AD lesions, lead to defects in synaptic plasticity and finally to cognitive impairments. This long-lasting epigenetic programming could be modulated by factors such as nutriceuticals, epigenetic modifiers or psychosocial behaviour, offering thus future therapeutic opportunity to protect from AD development.

Maternal Obesity Programming of Perivascular Adipose Tissue and Associated Immune Cells: An Understudied Area With Few Answers and Many Questions

At present, the worldwide prevalence of obesity has become alarmingly high with estimates foreshadowing a continued escalation in the future. Furthermore, there is growing evidence attributing an individual’s predisposition for developing obesity to maternal health during gestation. Currently, 60% of pregnancies in the US are to either overweight or obese mothers which in turn contributes to the persistent rise in obesity rates. While obesity itself is problematic, it conveys an increased risk for several diseases such as diabetes, inflammatory disorders, cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Additionally, as we are learning more about the mechanisms underlying CVD, much attention has been brought to the role of perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) in maintaining cardiovascular health. PVAT regulates vascular tone and for a significant number of individuals, obesity elicits PVAT disruption and dysregulation of vascular function. Obesity elicits changes in adipocyte and leukocyte populations within PVAT leading to an inflammatory state which promotes vasoconstriction thereby aiding the onset/progression of CVD. Our current understanding of obesity, PVAT and CVD has only been examined at the individual level without consideration for a maternal programming effect. It is unknown if maternal obesity affects the propensity for PVAT remodeling in the offspring, thereby enhancing the obesity/CVD link, and what role PVAT leukocytes play in this process. This perspective will focus on the maternal contribution of the interplay between obesity, PVAT disruption and CVD and will highlight the leukocyte/PVAT interaction as a novel target to stem the tide of the current obesity epidemic and its secondary health consequences.

High-Salt Diet in the Pre- and Postweaning Periods Leads to Amygdala Oxidative Stress and Changes in Locomotion and Anxiety-Like Behaviors of Male Wistar Rats

High-salt (HS) diets have recently been linked to oxidative stress in the brain, a fact that may be a precursor to behavioral changes, such as those involving anxiety-like behavior. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has evaluated the amygdala redox status after consuming a HS diet in the pre- or postweaning periods. This study aimed to evaluate the amygdala redox status and anxiety-like behaviors in adulthood, after inclusion of HS diet in two periods: preconception, gestation, and lactation (preweaning); and only after weaning (postweaning). Initially, 18 females and 9 male Wistar rats received a standard (n = 9 females and 4 males) or a HS diet (n = 9 females and 5 males) for 120 days. After mating, females continued to receive the aforementioned diets during gestation and lactation. Weaning occurred at 21-day-old Wistar rats and the male offspring were subdivided: control-control (C-C)—offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9–11), control-HS (C-HS)—offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9–11), HS-C—offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9–11), and HS-HS—offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9–11). At adulthood, the male offspring performed the elevated plus maze and open field tests. At 152-day-old Wistar rats, the offspring were euthanized and the amygdala was removed for redox state analysis. The HS-HS group showed higher locomotion and rearing frequency in the open field test. These results indicate that this group developed hyperactivity. The C-HS group had a higher ratio of entries and time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze test in addition to a higher head-dipping frequency. These results suggest less anxiety-like behaviors. In the analysis of the redox state, less activity of antioxidant enzymes and higher levels of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in the amygdala were shown in the amygdala of animals that received a high-salt diet regardless of the period (pre- or postweaning). In conclusion, the high-salt diet promoted hyperactivity when administered in the pre- and postweaning periods. In animals that received only in the postweaning period, the addition of salt induced a reduction in anxiety-like behaviors. Also, regardless of the period, salt provided amygdala oxidative stress, which may be linked to the observed behaviors.

Maternal early-pregnancy body mass index-associated metabolomic component and mental and behavioral disorders in children

Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity and/or higher body mass index (BMI) have been associated with neurodevelopmental and mental health adversities in children. While maternal metabolomic perturbations during pregnancy may underpin these associations, the existing evidence is limited to studying individual metabolites, not capturing metabolic variation specific to maternal BMI, and not accounting for the correlated nature of the metabolomic measures. By using multivariate supervised analytical methods, we first identified maternal early-pregnancy BMI-associated metabolomic component during pregnancy. We then examined whether this component was associated with mental and behavioral disorders in children, improved the prediction of the child outcomes over maternal BMI, and what proportion of the effect of maternal BMI on the child outcomes this component mediated. Early-pregnancy BMI of 425 mothers participating in the PREDO study was extracted from the national Medical Birth Register. During pregnancy, mothers donated up to three blood samples, from which a targeted panel of 68 metabolites were measured. Mental and behavioral disorders in children followed-up from birth until 8.4-12.8 years came from the Care Register for Health Care. Of the 68 metabolites averaged across the three sampling points, 43 associated significantly with maternal early-pregnancy BMI yielding a maternal early-pregnancy BMI-associated metabolomic component (total variance explained, 55.4%; predictive ability, 52.0%). This metabolomic component was significantly associated with higher hazard of any mental and behavioral disorder [HR 1.45, 95%CI(1.15, 1.84)] and relative risk of having a higher number of co-morbid disorders [RR 1.43, 95%CI(1.12, 1.69)] in children. It improved the goodness-of-model-fit over maternal BMI by 37.7-65.6%, and hence the predictive significance of the model, and mediated 60.8-75.8% of the effect of maternal BMI on the child outcomes. Maternal BMI-related metabolomic perturbations during pregnancy are associated with a higher risk of mental and behavioral disorders in children. These findings may allow identifying metabolomic targets for personalized interventions.

What is known about neuroplacentology in fetal growth restriction and in preterm infants: A narrative review of literature

The placenta plays a fundamental role during pregnancy for fetal growth and development. A suboptimal placental function may result in severe consequences during the infant's first years of life. In recent years, a new field known as neuroplacentology has emerged and it focuses on the role of the placenta in fetal and neonatal brain development. Because of the limited data, our aim was to provide a narrative review of the most recent knowledge about the relation between placental lesions and fetal and newborn neurological development. Papers published online from 2000 until February 2022 were taken into consideration and particular attention was given to articles in which placental lesions were related to neonatal morbidity and short-term and long-term neurological outcome. Most research regarding the role of placental lesions in neurodevelopment has been conducted on fetal growth restriction and preterm infants. Principal neurological outcomes investigated were periventricular leukomalacia, intraventricular hemorrhages, neonatal encephalopathy and autism spectrum disorder. No consequences in motor development were found. All the considered studies agree about the crucial role played by placenta in fetal and neonatal neurological development and outcome. However, the causal mechanisms remain largely unknown. Knowledge on the pathophysiological mechanisms and on placenta-related risks for neurological problems may provide clues for early interventions aiming to improve neurological outcomes, especially among pediatricians and child psychiatrists.

Maternal Nutrition and Neurodevelopment: A Scoping Review

In this scoping review, we examined the association between maternal nutrition during pregnancy and neurodevelopment in offspring. We searched the Pubmed and ScienceDirect databases for articles published from 2000 to 2020 on inadequate intake of vitamins (B12, folate, vitamin D, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K), micronutrients (cooper, iron, creatine, choline, zinc, iodine), macronutrients (fatty acids, proteins), high fat diets, ketogenic diets, hypercaloric diets, and maternal undernutrition. Some older relevant articles were included. The search produced a total of 3590 articles, and 84 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Data were extracted and analyzed using charts and the frequency of terms used. We concluded that inadequate nutrient intake during pregnancy was associated with brain defects (diminished cerebral volume, spina bifida, alteration of hypothalamic and hippocampal pathways), an increased risk of abnormal behavior, neuropsychiatric disorders (ASD, ADHD, schizophrenia, anxiety, depression), altered cognition, visual impairment, and motor deficits. Future studies should establish and quantify the benefits of maternal nutrition during pregnancy on neurodevelopment and recommend adequate supplementation.

Neurobiological approaches of high-fat diet intake in early development and their impact on mood disorders in adulthood: A systematic review

The early stage of development is a vulnerable period for progeny neurodevelopment, altering cytogenetic and correct cerebral functionality. The exposure High-Fat Diet (HFD) is a factor that impacts the future mental health of individuals. This review analyzes possible mechanisms involved in the development of mood disorders in adulthood because of maternal HFD intake during gestation and lactation, considering previously reported findings in the last five years, both in humans and animal models. Maternal HFD could induce alterations in mood regulation, reported as increased stress response, anxiety-like behavior, and depressive-like behavior. These changes were mostly related to HPA axis dysregulations and neuroinflammatory responses. In conclusion, there could be a relationship between HFD consumption during the early stages of life and the development of psychopathologies during adulthood. These findings provide guidelines for the understanding of possible mechanisms involved in mood disorders, however, there is still a need for more human clinical studies that provide evidence to improve the understanding of maternal nutrition and future mental health outcomes in the offspring.

Exploring the evidence for epigenetic regulation of environmental influences on child health across generations

Environmental exposures, psychosocial stressors and nutrition are all potentially important influences that may impact health outcomes directly or via interactions with the genome or epigenome over generations. While there have been clear successes in large-scale human genetic studies in recent decades, there is still a substantial amount of missing heritability to be elucidated for complex childhood disorders. Mounting evidence, primarily in animals, suggests environmental exposures may generate or perpetuate altered health outcomes across one or more generations. One putative mechanism for these environmental health effects is via altered epigenetic regulation. This review highlights the current epidemiologic literature and supporting animal studies that describe intergenerational and transgenerational health effects of environmental exposures. Both maternal and paternal exposures and transmission patterns are considered, with attention paid to the attendant ethical, legal and social implications.

The weight of motherhood: Identifying obesity, gestational weight gain and physical activity level of Italian pregnant women

Objective:

Pre-pregnancy obesity and suboptimal gestational weight gain are on the rise globally and are independently associated with several maternal and neonatal complications. A healthy lifestyle, including regular physical activity, may improve health and reduce these complications, but many women are less active and willing to engage in physical activity with advancing gestation. Therefore, the inclusion of a wider range of physical activity such as domestic chore, occupational activity and active commuting may help pregnant women to meet the physical activity recommendations of 150 min/week. Very little is known about these issues in Italy, a country with strong traditional roles regarding pregnancy and motherhood, including “la famiglia” (the family). Primary objective describes health and lifestyle behavior of pregnant Italian women. Secondary objective reports total physical activity level, recreational exercise and context of these activities from pre-pregnancy and throughout gestation in regard to gestational weight gain management.

Study design:

Cross-sectional study performed in one public hospital and four antenatal clinics in Italy. Participants (n = 513) completed a validated self-administered questionnaire, the Physical Activity Pregnancy Questionnaire, in gestation week 36.01 (standard deviation 2.0). Pre-pregnancy body weight (kg) was self-reported, whereas maternal weight (kg) was measured at gestation week 36. In line with current American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists guidelines (2020), participants were categorized into regular physical activity (⩾150 min/week) or non-regular physical activity (<150 min/week).

Results:

Mean pre-pregnancy body-mass index was 22.8 kg/m² (standard deviation 3.9), with 14.4% of women entering motherhood overweight and 5.3% obese. Mean gestational weight gain was 11.9 kg (standard deviation 4.1). Among those with a body-mass index ⩾25, 46.5% gained above the Institute of Medicine recommendations. With respect to recreational exercise/sport, 4.7% were active according to guidelines, whereas 82.7% accumulated ⩾150 min/week when combining exercise/sport with daily-life physical activity (commuting and occupational). Exercising ⩾150 min/week and working 100% in third trimester were associated with gestational weight gain within Institute of Medicine recommendations (p = 0.06 and p = 0.03).

Conclusion:

Italian pregnant women have a low exercise level, still over 80% achieved a total physical activity level ⩾150 min/week when adding occupational and commuting activities. Nearly 50% of overweight and obese women exceeded the recommended gestational weight gain during pregnancy.

Diet-induced dysbiosis of the maternal gut microbiome in early life programming of neurodevelopmental disorders

The maternal gut microbiome plays a critical role in fetal and early postnatal development, shaping fundamental processes including immune maturation and brain development, among others. Consequently, it also contributes to fetal programming of health and disease. Over the last decade, epidemiological studies and work in preclinical animal models have begun to uncover a link between dysbiosis of the maternal gut microbiome and neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring. Neurodevelopmental disorders are caused by both genetic and environmental factors, and their interactions; however, clinical heterogeneity, phenotypic variability, and comorbidities make identification of underlying mechanisms difficult. Among environmental factors, exposure to maternal obesity in utero confers a significant increase in risk for neurodevelopmental disorders. Obesogenic diets in humans, non-human primates, and rodents induce functional modifications in maternal gut microbiome composition, which animal studies suggest are causally related to adverse mental health outcomes in offspring. Here, we review evidence linking maternal diet-induced gut dysbiosis to neurodevelopmental disorders and discuss how it could affect pre- and early postnatal brain development. We are hopeful that this burgeoning field of research will revolutionize antenatal care by leading to accessible prophylactic strategies, such as prenatal probiotics, to improve mental health outcomes in children affected by maternal diet-induced obesity.

Childhood trauma and insulin-like growth factors in amniotic fluid: An exploratory analysis of 79 women

BACKGROUND

Perinatal stress has adverse effects on fetal outcome, yet the effect of early maternal trauma on fetal outcome has scarcely been studied. We investigated effects of maternal childhood trauma and current environment on important regulators of prenatal growth, fetal insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and IGF-2 in amniotic fluid and assessed the impact of IGFs on newborn anthropometrics.

METHODS

79 pregnant women in their second trimester who underwent amniocentesis (15.9 ± 0.9 weeks of gestational age) and their newborns at birth were analyzed. Maternal childhood trauma was assessed using the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ) and current environment was operationalized by assessing maternal psychosocial, physical health and endocrine measurements in amniotic fluid.

RESULTS

In this exploratory analysis of 79 pregnant women, maternal childhood trauma, defined as reporting at least low scores on any of the CTQ subscales, negatively correlated with fetal IGF-1 (M_ln = 3.48 vs. 2.98; p = 0.012) and IGF-2 (Mdn_ln = 4.99 vs. 4.70; p = 0.002). Trauma severity, defined as the overall trauma score, negatively correlated with fetal IGF-2 (r = -0.24; p = 0.037). From trauma subscales, maternal sexual abuse correlated with fetal IGF-1 (r = -0.32; p = 0.006) and IGF-2 (r = -0.39; p = 0.001). Maternal BMI negatively correlated with fetal IGF-1 (r = -0.26; p = 0.023) and IGF-2 (r = -0.29; p = 0.011). Newborn anthropometrics were operationalized by length, weight, sex, gestational age, length/gestational age and weight/gestational age at birth. Fetal weight at birth associated with a trend with fetal IGF-1 when controlling for BMI. Maternal hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and maternal exercise did not contribute significantly to predicting fetal IGFs. Maternal childhood trauma (β = -0.27; p = 0.011) and BMI (β = -0.24; p = 0.026) remained significantly associated with fetal IGF-1. Maternal childhood trauma (β = -0.32; p = 0.003), maternal BMI (β = -0.30; p = 0.005) and maternal sexual abuse (β = -0.22; p = 0.049) remained significantly associated with fetal IGF-2 and with a trend with fetal IGF-1 (β = -0.21; p = 0.076) when excluding women with gestational diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Maternal childhood trauma and BMI associate negatively with fetal IGF-1 and IGF-2 in amniotic fluid. Controlling for maternal BMI, fetal weight at birth remains associated with a trend with fetal IGF-1. The presented data suggests that childhood trauma can affect endocrine measurements of the developing next generation, providing a mechanism by which adverse maternal life events are transmitted to the next generation.

Curcuma Longa, the "Golden Spice" to Counteract Neuroinflammaging and Cognitive Decline-What Have We Learned and What Needs to Be Done

Due to the global increase in lifespan, the proportion of people showing cognitive impairment is expected to grow exponentially. As target-specific drugs capable of tackling dementia are lagging behind, the focus of preclinical and clinical research has recently shifted towards natural products. Curcumin, one of the best investigated botanical constituents in the biomedical literature, has been receiving increased interest due to its unique molecular structure, which targets inflammatory and antioxidant pathways. These pathways have been shown to be critical for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and more in general for cognitive decline. Despite the substantial preclinical literature on the potential biomedical effects of curcumin, its relatively low bioavailability, poor water solubility and rapid metabolism/excretion have hampered clinical trials, resulting in mixed and inconclusive findings. In this review, we highlight current knowledge on the potential effects of this natural compound on cognition. Furthermore, we focus on new strategies to overcome current limitations in its use and improve its efficacy, with attention also on gender-driven differences.

High-fat diet during adulthood interacts with prenatal stress, affecting both brain inflammatory and neuroendocrine markers in male rats

Prenatal stress (PNS) affects foetal programming and, through an interaction with subsequent challenges, can increase vulnerability to mood and metabolic disorders. We have previously shown that, following PNS, adult male rats are characterized by increased vulnerability to a metabolic stressor experienced at adulthood (8-week-high-fat diet-HFD). In this study, we specifically assessed whether PNS might interact with an adult metabolic challenge to induce an inflammatory phenotype. Changes in the expression levels of inflammatory (Il-1β, Tnf-α, Il-6) and of stress response mediators (Nr3c1, Fkbp5) as well as of mood and metabolic regulators (Bdnf, Ghs-R) were investigated in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus, brain regions involved in the pathogenesis of depression and prone to inflammation in response to stress. Overall, PNS reduced the expression of Bdnf and Tnf-α, while HFD administered at adulthood counteracted this effect suggesting that PNS impinges upon the same pathways regulating responses to a metabolic challenge at adulthood. Furthermore, HFD and PNS affected the expression of both Nr3c1 and Fkbp5, two neuroendocrine mediators involved in the response to stress, metabolic challenges and in the modulation of the emotional profile (as shown by the correlation between Fkbp5 and the time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus-maze). Overall, these results indicate that the same metabolic and neuroendocrine effectors engaged by PNS are affected by metabolic challenges at adulthood, providing some mechanistic insight into the well-known comorbidity between mood and metabolic disorders.

Neonatal Sevoflurane Exposure Impairs Learning and Memory by the Hypermethylation of Hippocampal Synaptic Genes

Sevoflurane anesthesia is widely used in pediatric patients. Clinical studies report memory impairment in those exposed to general anesthesia early in life. DNA methylation is essential for the modulation of synaptic plasticity through regulating the transcription of synaptic genes. Therefore, we tested whether neonatal sevoflurane exposure affects learning and memory underlying the hippocampal DNA methylation of synaptic genes. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 3% sevoflurane or air for 2 h daily from postnatal day 7 (P7) to P9. 5-aza-2-deoxycytidine (5-AZA), an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), was intraperitoneally injected 30 min before sevoflurane or air exposure on P7-9. The rats were euthanized 6, 12, 24 h, and 28 days after the last sevoflurane exposure, followed by the determination of global and gene-specific DNA methylation. The expression of synaptic proteins and synaptic density and the transcription of Dnmts and ten eleven translocations (Tets) in the hippocampus were measured. The ability of learning and memory was assessed using Morris water maze, novel object recognition, and intruder tests. Repeated neonatal sevoflurane exposure impaired cognitive, social, and spatial memory. The memory impairment was associated with the increased Dnmt1, Dnmt3a, and 5-methylcytosine level and the decreased Tet1 and 5-hydromethylcytosine level. Sevoflurane subsequently induced hypermethylation of Shank2, Psd95, Syn1, and Syp gene and down-regulated the expression of synaptic proteins, which finally led to the decrease of synaptic density in a time-dependent manner. Notably, 5-AZA pretreatment ameliorated learning and memory in sevoflurane-treated rats. In conclusion, neonatal exposure to sevoflurane can impair learning and memory through DNA methylation of synaptic genes.

Programming Effect of the Parental Obesity on the Skeletal System of Offspring at Weaning Day

Simple Summary

Overweight and obesity can cause many diseases, and several studies indicate a close relationship between the obesity of parents and the health of their offspring. Our aim was to investigate whether there is a programming influence of parental obesity on the skeletal system in weaned female and male offspring rats. In undertaking this, analysis of bone material was carried out using isolated tibia, and densitometry (DXA), peripheral (pQCT) and micro (µCT) computed tomography were performed. Mechanical tests and blood serum biochemistry were also carried out. Our work showed a significant programming influence of parental obesity on neonatal skeletal development. The tibiae isolated from offspring originating from obese parents were characterized by more intense mineralization and higher fracture resistance. However, numerous studies demonstrate the destructive effect of obesity on the skeletal system. Our research and the available literature suggest the existence of a “fat threshold”, the exceeding of which changes of the osteotropic effect of adipose tissue to become unfavorable. Therefore, there is a need for further research to determine the time-dependent metabolic relationship between adipose tissue and bone in both animals and humans.

Abstract

Our study aimed to verify the hypothesis of the existence of a programming effect of parental obesity on the growth, development and mineralization of the skeletal system in female and male rat offspring on the day of weaning. The study began with the induction of obesity in female and male rats of the parental generation, using a high-energy diet (group F). Females and males of the control group received the standard diet (group S). After 90 days of dietary-induced obesity, the diet in group F was changed into the standard. Rats from groups F and S were mated to obtain offspring which stayed with their mothers until 21 days of age. Tibia was tested using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT), micro-computed tomography (µCT) and mechanical strength using the three-point bending test. Biochemical analysis of blood serum bone metabolism markers was performed. DXA analysis showed higher tibia bone mineral content (BMC) and area. pQCT measurements of cortical and trabecular tissue documented the increase of the volumetric bone mineral density and BMC of both bone compartments in offspring from the F group, while µCT of the trabecular tissue showed an increase in trabecular thickness and a decrease of its separation. Parental obesity, hence, exerts a programming influence on the development of the skeletal system of the offspring on the day of the weaning, which was reflected in the intensification of mineralization and increased bone strength.

Mechanisms Underlying the Cognitive and Behavioural Effects of Maternal Obesity

The widespread consumption of 'western'-style diets along with sedentary lifestyles has led to a global epidemic of obesity. Epidemiological, clinical and preclinical evidence suggests that maternal obesity, overnutrition and unhealthy dietary patterns programs have lasting adverse effects on the physical and mental health of offspring. We review currently available preclinical and clinical evidence and summarise possible underlying neurobiological mechanisms by which maternal overnutrition may perturb offspring cognitive function, affective state and psychosocial behaviour, with a focus on (1) neuroinflammation; (2) disrupted neuronal circuities and connectivity; and (3) dysregulated brain hormones. We briefly summarise research implicating the gut microbiota in maternal obesity-induced changes to offspring behaviour. In animal models, maternal obesogenic diet consumption disrupts CNS homeostasis in offspring, which is critical for healthy neurodevelopment, by altering hypothalamic and hippocampal development and recruitment of glial cells, which subsequently dysregulates dopaminergic and serotonergic systems. The adverse effects of maternal obesogenic diets are also conferred through changes to hormones including leptin, insulin and oxytocin which interact with these brain regions and neuronal circuits. Furthermore, accumulating evidence suggests that the gut microbiome may directly and indirectly contribute to these maternal diet effects in both human and animal studies. As the specific pathways shaping abnormal behaviour in offspring in the context of maternal obesogenic diet exposure remain unknown, further investigations are needed to address this knowledge gap. Use of animal models permits investigation of changes in neuroinflammation, neurotransmitter activity and hormones across global brain network and sex differences, which could be directly and indirectly modulated by the gut microbiome.

Placental programming, perinatal inflammation, and neurodevelopment impairment among those born extremely preterm

Individuals born extremely preterm are at significant risk for impaired neurodevelopment. After discharge from the neonatal intensive care, associations between the child's well-being and factors in the home and social environment become increasingly apparent. Mothers' prenatal health and socioeconomic status are associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes, and emotional and behavioral problems. Research on early life risk factors and on mechanisms underlying inter-individual differences in neurodevelopment later in life can inform the design of personalized approaches to prevention. Here, we review early life predictors of inter-individual differences in later life neurodevelopment among those born extremely preterm. Among biological mechanisms that mediate relationships between early life predictors and later neurodevelopmental outcomes, we highlight evidence for disrupted placental processes and regulated at least in part via epigenetic mechanisms, as well as perinatal inflammation. In relation to these mechanisms, we focus on four prenatal antecedents of impaired neurodevelopment, namely, (1) fetal growth restriction, (2) maternal obesity, (3) placental microorganisms, and (4) socioeconomic adversity. In the future, this knowledge may inform efforts to detect and prevent adverse outcomes in infants born extremely preterm. IMPACT: This review highlights early life risk factors and mechanisms underlying inter-individual differences in neurodevelopment later in life. The review emphasizes research on early life risk factors (fetal growth restriction, maternal obesity, placental microorganisms, and socioeconomic adversity) and on mechanisms (disrupted placental processes and perinatal inflammation) underlying inter-individual differences in neurodevelopment later in life. The findings highlighted here may inform efforts to detect and prevent adverse outcomes in infants born extremely preterm.