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Sahar Abd AD. Overview of Foodborne viruses: Important viruses, outbreaks, health concerns, food Handling and fresh produce. JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION THERAPY 2022; 8:038-045. [DOI: 10.17352/jfsnt.000038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Foodborne viruses can transmit through food in lots of ways including consuming items of animal origin containing zoonotic viruses, consuming contaminated food handled by infected food workers, and consuming contaminated food produced by humans. Viral foodborne illnesses are now a major contributor to all foodborne illness reports in recent years and are seen as a rising issue to the public health of humans and animals. Noroviruses and hepatitis A viruses were shown to be predominantly linked to the food-handler transmission and sewage-contaminated foods, according to microbiological research. In order to facilitate source attribution and identify risk preventive measures, routine, standard surveillance of viral outbreaks, and surveillance of virus occurrence in food products, combined with systematic strain typing, food and clinical microbiologists, would be advocated.
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2
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Siqueira de Queiroz Simões R, Rodríguez-Lázaro D. Enteric viruses in food safety: New threats for an old problem. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2022; 100:265-286. [PMID: 35659354 DOI: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2022.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne diseases are one of the most serious concerns in public health. It is estimated that around 600 million cases of gastroenteritis occur worldwide each year. At present, more than 200 food-borne diseases are known, which can cause from mild gastroenteritis to syndromes with a fatal outcome, with the added possibility of chronic complications. One of the major etiological agents in foodborne diseases are the food and waterborne viruses, which are attracting a great deal of attention to researchers, food hygienists and policy makers. Several aspects differentiate these pathogens from foodborne pathogenic bacteria: their high capacity for infection and preservation in food environments, and their difficulty for a correct and sensitive detection. In recent years, different initiatives have been carried out to prioritize research in the area of viruses in food, prioritizing different aspects of their detection, epidemiology and control. There is clear evidence that the existing data on their prevalence may be underestimated due to the lack of robust methods for their sensitive detection. It is also necessary to know exactly what the incidence is in the different stages of the food production chain, and particularly in that which is dedicated to the transformation of products of animal origin. Finally, it is also necessary to calibrate the current disinfection procedures in the food industry in order to reliably establish a quantitative evaluation of the viral risk in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Siqueira de Queiroz Simões
- Institute of Technology in Immunobiologicals, Bio-Manguinhos, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Microbiology Division, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain; Research Centre for Emerging Pathogens and Global Health, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain
| | - David Rodríguez-Lázaro
- Microbiology Division, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain; Research Centre for Emerging Pathogens and Global Health, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain.
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3
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Saadoun I, Ababneh Q, Jaradat Z. Genomic detection of waterborne enteric viruses as water quality indicators in Al-Zarqa River, Jordan. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2021; 19:604-615. [PMID: 34371497 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2021.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Al-Zarqa River is the second main tributary to River Jordan after the Yarmouk River. The river flow has been modified by discharge of industrial wastewater and treated domestic water. Concerns about the occurrence of waterborne pathogenic viruses in the surface waters of Al-Zarqa River prompted the analysis of the surface water quality with respect to the presence of enteric viruses. Viruses were concentrated from a total of 33 different water environmental samples including raw sewage, effluent samples and river water collected from and around the river over a period of 11 months. Calculated recovery yields for these concentration methods ranged between 2 and 8%. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR), nested RT-PCR and southern blotting hybridization analysis were used for the detection of hepatitis A virus, norovirus, astrovirus and human adenovirus 40/41, with the later one being detected in 21 (64%) of the samples that also showed previous positive presence for enteroviruses. To our knowledge, this is the first molecular biology report in Jordan describing the circulation of adenoviruses, which were detected more frequently than enteroviruses in sewage and water samples, and therefore, they can be used as an index for the presence of human pathogenic viruses in water environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismail Saadoun
- Department of Applied Biology, College of Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE E-mail:
| | - Qutaiba Ababneh
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Science and Arts, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Ziad Jaradat
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Science and Arts, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
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4
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Janahi EM, Mustafa S, Parkar SFD, Naser HA, Eisa ZM. Detection of Enteric Viruses and Bacterial Indicators in a Sewage Treatment Center and Shallow Water Bay. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17186483. [PMID: 32899918 PMCID: PMC7559856 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17186483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of enteric viruses in treated wastewater and their potential release into the environment or use for agriculture are very critical matters in public health. In our study, PCR (polymerase chain reaction) analysis of enteric viruses was performed on 59 samples of influents and effluents collected from Tubli wastewater treatment plant (Water Pollution Control Center (WPCC)) and Tubli Bay, where the effluents were discharged, in Kingdom of Bahrain during two sampling periods. Four clinically essential waterborne enteric viruses were examined: enterovirus (EV), hepatitis A virus (HAV), astroviruses (AV), and rotaviruses (RV) and compared to standard bacterial and bacteriophages indicators of fecal pollution. Detection rates of EV, AV, HAV, and RV in the influent samples were 100%, 75%, 12.5%, and 12.5%, respectively, while 50% of the effluent samples from Tubli WPCC contained only EV RNA. None of the tested enteric viruses could be detected in any of the samples collected directly from Tubli Bay. Effluent samples from Tubli plant did not show significant seasonal differences. Since detection of enteric viruses genome does not necessarily indicate infectivity, the infectivity of these viruses was evaluated through isolation and growth of indictor bacteria and bacteriophages. High concentration of fecal bacteriological indicators was detected in all effluents samples (100%): 3.20 × 103 cfu/mL for E. coli, 1.32 × 103 cfu/mL for Salmonella spp., and 1.92 × 103 cfu/mL for Shigella spp. E. coli and Salmonella specific bacteriophages were also detected in the effluent samples in high titers. The combined results of PCR and bacterial enumeration point to a probable public health risk via the use of these wastewaters in agriculture or their discharge into the sea. Continuous surveillance of viral and bacterial prevalence and their resistance to sewage disinfection procedures could contribute to a better control of risks associated with the recycling of effluent wastewater and its release into the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Essam M. Janahi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Bahrain, Sakhir 32038, Bahrain; (S.M.); (S.F.D.P.); (H.A.N.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Sakina Mustafa
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Bahrain, Sakhir 32038, Bahrain; (S.M.); (S.F.D.P.); (H.A.N.)
| | - Saba F. D. Parkar
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Bahrain, Sakhir 32038, Bahrain; (S.M.); (S.F.D.P.); (H.A.N.)
| | - Humood A. Naser
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Bahrain, Sakhir 32038, Bahrain; (S.M.); (S.F.D.P.); (H.A.N.)
| | - Zaki M. Eisa
- The National Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Jazan 82722-2476, Saudi Arabia;
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5
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Environmental and Adaptive Changes Necessitate a Paradigm Shift for Indicators of Fecal Contamination. Microbiol Spectr 2020. [DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.erv-0001-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Changes in the occurrence, distribution, and seasonal variation of waterborne pathogens due to global climate change may increase the risk of human exposure to these microorganisms, thus heightening the need for more reliable surveillance systems. Routine monitoring of drinking water supplies and recreational waters is performed using fecal indicator microorganisms, such as
Escherichia coli
,
Enterococcus
spp., and coliphages. However, the presence and numbers of these indicators, especially
E. coli
and
Enterococcus
spp., do not correlate well with those of other pathogens, especially enteric viruses, which are a major cause of waterborne outbreaks associated with contaminated water and food, and recreational use of lakes, ponds, rivers, and estuarine waters. For that reason, there is a growing need for a surveillance system that can detect and quantify viral pathogens directly in water sources to reduce transmission of pathogens associated with fecal transmission. In this review, we present an updated overview of relevant waterborne enteric viruses that we believe should be more commonly screened to better evaluate water quality and to determine the safety of water use and reuse and of epidemiological data on viral outbreaks. We also discuss current methodologies that are available to detect and quantify these viruses in water resources. Finally, we highlight challenges associated with virus monitoring. The information presented in this review is intended to aid in the assessment of human health risks due to contact with water sources, especially since current environmental and adaptive changes may be creating the need for a paradigm shift for indicators of fecal contamination.
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Lun JH, Crosbie ND, White PA. Genetic diversity and quantification of human mastadenoviruses in wastewater from Sydney and Melbourne, Australia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 675:305-312. [PMID: 31030137 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Human mastadenoviruses (HAdVs) are DNA viruses that can cause a wide range of clinical diseases, including gastroenteritis, respiratory illnesses, conjunctivitis, and in more severe cases hepatitis, pancreatitis and disseminated diseases. HAdV infections are generally asymptomatic or self-limiting, but can cause adverse outcomes within vulnerable populations. Since most HAdV serotypes replicate within the human gastrointestinal tract, high levels of HAdV DNA are excreted into wastewater systems. In this study, we identified the genetic diversity of HAdV at a population level using wastewater samples collected from Sydney and Melbourne from 2016 to 2017, with the use of next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies. In addition, HAdV DNA levels were quantified using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) based methods to better understand the health risks involved if wastewater contamination occurs. An average of 1.8 × 107 genome copies of HAdV DNA was detected in one litre of wastewater collected in Sydney and Melbourne, over the two-year study period. A total of six major groups of HAdV were identified in wastewater samples using MiSeq, which included 19 different serotypes. Of those, the most prevalent was F41 (83.5%), followed by F40 (11.0%) and A31 (3.7%). In contrast, five groups of HAdV were identified in clinical samples with F41 as the most dominant serotype, (52.5% of gastroenteritis cases), followed by C1 and C2 (each responsible for 15.0%), and B3 was the fourth most common serotype (7.5%). This study demonstrated the practicability of using amplicon based NGS to identify HAdV diversity and quantify HAdV genome levels in environmental water samples, as well as broadening our current understanding of circulating HAdV in the Australian population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer H Lun
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Nicholas D Crosbie
- Melbourne Water Corporation, Docklands, VIC, Australia; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Peter A White
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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7
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Bisseux M, Colombet J, Mirand A, Roque-Afonso AM, Abravanel F, Izopet J, Archimbaud C, Peigue-Lafeuille H, Debroas D, Bailly JL, Henquell C. Monitoring human enteric viruses in wastewater and relevance to infections encountered in the clinical setting: a one-year experiment in central France, 2014 to 2015. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 23. [PMID: 29471623 PMCID: PMC5824128 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2018.23.7.17-00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Human enteric viruses are resistant in the environment and transmitted via the faecal-oral route. Viral shedding in wastewater gives the opportunity to track emerging pathogens and study the epidemiology of enteric infectious diseases in the community. Aim: The aim of this study was to monitor the circulation of enteric viruses in the population of the Clermont-Ferrand area (France) by analysis of urban wastewaters. Methods: Raw and treated wastewaters were collected between October 2014 and October 2015 and concentrated by a two-step protocol using tangential flow ultrafiltration and polyethylene glycol precipitation. Processed samples were analysed for molecular detection of adenovirus, norovirus, rotavirus, parechovirus, enterovirus (EV), hepatitis A (HAV) and E (HEV) viruses. Results: All wastewater samples (n = 54) contained viruses. On average, six and four virus species were detected in, respectively, raw and treated wastewater samples. EV-positive samples were tested for EV-D68 to assess its circulation in the community. EV-D68 was detected in seven of 27 raw samples. We collected data from clinical cases of EV-D68 (n = 17), HAV (n = 4) and HEV infection (n = 16) and compared wastewater-derived sequences with clinical sequences. We showed the silent circulation of EV-D68 in September 2015, the wide circulation of HAV despite few notifications of acute disease and the presence in wastewater of the major HEV subtypes involved in clinical local cases. Conclusion: The environmental surveillance overcomes the sampling bias intrinsic to the study of infections associated with hospitalisation and allows the detection in real time of viral sequences genetically close to those reported in clinical specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Bisseux
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Jonathan Colombet
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Audrey Mirand
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Anne-Marie Roque-Afonso
- AP-HP, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Centre National de Référence Virus des hépatites à transmission entérique (hépatite A) - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Villejuif, France
| | - Florence Abravanel
- CHU Toulouse, Centre National de Référence Virus des hépatites à transmission entérique (hépatite E) - Laboratoire Coordonnateur, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | - Jacques Izopet
- CHU Toulouse, Centre National de Référence Virus des hépatites à transmission entérique (hépatite E) - Laboratoire Coordonnateur, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | - Christine Archimbaud
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Hélène Peigue-Lafeuille
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Didier Debroas
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Jean-Luc Bailly
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Cécile Henquell
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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8
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Hoque SA, Thongprachum A, Takanashi S, Mostafa SM, Saito H, Anwar KS, Nomura A, Hoque SA, Begum R, Sultana UN, Hossain T, Khamrin P, Okitsu S, Hayakawa S, Ushijima H. Alarming Situation of Spreading Enteric Viruses Through Sewage Water in Dhaka City: Molecular Epidemiological Evidences. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2019; 11:65-75. [PMID: 30607905 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-09363-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Global burden of acute viral gastroenteritis remains high, particularly in developing countries including Bangladesh. Sewage water (SW) is an important node to monitor enteric pathogens both in the environment and among the population. Analysis of SW in Dhaka city deems crucially important because a large number of urban-city dwellers live in Dhaka city, the capital of Bangladesh, under a constant threat of precarious sewerage system. In this study, we collected raw SW from five locations of Dhaka city every month from June 2016 to May 2017. It was concentrated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and investigated for three major enteric viruses, rotavirus A (RVA), norovirus GII (NoV GII) and adenovirus (AdV) using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Most of these SW samples collected from both hospitals and non-hospital areas yielded enteric viruses: 76% samples were positive for AdV, followed by 53% NoV GII and 38% RVA. Viral load was determined as much as 1 × 107 copies/ml for RVA and 3.5 × 103 copies/ml for NoV GII. Importantly, NoV GII and AdV that can affect people of all ages were predominated during monsoon also when SW overflows and spreads over a wide and crowded area. Genotypes G1, G2, G3, G8, and G9 for RVA, GII.4 for NoV, and type 41 for AdV were detected representing the current profile of circulating genotypes in the population. This study provides the first evidence of distribution of major diarrheal viruses in SW in Dhaka city which is alarming showing grave risk of impending outbreaks through exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheikh Ariful Hoque
- Cell and Tissue Culture Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Research in Sciences (CARS), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Aksara Thongprachum
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Faculty of Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Sayaka Takanashi
- Department of Developmental Medical Sciences, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Salwa Mohd Mostafa
- Cell and Tissue Culture Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Research in Sciences (CARS), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Hiroyuki Saito
- Akita Prefectural Research Center for Public Health and Environment, Akita, Japan
| | - Kazi Selim Anwar
- Department of Infectious Diseases, International University of Health and Welfare (IUHW), Narita Campus, Narita, Chiba, Japan
| | - Akiko Nomura
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sk Azimul Hoque
- National Institute Neuroscience and Hospital, Agargaon, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Rokeya Begum
- Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Research in Sciences (CARS), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Ummay Nasrin Sultana
- Cell and Tissue Culture Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Research in Sciences (CARS), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Tania Hossain
- Cell and Tissue Culture Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Research in Sciences (CARS), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Pattara Khamrin
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Shoko Okitsu
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Faculty of Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Satoshi Hayakawa
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ushijima
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Faculty of Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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9
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Sassi HP, Tuttle KD, Betancourt WQ, Kitajima M, Gerba CP. Persistence of Viruses by qPCR Downstream of Three Effluent-Dominated Rivers in the Western United States. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2018; 10:297-304. [PMID: 29679283 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-9343-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
This study was designed to determine the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) signal persistence of viruses in three effluent-dominated streams. Samples were collected from the effluent outfall of three wastewater treatment plants in the Western United States and downstream at different locations. All samples were tested for the presence of pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), adenoviruses, norovirus GI and GII, Aichi virus, and enteroviruses using qPCR. PMMoV was detected most frequently in 54/57 (94.7%) samples, followed by adenoviruses which was detected in 21/57 (36.8%) samples. PMMoV was detected at all locations downstream and up to 32 km from the discharge point. This study demonstrated that the detection signal of PMMoV was able to persist in wastewater discharges to a greater degree than human enteric viruses in effluent-dominated rivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah P Sassi
- Faculty of Science, School of Life and Environmental Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Koiya D Tuttle
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Walter Q Betancourt
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-8628, Japan
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
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10
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Hata A, Kitajima M, Haramoto E, Lee S, Ihara M, Gerba CP, Tanaka H. Next-generation amplicon sequencing identifies genetically diverse human astroviruses, including recombinant strains, in environmental waters. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11837. [PMID: 30087387 PMCID: PMC6081416 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30217-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Human astroviruses are associated with gastroenteritis and known to contaminate water environments. Three different genetic clades of astroviruses are known to infect humans and each clade consists of diverse strains. This study aimed to determine the occurrence and genetic diversity of astrovirus strains in water samples in different geographical locations, i.e., influent and effluent wastewater samples (n = 24 each) in Arizona, U.S., and groundwater (n = 37) and river water (n = 14) samples collected in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, using next-generation amplicon sequencing. Astrovirus strains including rare types (types 6 and 7 classical human astroviruses), emerging type (type 5 VA-astroviruses), and putative recombinants were identified. Feline astrovirus strains were collaterally identified and recombination between human and feline astroviruses was suggested. Classical- and VA-astroviruses seemed to be prevalent during cooler months, while MLB-astroviruses were identified only during warmer months. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of next-generation amplicon sequencing for identification and characterization of genetically diverse astrovirus strains in environmental water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiko Hata
- Research Center for Environmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, Shiga, Japan. .,Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - Suntae Lee
- Research Center for Environmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, Shiga, Japan
| | - Masaru Ihara
- Research Center for Environmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, Shiga, Japan
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Hiroaki Tanaka
- Research Center for Environmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, Shiga, Japan
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11
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Haramoto E, Kitajima M, Hata A, Torrey JR, Masago Y, Sano D, Katayama H. A review on recent progress in the detection methods and prevalence of human enteric viruses in water. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 135:168-186. [PMID: 29471200 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne human enteric viruses, such as noroviruses and adenoviruses, are excreted in the feces of infected individuals and transmitted via the fecal-oral route including contaminated food and water. Since viruses are normally present at low concentrations in aquatic environments, they should be concentrated into smaller volumes prior to downstream molecular biological applications, such as quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). This review describes recent progress made in the development of concentration and detection methods of human enteric viruses in water, and discusses their applications for providing a better understanding of the prevalence of the viruses in various types of water worldwide. Maximum concentrations of human enteric viruses in water that have been reported in previous studies are summarized to assess viral abundances in aquatic environments. Some descriptions are also available on recent applications of sequencing analyses used to determine the genetic diversity of viral genomes in water samples, including those of novel viruses. Furthermore, the importance and significance of utilizing appropriate process controls during viral analyses are discussed, and three types of process controls are considered: whole process controls, molecular process controls, and (reverse transcription (RT)-)qPCR controls. Although no standards have been established for acceptable values of virus recovery and/or extraction-(RT-)qPCR efficiency, use of at least one of these appropriate control types is highly recommended for more accurate interpretation of observed data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan.
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13 West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan.
| | - Akihiko Hata
- Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science, Institutes for Advanced Study, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan.
| | - Jason R Torrey
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Yoshifumi Masago
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, United Nations University, 5-53-70 Jingumae, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150-8925, Japan.
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Katayama
- Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; Vietnam Japan University, Luu Huu Phuoc Road, My Dinh 1 Ward, Nam Tu Liem District, Ha Noi, Vietnam.
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12
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Lun JH, Hewitt J, Sitabkhan A, Eden JS, Enosi Tuipulotu D, Netzler NE, Morrell L, Merif J, Jones R, Huang B, Warrilow D, Ressler KA, Ferson MJ, Dwyer DE, Kok J, Rawlinson WD, Deere D, Crosbie ND, White PA. Emerging recombinant noroviruses identified by clinical and waste water screening. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:50. [PMID: 29593246 PMCID: PMC5874246 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0047-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus is estimated to cause 677 million annual cases of gastroenteritis worldwide, resulting in 210,000 deaths. As viral gastroenteritis is generally self-limiting, clinical samples for epidemiological studies only partially represent circulating noroviruses in the population and is biased towards severe symptomatic cases. As infected individuals from both symptomatic and asymptomatic cases shed viruses into the sewerage system at a high concentration, waste water samples are useful for the molecular epidemiological analysis of norovirus genotypes at a population level. Using Illumina MiSeq and Sanger sequencing, we surveyed circulating norovirus within Australia and New Zealand, from July 2014 to December 2016. Importantly, norovirus genomic diversity during 2016 was compared between clinical and waste water samples to identify potential pandemic variants, novel recombinant viruses and the timing of their emergence. Although the GII.4 Sydney 2012 variant was prominent in 2014 and 2015, its prevalence significantly decreased in both clinical and waste water samples over 2016. This was concomitant with the emergence of multiple norovirus strains, including two GII.4 Sydney 2012 recombinant viruses, GII.P4 New Orleans 2009/GII.4 Sydney 2012 and GII.P16/GII.4 Sydney 2012, along with three other emerging strains GII.17, GII.P12/GII.3 and GII.P16/GII.2. This is unusual, as a single GII.4 pandemic variant is generally responsible for 65–80% of all human norovirus infections at any one time and predominates until it is replaced by a new pandemic variant. In sumary, this study demonstrates the combined use of clinical and wastewater samples provides a more complete picture of norovirus circulating within the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer H Lun
- Faculty of Science, School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Joanne Hewitt
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research, Kenepuru Science Centre, Porirua, 5022, New Zealand
| | - Alefiya Sitabkhan
- Faculty of Science, School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - John-Sebastian Eden
- Faculty of Science, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia.,Centre for Virus Research, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Daniel Enosi Tuipulotu
- Faculty of Science, School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Natalie E Netzler
- Faculty of Science, School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Leigh Morrell
- Faculty of Science, School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Juan Merif
- SAViD (Serology and Virology Division), Department of Microbiology, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, NSW, 2031, Australia
| | - Richard Jones
- Douglass Hanly Moir Pathology, Macquarie Park, Sydney, NSW, 2113, Australia
| | - Bixing Huang
- Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Archerfield, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - David Warrilow
- Forensic and Scientific Services, Department of Health, Queensland Government, Archerfield, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Kelly-Anne Ressler
- Public Health Unit, South Eastern Sydney Local Health District, Sydney, NSW, 2217, Australia
| | - Mark J Ferson
- Public Health Unit, South Eastern Sydney Local Health District, Sydney, NSW, 2217, Australia.,School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Dominic E Dwyer
- Institute for Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, NSW Health Pathology, Westmead Hospital and University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Jen Kok
- Institute for Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, NSW Health Pathology, Westmead Hospital and University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - William D Rawlinson
- SAViD (Serology and Virology Division), Department of Microbiology, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, NSW, 2031, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Daniel Deere
- Water Futures Pty Ltd, Sydney, NSW, 2073, Australia
| | | | - Peter A White
- Faculty of Science, School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
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13
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Dias E, Ebdon J, Taylor H. The application of bacteriophages as novel indicators of viral pathogens in wastewater treatment systems. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 129:172-179. [PMID: 29149672 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Many wastewater treatment technologies have been shown to remove bacterial pathogens more effectively than viral pathogens and, in aquatic environments, levels of traditional faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) do not appear to correlate consistently with levels of human viral pathogens. There is, therefore, a need for novel viral indicators of faecal pollution and surrogates of viral pathogens, especially given the increasing importance of indirect and direct wastewater reuse. Potential candidates include bacteriophages (phages) and the study described here sought to elucidate the relationship between three groups of phages (somatic coliphages (SOMPH), F-RNA coliphages (F-RNAPH) and human-specific phages infecting B. fragilis (Bf124PH) - enumeration using double layer agar technique) and viral pathogens (human adenovirus (HuAdV) and norovirus (NoV) - enumeration using molecular methods) through full-scale municipal wastewater treatment processes. FIB (faecal coliforms (FC) and intestinal enterococci (ENT) - enumeration using membrane filtration) were also monitored. Samples were collected every fortnight, during a twelve-month period, at each stage of four full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in southern England (two activated sludge (AS) and two trickling filter (TF) plants) (n = 360 samples). FIB and SOMPH were consistently found in all samples tested, whereas F-RNAPH, Bf124PH and HuAdV were less frequently detected, especially following AS treatment. The detection rate of NoV was low and consequently discussion of this group of viruses is limited. Concentrations of SOMPH and FIB were statistically higher (p value < 0.05) than concentrations of F-RNAPH, Bf124PH and HuAdV in raw wastewater. FIB were more effectively removed than phages in both systems. Removal rates of HuAdV were similar to those of phages at the secondary treatment stage of both systems. In TF systems, HuAdV were removed at the same rate as F-RNAPH, but at lower rates than SOMPH and Bf124PH. The findings suggest that phages (in particular SOMPH) are better indicators of the fate of viral pathogens in WWTP than existing FIB and that these organisms may have a useful role to play in future sanitation safety planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgard Dias
- Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, 36036-330, Brazil; The Environment and Public Health Research Group (EPHReG), School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
| | - James Ebdon
- The Environment and Public Health Research Group (EPHReG), School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
| | - Huw Taylor
- The Environment and Public Health Research Group (EPHReG), School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
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14
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El-Senousy WM, Abou-Elela SI. Assessment and Evaluation of an Integrated Hybrid Anaerobic-Aerobic Sewage Treatment System for the Removal of Enteric Viruses. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:287-303. [PMID: 28197973 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-017-9286-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The capability of a cost-effective and a small size decentralized pilot wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) to remove enteric viruses such as rotavirus, norovirus genogroup I (GGI), norovirus genogroup II (GGII), Hepatitis E virus (HEV), and adenovirus was studied. This pilot plant is an integrated hybrid anaerobic/aerobic setup which consisted of anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), biological aerated filter (BAF), and inclined plate settler (IPS). Both the UASB and BAF are packed with a non-woven polyester fabric (NWPF). Results indicated that the overall log10 reductions of enteric viruses' genome copies through the whole system were 3.1 ± 1, 3.3 ± 0.5, and 2.6 ± 0.9 log10 for rotavirus, norovirus GGI, and adenovirus, respectively. Reduction efficiency for both norovirus GGII and HEV after the different treatment steps could not be calculated because there were no significant numbers of positive samples for both viruses. The overall reduction of rotavirus infectious units through the whole system was 2.2 ± 0.8 log10 reduction which is very close to the overall log10 reduction of adenovirus infectious units through the whole system which was 2.1 ± 0.8 log10 reduction. There was no considerable difference in the removal efficiency for different rotavirus G and P types. Adenovirus 41 was the only type detected in the all positive samples. Although the pilot WWTP investigated is cost effective, has a small footprint, does not need a long distance network pipes, and easy to operate, its efficiency to remove enteric viruses is comparable with the conventional centralized WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waled Morsy El-Senousy
- Environmental Virology Lab., Department of Water Pollution Research, National Research Centre (NRC), 33 El-Buhouth st., Dokki, Giza, P.O. 12622, Egypt.
| | - Sohair Imam Abou-Elela
- Wastewater Treatment Lab., Department of Water Pollution Research, National Research Centre (NRC), 33 El-Buhouth st., Dokki, Giza, P.O. 12622, Egypt
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15
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Shukla S, Cho H, Kwon OJ, Chung SH, Kim M. Prevalence and evaluation strategies for viral contamination in food products: Risk to human health-a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 58:405-419. [PMID: 27245816 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1182891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, viruses of foodborne origin such as norovirus and hepatitis A are considered major causes of foodborne gastrointestinal illness with widespread distribution worldwide. A number of foodborne outbreaks associated with food products of animal and non-animal origins, which often involve multiple cases of variety of food streams, have been reported. Although several viruses, including rotavirus, adenovirus, astrovirus, parvovirus, and other enteroviruses, significantly contribute to incidence of gastrointestinal diseases, systematic information on the role of food in transmitting such viruses is limited. Most of the outbreak cases caused by infected food handlers were the source of 53% of total outbreaks. Therefore, prevention and hygiene measures to reduce the frequency of foodborne virus outbreaks should focus on food workers and production site of food products. Pivotal strategies, such as proper investigation, surveillance, and reports on foodborne viral illnesses, are needed in order to develop more accurate measures to detect the presence and pathogenesis of viral infection with detailed descriptions. Moreover, molecular epidemiology and surveillance of food samples may help analysis of public health hazards associated with exposure to foodborne viruses. In this present review, we discuss different aspects of foodborne viral contamination and its impact on human health. This review also aims to improve understanding of foodborne viral infections as major causes of human illness as well as provide descriptions of their control and prevention strategies and rapid detection by advanced molecular techniques. Further, a brief description of methods available for the detection of viruses in food and related matrices is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Shukla
- a Department of Food Science and Technology , Yeungnam University , Gyeongsan-si , Gyeongsangbuk-do , Republic of Korea.,b Department of Energy and Materials Engineering , Dongguk University , Seoul , Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjeong Cho
- c Experiment and Research Institute, National Agricultural Products Quality Management Service , Gimcheon-si , Gyeongsangbuk-do , Republic of Korea
| | - O Jun Kwon
- d Evaluation Team, Gyeongbuk Institute for Regional Program Evaluation , Gyeongsan-si , Gyeongsangbuk-do , Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Hyun Chung
- e Department of Integrated Biomedical and Life Science , Korea University , Seoul , Republic of Korea
| | - Myunghee Kim
- a Department of Food Science and Technology , Yeungnam University , Gyeongsan-si , Gyeongsangbuk-do , Republic of Korea
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16
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Eftim SE, Hong T, Soller J, Boehm A, Warren I, Ichida A, Nappier SP. Occurrence of norovirus in raw sewage - A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 111:366-374. [PMID: 28110140 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (NoV) are a leading cause of recreational waterborne illnesses and responsible for the majority of viral-associated gastrointestinal illnesses nationwide. We conducted a systematic literature review of published peer-reviewed publications to identify NoV density data in wastewater influent, and provided an approach for developing pathogen density distributions, using the NoV data. Literature review inclusion criteria included scope, study quality, and data availability. A non-parametric bootstrap statistical model was used to estimate the NoV distribution in wastewater influent. The approach used accounts for heterogeneity in study-specific distribution curves, sampling locations, and sampling season and provides a comprehensive representation of the data. Study results illustrate that pooling all of the available NoV data together in a meta-analysis provides a more comprehensive understanding of the technical literature than what could be appreciated from individual studies. The studies included in this analysis indicate a high density of NoV in wastewater influent (overall mean = 4.6 log10 genome copies (GC)/liter (L)), with a higher density of NoV genogroup (G) II (overall mean = 4.9 log10 GC/L) than for GI (overall mean = 4.4 log10 GC/L for GI). The bootstrapping approach was also used to account for differences in seasonal and geographical occurrences of NoV GI and GII. The methods presented are reproducible and can be used to develop QMRA-ready density distributions for other viral pathogens in wastewater influent, effluent, and ambient waters. To our knowledge, our results are the first to quantitatively characterize seasonal and geographic differences, which could be particularly useful for future risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tao Hong
- ICF, LLC, 9300 Lee Highway, Fairfax, VA, 22031, USA
| | - Jeffrey Soller
- Soller Environmental, LLC, 3022 King St, Berkeley, CA, 94703, USA
| | | | - Isaac Warren
- ICF, LLC, 9300 Lee Highway, Fairfax, VA, 22031, USA
| | | | - Sharon P Nappier
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Office of Science and Technology, 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20460, USA
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17
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Hjelmsø MH, Hellmér M, Fernandez-Cassi X, Timoneda N, Lukjancenko O, Seidel M, Elsässer D, Aarestrup FM, Löfström C, Bofill-Mas S, Abril JF, Girones R, Schultz AC. Evaluation of Methods for the Concentration and Extraction of Viruses from Sewage in the Context of Metagenomic Sequencing. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170199. [PMID: 28099518 PMCID: PMC5242460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral sewage metagenomics is a novel field of study used for surveillance, epidemiological studies, and evaluation of waste water treatment efficiency. In raw sewage human waste is mixed with household, industrial and drainage water, and virus particles are, therefore, only found in low concentrations. This necessitates a step of sample concentration to allow for sensitive virus detection. Additionally, viruses harbor a large diversity of both surface and genome structures, which makes universal viral genomic extraction difficult. Current studies have tackled these challenges in many different ways employing a wide range of viral concentration and extraction procedures. However, there is limited knowledge of the efficacy and inherent biases associated with these methods in respect to viral sewage metagenomics, hampering the development of this field. By the use of next generation sequencing this study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of four commonly applied viral concentrations techniques (precipitation with polyethylene glycol, organic flocculation with skim milk, monolithic adsorption filtration and glass wool filtration) and extraction methods (Nucleospin RNA XS, QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit, NucliSENS® miniMAG®, or PowerViral® Environmental RNA/DNA Isolation Kit) to determine the viriome in a sewage sample. We found a significant influence of concentration and extraction protocols on the detected viriome. The viral richness was largest in samples extracted with QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit or PowerViral® Environmental RNA/DNA Isolation Kit. Highest viral specificity were found in samples concentrated by precipitation with polyethylene glycol or extracted with Nucleospin RNA XS. Detection of viral pathogens depended on the method used. These results contribute to the understanding of method associated biases, within the field of viral sewage metagenomics, making evaluation of the current literature easier and helping with the design of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathis Hjort Hjelmsø
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, The National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
- * E-mail:
| | - Maria Hellmér
- Division of Microbiology and Production, The National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, Denmark
| | - Xavier Fernandez-Cassi
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Natàlia Timoneda
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Oksana Lukjancenko
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, The National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Michael Seidel
- Institute of Hydrochemistry, Chair of Analytical Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Dennis Elsässer
- Institute of Hydrochemistry, Chair of Analytical Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank M. Aarestrup
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, The National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Charlotta Löfström
- Division of Microbiology and Production, The National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, Denmark
| | - Sílvia Bofill-Mas
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Josep F. Abril
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Rosina Girones
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology, and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- Division of Microbiology and Production, The National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, Denmark
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18
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Environmental Review & Case Study: Evaluating the Significance of Certain Pharmaceuticals and Emerging Pathogens in Raw Water Supplies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1017/s1466046611000196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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19
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Jacxsens L, Stals A, De Keuckelaere A, Deliens B, Rajkovic A, Uyttendaele M. Quantitative farm-to-fork human norovirus exposure assessment of individually quick frozen raspberries and raspberry puree. Int J Food Microbiol 2016; 242:87-97. [PMID: 27914323 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative human norovirus (NoV) exposure model describing transmission of NoV during pre-harvest, harvest and further processing of soft red fruits exemplified by raspberries is presented. The outcomes of the model demonstrate the presence of NoV in raspberry puree or individual quick frozen (IQF) raspberry fruits and were generated by Monte Carlo simulations by combining GoldSim® and @Risk® software. Input data were collected from scientific literature, observational studies and assumptions. NoV contamination of soft red fruits is assumed to take place at farms by application of contaminated water for pesticides dilution or by berries' pickers shedding NoV. The model was built simulating that a collection center received berries from ten farms with a total of 245 food handlers picking soft red fruits during a 10-hour day shift. Given 0, 5 and 20 out of 245 berries' pickers were shedding NoV, these conditions were calculated to result in a mean NoV contamination of respectively 0.47, 14.1 and 36.2 NoV particles per kg raspberries in case all raspberries are mixed to one day-batch of 11tons. The NoV contamination of the fruits was mainly driven by the route of NoV shedding food pickers (95.8%) rather than by spraying contaminated pesticide water (4.2%) (baseline scenario with 5 shedding pickers and contaminated pesticide water). Inclusion of appropriate hand washing procedures or hand washing followed by hand disinfection resulted in estimated reductions of the mean NoV levels from 14.1 to 0.16 and 0.17 NoV particles per kg raspberries, respectively, for the baseline scenario with 5 out of 245 food pickers shedding NoV. The use of a mild heat treatment (30s at 75°C) during further processing of berries to purees was noted to reduce mean NoV levels substantially from 14.1 to 0.2 NoV particles per kg raspberry puree. For IQF raspberries, the NoV contamination is heterogeneously distributed and resulted in a mean contamination of 3.1 NoV particles per 250g package containing approximately 115 berries. This farm-to-fork model is a useful tool for evaluating NoV mitigation strategies in the soft red fruit supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Jacxsens
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
| | - A Stals
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - A De Keuckelaere
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - B Deliens
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - A Rajkovic
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium; Department of Food Safety and Food Quality Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - M Uyttendaele
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
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20
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Sterk A, de Man H, Schijven JF, de Nijs T, de Roda Husman AM. Climate change impact on infection risks during bathing downstream of sewage emissions from CSOs or WWTPs. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 105:11-21. [PMID: 27591704 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is expected to influence infection risks while bathing downstream of sewage emissions from combined sewage overflows (CSOs) or waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) due to changes in pathogen influx, rising temperatures and changing flow rates of the receiving waters. In this study, climate change impacts on the surface water concentrations of Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium and norovirus originating from sewage were modelled. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was used to assess changes in risks of infection. In general, infection risks downstream of WWTPs are higher than downstream CSOs. Even though model outputs show an increase in CSO influxes, in combination with changes in pathogen survival, dilution within the sewage system and bathing behaviour, the effects on the infection risks are limited. However, a decrease in dilution capacity of surface waters could have significant impact on the infection risks of relatively stable pathogens like Cryptosporidium and norovirus. Overall, average risks are found to be higher downstream WWTPs compared to CSOs. Especially with regard to decreased flow rates, adaptation measures on treatment at WWTPs may be more beneficial for human health than decreasing CSO events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankie Sterk
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Jack F Schijven
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Geosciences, Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ton de Nijs
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ana Maria de Roda Husman
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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21
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Yasui N, Suwa M, Sakurai K, Suzuki Y, Tsumori J, Kobayashi K, Takabatake H, Lee ST, Yamashita N, Tanaka H. Removal characteristics and fluctuation of norovirus in a pilot-plant by an ultrafiltration membrane for the reclamation of treated sewage. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2016; 37:2793-801. [PMID: 26979931 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2016.1164760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
When ultrafiltration (UF) membrane processes that are able to effectively reduce viruses are installed in a waste water reclamation system, the security of sanitation safety for water-borne diseases is essential. It is important to understand the behaviour of enteric viruses such as Adenovirus, Rotavirus and Norovirus (NV), the detection rate of which is relatively high in sewage. This study focused on the UF membrane process for the reclaimed water treatment process, and investigated the removal performance in NV type GI and GII in the UF membrane process by performing coagulation and sedimentation as the pre-treatment process in a pilot-plant by considering the concentration fluctuation of the influent. The removal ratio of GI and GII by the UF membrane process alone was 3.3 ± 0.7 Log in GI and 3.6 ± 1.0 Log in GII, and no clear difference in the removal ratio by NV species type was observed. The removal ratio of NV GII was increased by about 0.6 Log on average (4.2 ± 1.1 Log) compared with the UF membrane process only when the coagulation and sedimentation process were conducted as pre-treatment. However, there was no significant difference in the removal of NV GI by conducting the coagulation and sedimentation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuhito Yasui
- a National Research and Development Agency Public Works Research Institute , Tokyo , Japan
- b CREST (Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology) , Japan Science and Technology Agency , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Mamoru Suwa
- a National Research and Development Agency Public Works Research Institute , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Kensuke Sakurai
- a National Research and Development Agency Public Works Research Institute , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Yutaka Suzuki
- a National Research and Development Agency Public Works Research Institute , Tokyo , Japan
- c National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Jun Tsumori
- a National Research and Development Agency Public Works Research Institute , Tokyo , Japan
- d Hamamatsu City Waterworks Bureau , Shizuoka , Japan
| | - Kentaro Kobayashi
- e Global Environment Research Laboratories , Toray Industries, Inc ., Tokyo , Japan
| | - Hiroo Takabatake
- e Global Environment Research Laboratories , Toray Industries, Inc ., Tokyo , Japan
| | - Sun Tae Lee
- f Graduate School of Engineering , Kyoto University , Kyoto , Japan
| | | | - Hiroaki Tanaka
- f Graduate School of Engineering , Kyoto University , Kyoto , Japan
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Dienus O, Sokolova E, Nyström F, Matussek A, Löfgren S, Blom L, Pettersson TJR, Lindgren PE. Norovirus Dynamics in Wastewater Discharges and in the Recipient Drinking Water Source: Long-Term Monitoring and Hydrodynamic Modeling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:10851-10858. [PMID: 27649279 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) that enters drinking water sources with wastewater discharges is a common cause of waterborne outbreaks. The impact of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) on the river Göta älv (Sweden) was studied using monitoring and hydrodynamic modeling. The concentrations of NoV genogroups (GG) I and II in samples collected at WWTPs and drinking water intakes (source water) during one year were quantified using duplex real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. The mean (standard deviation) NoV GGI and GGII genome concentrations were 6.2 (1.4) and 6.8 (1.8) in incoming wastewater and 5.3 (1.4) and 5.9 (1.4) log10 genome equivalents (g.e.) L-1 in treated wastewater, respectively. The reduction at the WWTPs varied between 0.4 and 1.1 log10 units. In source water, the concentration ranged from below the detection limit to 3.8 log10 g.e. L-1. NoV GGII was detected in both wastewater and source water more frequently during the cold than the warm period of the year. The spread of NoV in the river was simulated using a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model. The modeling results indicated that the NoV GGI and GGII genome concentrations in source water may occasionally be up to 2.8 and 1.9 log10 units higher, respectively, than the concentrations measured during the monitoring project.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Dienus
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
- Linköping University , Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Ekaterina Sokolova
- Chalmers University of Technology , Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Nyström
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
- Linköping University , Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Andreas Matussek
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
| | - Sture Löfgren
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
| | - Lena Blom
- Chalmers University of Technology , Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
- City of Gothenburg , Department of Sustainable Waste and Water, Box 123, SE-424 23 Angered, Sweden
| | - Thomas J R Pettersson
- Chalmers University of Technology , Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Per-Eric Lindgren
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
- Linköping University , Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
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Genetically distinct genogroup IV norovirus strains identified in wastewater. Arch Virol 2016; 161:3521-3525. [PMID: 27586415 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-3036-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the prevalence and genetic diversity of genogroup IV norovirus (GIV NoV) strains in wastewater in Arizona, United States, over a 13-month period. Among 50 wastewater samples tested, GIV NoVs were identified in 13 (26 %) of the samples. A total of 47 different GIV NoV strains were identified, which were classified into two genetically distinct clusters: the GIV.1 human cluster and a unique genetic cluster closely related to strains previously identified in Japanese wastewater. The results provide additional evidence of the considerable genetic diversity among GIV NoV strains through the analysis of wastewater containing virus strains shed from all populations.
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Amarasiri M, Hashiba S, Miura T, Nakagomi T, Nakagomi O, Ishii S, Okabe S, Sano D. Bacterial histo-blood group antigens contributing to genotype-dependent removal of human noroviruses with a microfiltration membrane. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 95:383-391. [PMID: 27095709 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrated the genotype-dependent removal of human norovirus particles with a microfiltration (MF) membrane in the presence of bacteria bearing histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs). Three genotypes (GII.3, GII.4, and GII.6) of norovirus-like particles (NoVLPs) were mixed with three bacterial strains (Enterobacter sp. SENG-6, Escherichia coli O86:K61:B7, and Staphylococcus epidermidis), respectively, and the mixture was filtered with an MF membrane having a nominal pore size of 0.45 μm. All NoVLP genotypes were rejected by the MF membrane in the presence of Enterobacter sp. SENG-6, which excreted HBGAs as extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). This MF membrane removal of NoVLPs was not significant when EPS was removed from cells of Enterobacter sp. SENG-6. GII.6 NoVLP was not rejected with the MF membrane in the presence of E. coli O86:K61:B7, but the removal of EPS of E. coli O86:K61:B7 increased the removal efficiency due to the interaction of NoVLPs with the exposed B-antigen in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of E. coli O86:K61:B7. No MF membrane removal of all three genotypes was observed when S. epidermidis, an HBGA-negative strain, was mixed with NoVLPs. These results demonstrate that the location of HBGAs on bacterial cells is an important factor in determining the genotype-dependent removal efficiency of norovirus particles with the MF membrane. The presence of HBGAs in mixed liquor suspended solids from a membrane bioreactor (MBR) pilot plant was confirmed by immune-transmission electron microscopy, which implies that bacterial HBGAs can contribute to the genotype-dependent removal of human noroviruses with MBR using MF membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohan Amarasiri
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Satoshi Hashiba
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Takayuki Miura
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center (NICHe), Tohoku University, 6-6-04 Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan
| | - Toyoko Nakagomi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Osamu Nakagomi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ishii
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, 258 Borlaug Hall, 1991 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Satoshi Okabe
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan.
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25
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Qiu Y, Lee B, Neumann N, Ashbolt N, Craik S, Maal-Bared R, Pang X. Assessment of human virus removal during municipal wastewater treatment in Edmonton, Canada. J Appl Microbiol 2015; 119:1729-39. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Y. Qiu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology; University of Alberta; Edmonton AB Canada
| | - B.E. Lee
- Department of Pediatrics; University of Alberta; Edmonton AB Canada
| | - N. Neumann
- School of Public health; University of Alberta; Edmonton AB Canada
- Provincial Laboratory for Public Health; Edmonton AB Canada
| | - N. Ashbolt
- School of Public health; University of Alberta; Edmonton AB Canada
| | | | | | - X.L. Pang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology; University of Alberta; Edmonton AB Canada
- Provincial Laboratory for Public Health; Edmonton AB Canada
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Moore MD, Goulter RM, Jaykus LA. Human norovirus as a foodborne pathogen: challenges and developments. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2015; 6:411-33. [PMID: 25884284 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-022814-015643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States, and they exact a considerable human and economic burden worldwide. In fact, the many challenging aspects of human NoV have caused some to call it the nearly perfect foodborne pathogen. In this review, a brief overview of NoVs and their genetic structure is provided. Additionally, the challenges and recent developments related to human NoVs regarding viral evolution, transmission, epidemiology, outbreak identification, cultivation, animal and human models, and detection are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Moore
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695;
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Hassine-Zaafrane M, Kaplon J, Ben Salem I, Sdiri-Loulizi K, Sakly N, Pothier P, Aouni M, Ambert-Balay K. Detection and genotyping of group A rotaviruses isolated from sewage samples in Monastir, Tunisia between April 2007 and April 2010. J Appl Microbiol 2015; 119:1443-53. [PMID: 26248601 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To ascertain the viral load, the distribution of G and P types of group A rotaviruses (RV-A) in sewage samples and to compare strains in clinical, animal and environmental samples. METHODS AND RESULTS During our study from April 2007 to April 2010, 518 samples of raw and treated sewage were collected from two biological sewage treatment plants (STPs) located in the Monastir region, Tunisia. RV-A was detected by real-time RT-PCR in 375 (72·4%) sewage samples. According to the quantification results of RV-A, it appears that the viral load in raw and treated sewage of the two STPs was quite similar (P = 0·735). The genotyping of RV-A strains detected in sewage samples showed a great diversity with 10 G types and 8 P types. Most of them were described as common in humans, but we also detected genotypes commonly found in animals. All the genotypes detected in two previous studies performed in our laboratory on clinical and bovine samples were also found in environmental samples. However, some genotypes commonly found in animal were only found in sewage samples. CONCLUSION The comparison of environmental, clinical and animal data suggests that STPs may convey not only human sewage but also animal wastes, both of them contaminated with numerous RV-A strains which are not efficiently eliminated by the sewage treatment process and may spread to surface waters. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This work demonstrates the potential release of human and animal RV-A into water sources, representing a public health risk, by inducing gastroenteritis in population, but also by increasing the risk of zoonotic transmission and formation of reassortant viruses which could get a higher infectious potential. Our findings also suggest that monitoring of sewage may provide an additional tool to determine the epidemiology of RV-A circulating in a given community.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hassine-Zaafrane
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biological Agents, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia.,National Reference Center for Enteric Viruses, Laboratory of Virology, University Hospital of Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - J Kaplon
- National Reference Center for Enteric Viruses, Laboratory of Virology, University Hospital of Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - I Ben Salem
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biological Agents, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - K Sdiri-Loulizi
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biological Agents, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia.,National Reference Center for Enteric Viruses, Laboratory of Virology, University Hospital of Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - N Sakly
- Laboratory of Immunology, University Hospital Fattouma Bourguiba, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - P Pothier
- National Reference Center for Enteric Viruses, Laboratory of Virology, University Hospital of Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - M Aouni
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biological Agents, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - K Ambert-Balay
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biological Agents, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
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28
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Montazeri N, Goettert D, Achberger EC, Johnson CN, Prinyawiwatkul W, Janes ME. Pathogenic Enteric Viruses and Microbial Indicators during Secondary Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:6436-45. [PMID: 26162869 PMCID: PMC4542245 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01218-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic enteric viruses are responsible for a wide range of infections in humans, with diverse symptoms. Raw and partially treated wastewaters are major sources of environmental contamination with enteric viruses. We monitored a municipal secondary wastewater treatment plant (New Orleans, LA) on a monthly basis for norovirus (NoV) GI and GII and enterovirus serotypes using multiplex reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and microbial indicators of fecal contamination using standard plating methods. Densities of indicator bacteria (enterococci, fecal coliforms, and Escherichia coli) did not show monthly or seasonal patterns. Norovirus GII was more abundant than GI and, along with enterovirus serotypes, increased in influent during fall and spring. The highest NoV GI density in influent was in the fall, reaching an average of 4.0 log10 genomic copies/100 ml. Norovirus GI removal (0.95 log10) was lower than that for GII, enterovirus serotypes, and male-specific coliphages (1.48 log10) or for indicator bacteria (4.36 log10), suggesting higher resistance of viruses to treatment. Male-specific coliphages correlated with NoV GII densities in influent and effluent (r = 0.48 and 0.76, respectively) and monthly removal, indicating that male-specific coliphages can be more reliable than indicator bacteria to monitor norovirus GII load and microbial removal. Dominant norovirus genotypes were classified into three GI genotypes (GI.1, GI.3, and GI.4) and four GII genotypes (GII.3, GII.4, GII.13, and GII.21), dominated by GI.1 and GII.4 strains. Some of the seasonal and temporal patterns we observed in the pathogenic enteric viruses were different from those of epidemiological observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naim Montazeri
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Dorothee Goettert
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Eric C Achberger
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Crystal N Johnson
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Witoon Prinyawiwatkul
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Marlene E Janes
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
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Use of sequence analysis of the P2 domain for characterization of norovirus strains causing a large multistate outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis in Germany 2012. Int J Med Microbiol 2015; 305:612-8. [PMID: 26341330 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2015.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus is the main cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. It is transmitted from person to person, by fecally contaminated food or water or through virus containing aerosols originating during vomiting of infected persons. In September and October 2012, the largest foodborne norovirus outbreak in Germany so far spread over 5 Federal States (Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia) affecting nearly 11,000 people mainly in schools and child care facilities. Epidemiological and trace-back investigations supported the assumption that a batch of frozen strawberries imported from China was the likely source of the outbreak. Sequence analysis of the capsid region encoding the P2 domain was used successfully for identification of transmission routes and epidemiologic relationship but was hampered by a lack of universal primers for all known genotypes so far. In the present study, a molecular approach was designed to track outbreak-related samples from the affected states of the large foodborne outbreak in Germany. Therefore, sequence analysis within the highly variable P2 domain of the capsid gene using newly developed universal P2 primers for genogroup I and genogroup II strains in combination with sequencing of the polymerase gene (region A) and the orf1/orf2 junction (region c) was used. The sequence analysis of 138 norovirus positive stool samples suspected to be outbreak-related revealed a considerable genomic diversity. At least 3 strains of genogroup I (I.3, I.4, and I.9) and 5 strains of genogroup II (II.6, II.7, II. 8, and recombinants II.P7_II.6, and II.P16_II.13) as well as 19 samples containing mixtures of these strains were detected. Six samples were considered as not linked to the outbreak. The most prevalent genotype was GI.4 (48/132; 36%). Genotype I.9 and the recombinant strain II.P16_II.13 were detected for the first time in Germany. Notably, the genotype II.P16_II.13 could also be determined in one of the samples of the frozen strawberry lot suspected as infection source. Especially, due to the good concordance of the P2 sequences from infected patients of 5 Federal States the outbreak-relation of the strains could be demonstrated. The high diversity of virus strains and the occurrence of sub-clusters within genotypes I.3, II.8, II.P16_II.13, and II.7 revealed the complex mixture of the outbreak source suggesting a possible waterborne fecal contamination of the strawberries. The typing system described here is in general useful for analysis of outbreaks caused by mixed infection sources. Extensive sequence analysis of different gene regions including the highly variable P2 domain in a sufficient number of cases is required to confirm the epidemiological relation of samples from outbreaks with high diversity of strains spreading over several geographic locations.
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30
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Efficiency of hepatitis A virus removal in six sewage treatment plants from central Tunisia. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:10759-69. [PMID: 26286509 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6902-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Revised: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of six Tunisian sewage treatment plants (STP) for the removal of hepatitis A virus (HAV) from wastewater was analysed in order to evaluate the potential risk for human health linked to reuse or discharge of treated wastewater into the environment. The STP utilize different biological wastewater treatments including primary treatment, which involves the physical removal of organic and inorganic solids, and secondary treatment that involves different processes, such as activated sludge or lagoon. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and conventional RT-PCR were used for the analysis of the 325 wastewater samples (163 raw and 162 treated) obtained. Results revealed highest contamination in west-central of Tunisia in raw wastewater with 62.96 % of samples positive for HAV and predominance during winter and autumn, whereas east-central region showed 50.62 % of positive samples with high prevalence from winter through summer. The quantitative analysis revealed a range between 4.29 × 10(1) and 1.24 × 10(5) RNA copies/mL in treated wastewater, showing clearly the inefficiency for total removal of HAV regardless of the treatment method used. The vast majority of HAV sequences belonged to the sub-genotype IA, except one that was assigned to sub-genotype IB.
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31
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Campos CJA, Avant J, Gustar N, Lowther J, Powell A, Stockley L, Lees DN. Fate of Human Noroviruses in Shellfish and Water Impacted by Frequent Sewage Pollution Events. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:8377-85. [PMID: 26125679 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge of the fate of human noroviruses (NoV) in the marine environment is key to better controlling shellfish-related NoV gastroenteritis. We quantified NoV and Escherichia coli in sewage from storm tank discharges and treated effluent processed by a UV-disinfection plant following activated sludge treatment and studied the fate of these microorganisms in an oyster harvesting area impacted by frequent stormwater discharges and infrequent freshwater discharges. Oyster monitoring sites were positioned at intervals downstream from the wastewater treatment works (WwTW) outfall impacting the harvesting area. The decay rates of NoV in oysters as a function of the distance from the outfall were less rapid than those for E. coli that had concentrations of NoV of the same order of magnitude and were over 7 km away from the outfall. Levels of E. coli in oysters from more tidally influenced areas of the estuary were higher around high water than around low water, whereas tidal flows had no influence on NoV contamination in the oysters. The study provides comparative data on the contamination profiles and loadings of NoV and E. coli in a commercial oyster fishery impacted by a WwTW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos J A Campos
- Weymouth Laboratory, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Dorset DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - Justin Avant
- Weymouth Laboratory, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Dorset DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - Nicole Gustar
- Weymouth Laboratory, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Dorset DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - James Lowther
- Weymouth Laboratory, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Dorset DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - Andy Powell
- Weymouth Laboratory, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Dorset DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - Louise Stockley
- Weymouth Laboratory, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Dorset DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - David N Lees
- Weymouth Laboratory, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Dorset DT4 8UB, U.K
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Meta-Analysis of the Reduction of Norovirus and Male-Specific Coliphage Concentrations in Wastewater Treatment Plants. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:4669-81. [PMID: 25934626 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00509-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States and Canada. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents impacting bivalve mollusk-growing areas are potential sources of NoV contamination. We have developed a meta-analysis that evaluates WWTP influent concentrations and log10 reductions of NoV genotype I (NoV GI; in numbers of genome copies per liter [gc/liter]), NoV genotype II (NoV GII; in gc/liter), and male-specific coliphage (MSC; in number of PFU per liter), a proposed viral surrogate for NoV. The meta-analysis included relevant data (2,943 measurements) reported in the scientific literature through September 2013 and previously unpublished surveillance data from the United States and Canada. Model results indicated that the mean WWTP influent concentration of NoV GII (3.9 log10 gc/liter; 95% credible interval [CI], 3.5, 4.3 log10 gc/liter) is larger than the value for NoV GI (1.5 log10 gc/liter; 95% CI, 0.4, 2.4 log10 gc/liter), with large variations occurring from one WWTP to another. For WWTPs with mechanical systems and chlorine disinfection, mean log10 reductions were -2.4 log10 gc/liter (95% CI, -3.9, -1.1 log10 gc/liter) for NoV GI, -2.7 log10 gc/liter (95% CI, -3.6, -1.9 log10 gc/liter) for NoV GII, and -2.9 log10 PFU per liter (95% CI, -3.4, -2.4 log10 PFU per liter) for MSCs. Comparable values for WWTPs with lagoon systems and chlorine disinfection were -1.4 log10 gc/liter (95% CI, -3.3, 0.5 log10 gc/liter) for NoV GI, -1.7 log10 gc/liter (95% CI, -3.1, -0.3 log10 gc/liter) for NoV GII, and -3.6 log10 PFU per liter (95% CI, -4.8, -2.4 PFU per liter) for MSCs. Within WWTPs, correlations exist between mean NoV GI and NoV GII influent concentrations and between the mean log10 reduction in NoV GII and the mean log10 reduction in MSCs.
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Fout GS, Cashdollar JL, Varughese EA, Parshionikar SU, Grimm AC. EPA Method 1615. Measurement of enterovirus and norovirus occurrence in water by culture and RT-qPCR. I. Collection of virus samples. J Vis Exp 2015:52067. [PMID: 25867928 PMCID: PMC4401389 DOI: 10.3791/52067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
EPA Method 1615 was developed with a goal of providing a standard method for measuring enteroviruses and noroviruses in environmental and drinking waters. The standardized sampling component of the method concentrates viruses that may be present in water by passage of a minimum specified volume of water through an electropositive cartridge filter. The minimum specified volumes for surface and finished/ground water are 300 L and 1,500 L, respectively. A major method limitation is the tendency for the filters to clog before meeting the sample volume requirement. Studies using two different, but equivalent, cartridge filter options showed that filter clogging was a problem with 10% of the samples with one of the filter types compared to 6% with the other filter type. Clogging tends to increase with turbidity, but cannot be predicted based on turbidity measurements only. From a cost standpoint one of the filter options is preferable over the other, but the water quality and experience with the water system to be sampled should be taken into consideration in making filter selections.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Shay Fout
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S Environmental Protection Agency;
| | | | - Eunice A Varughese
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S Environmental Protection Agency
| | - Sandhya U Parshionikar
- Technical Support Center, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, U.S Environmental Protection Agency
| | - Ann C Grimm
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S Environmental Protection Agency
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Zhang S, Bai R, Feng R, Zhang H, Liu L. Detection and evolutionary analysis of picobirnaviruses in treated wastewater. Microb Biotechnol 2014; 8:474-82. [PMID: 25546400 PMCID: PMC4408179 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Wastewater contains numerous viruses. In this study, picobirnaviruses (PBVs) were detected in the stream of a wastewater treatment plant in Changsha, Hunan province, China, and evolutionary analysis of the isolated PBVs was performed. The phylogenetic tree revealed that the PBVs were highly divergent and could be classified into six distinct groups according to their hosts. Among these groups, pairwise comparison of the six groups revealed that the nucleotide distance of group 4 (bootstrap value = 0.92; nucleotide identity = 94%) was the largest. Thus, group 4 might represent a new division of PBVs. Comprehensive analysis of the obtained PBV sequences to investigate their evolutionary history and phylodynamics revealed that group 5 (PBVs from monkey) exhibited maximum polymorphism (K = 30.582, S = 74, η = 98, Pa = 47) and lowest nucleotide substitutions per site per year (6.54E-3 subs per site per year), except group 4. Maximum clade credibility tree indicated that group 5 appeared earlier than the other groups. In conclusion, this study detected PBVs in treated wastewater in China, and identified a new PBV group. Furthermore, among these PBVs, group 5 was found to survive longer and present a balance between PBVs and their monkey host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiwei Zhang
- College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19A, Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, China
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Barker SF, Amoah P, Drechsel P. A probabilistic model of gastroenteritis risks associated with consumption of street food salads in Kumasi, Ghana: evaluation of methods to estimate pathogen dose from water, produce or food quality. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2014; 487:130-142. [PMID: 24784738 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2013] [Revised: 03/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
With a rapidly growing urban population in Kumasi, Ghana, the consumption of street food is increasing. Raw salads, which often accompany street food dishes, are typically composed of perishable vegetables that are grown in close proximity to the city using poor quality water for irrigation. This study assessed the risk of gastroenteritis illness (caused by rotavirus, norovirus and Ascaris lumbricoides) associated with the consumption of street food salads using Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA). Three different risk assessment models were constructed, based on availability of microbial concentrations: 1) Water - starting from irrigation water quality, 2) Produce - starting from the quality of produce at market, and 3) Street - using microbial quality of street food salad. In the absence of viral concentrations, published ratios between faecal coliforms and viruses were used to estimate the quality of water, produce and salad, and annual disease burdens were determined. Rotavirus dominated the estimates of annual disease burden (~10(-3)Disability Adjusted Life Years per person per year (DALYs pppy)), although norovirus also exceeded the 10(-4)DALY threshold for both Produce and Street models. The Water model ignored other on-farm and post-harvest sources of contamination and consistently produced lower estimates of risk; it likely underestimates disease burden and therefore is not recommended. Required log reductions of up to 5.3 (95th percentile) for rotavirus were estimated for the Street model, demonstrating that significant interventions are required to protect the health and safety of street food consumers in Kumasi. Estimates of virus concentrations were a significant source of model uncertainty and more data on pathogen concentrations is needed to refine QMRA estimates of disease burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Philip Amoah
- International Water Management Institute (IWMI) West Africa Office, PMB CT 112 Accra, Ghana
| | - Pay Drechsel
- International Water Management Institute (IWMI), P.O.B. 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka
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Hassine-Zaafrane M, Sdiri-Loulizi K, Kaplon J, Ben Salem I, Pothier P, Aouni M, Ambert-Balay K. Molecular detection of human noroviruses in influent and effluent samples from two biological sewage treatment plants in the region of Monastir, Tunisia. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2014; 6:125-31. [PMID: 24818568 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9147-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs) are responsible for numerous cases of waterborne and foodborne gastroenteritis every year. They are released in the sewage and their detection in this environment can reflect the epidemiology of the viral strains circulating in the community. A three-year (2007-2010) survey was conducted in order to evaluate the presence of human NoVs using RT-PCR in 518 sewage samples collected at the entrance and exit of two biological sewage treatment plants located in Monastir region, Tunisia. In this study, we aimed to genetically characterize the most prevalent GI and GII NoV strains, in order to obtain a rough estimate of the efficacy of disinfection treatments and to compare the results with clinical data documented in the same area during the same period. This work confirms the wide circulation and the genetic diversity of NoVs in Tunisia and the widespread distribution of NoV variants in both raw and treated wastewater. Indeed, NoV was detected in 192 (37.1%) sewage samples, among them mixed infections with group A rotavirus were detected in 125 (65.1%) cases. The genotypes of the GI NoVs were GI.1, GI.2, GI.4, GI.5, and GI of unassigned genotype (GI.UA), and the genotypes of the GII NoVs were all GII.12. This study enhances the currently poor environmental virological data gathered in Tunisia, demonstrates the benefit of environmental surveillance as a tool to determine the epidemiology of NoVs circulating in a given community, and underlines the need for the design and support of similar long-term studies in our country, in order to compensate for the absence of a national surveillance system for gastroenteric viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mouna Hassine-Zaafrane
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biological Agents, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, 5000, Monastir, Tunisia,
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Mok HF, Barker SF, Hamilton AJ. A probabilistic quantitative microbial risk assessment model of norovirus disease burden from wastewater irrigation of vegetables in Shepparton, Australia. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 54:347-62. [PMID: 24594660 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater can be an important resource for water-scarce regions of the world, but a major barrier to its use is the associated health risk. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a probabilistic modeling technique used to determine the health risks from wastewater reuse, but only a handful of QMRA studies have examined the norovirus health risks from consumption of vegetables irrigated with human wastewater, even though norovirus is a, if not the most, significant microbial cause of diarrheal disease world-wide. Furthermore, the majority of these studies have focused only on risks from lettuce consumption. To meet the knowledge gap in health risks for other vegetables, a QMRA model was constructed for agricultural wastewater irrigation in the regional city of Shepparton, Australia, using fecal shedding rates to estimate norovirus concentration in raw sewage. Annual norovirus disease burden was estimated for the consumption of lettuce, broccoli, cabbage, Asian vegetables, and cucumber after irrigation with treated wastewater. Results indicate that the waste stabilization pond treatment did not have sufficient virus removal to meet the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold for acceptable level of risk for wastewater reuse, but addition of disinfection treatments provided acceptable results for consumption of cucumber and broccoli. This is the first QMRA study to incorporate virus accumulation from previous wastewater irrigation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoi-Fei Mok
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew J Hamilton
- Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
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Control of Foodborne Viruses at Retail. RETAIL FOOD SAFETY 2014. [PMCID: PMC7122658 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1550-7_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Saitoh M, Kimura H, Kozawa K, Nishio O, Shoji A. Detection and Phylogenetic Analysis of Norovirus inCorbicula flumineain a Freshwater River in Japan. Microbiol Immunol 2013; 51:815-22. [PMID: 17895598 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2007.tb03977.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
To study the molecular epidemiology of noroviruses (NoVs) in bivalves residing in freshwater rivers, we detected, quantified and phylogenetically analyzed the NoV genome in purified concentrates obtained from the gills and digestive diverticula of Corbicula fluminea in a freshwater river in Gunma Prefecture, Japan. We detected the NoV genome in 35 of the 58 C. fluminea samples. Based on our phylogenetic analysis, the NoV genome detected in the samples was classified into 4 genotypes (GI/1, GI/2, GI/3 and GI/4) in genogroup I and 5 genotypes (GII/3, GII/4, GII/5, GII/8 and GII/12) in genogroup II. The phylogenetic tree showed wide genetic diversity among the genogroups. In addition, more than 10(4) copies of the NoV genome were detected in 2 of 35 samples. These results suggest that the freshwater bivalve C. fluminea is a reservoir for NoVs, similar to seawater bivalves such as oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Saitoh
- Gunma Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
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Barker SF, Packer M, Scales PJ, Gray S, Snape I, Hamilton AJ. Pathogen reduction requirements for direct potable reuse in Antarctica: evaluating human health risks in small communities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2013; 461-462:723-733. [PMID: 23770553 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Revised: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Small, remote communities often have limited access to energy and water. Direct potable reuse of treated wastewater has recently gained attention as a potential solution for water-stressed regions, but requires further evaluation specific to small communities. The required pathogen reduction needed for safe implementation of direct potable reuse of treated sewage is an important consideration but these are typically quantified for larger communities and cities. A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was conducted, using norovirus, giardia and Campylobacter as reference pathogens, to determine the level of treatment required to meet the tolerable annual disease burden of 10(-6) DALYs per person per year, using Davis Station in Antarctica as an example of a small remote community. Two scenarios were compared: published municipal sewage pathogen loads and estimated pathogen loads during a gastroenteritis outbreak. For the municipal sewage scenario, estimated required log10 reductions were 6.9, 8.0 and 7.4 for norovirus, giardia and Campylobacter respectively, while for the outbreak scenario the values were 12.1, 10.4 and 12.3 (95th percentiles). Pathogen concentrations are higher under outbreak conditions as a function of the relatively greater degree of contact between community members in a small population, compared with interactions in a large city, resulting in a higher proportion of the population being at risk of infection and illness. While the estimates of outbreak conditions may overestimate sewage concentration to some degree, the results suggest that additional treatment barriers would be required to achieve regulatory compliance for safe drinking water in small communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fiona Barker
- Department of Resource Management and Geography, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010 Australia.
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Calgua B, Fumian T, Rusiñol M, Rodriguez-Manzano J, Mbayed VA, Bofill-Mas S, Miagostovich M, Girones R. Detection and quantification of classic and emerging viruses by skimmed-milk flocculation and PCR in river water from two geographical areas. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:2797-810. [PMID: 23535378 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2012] [Revised: 02/16/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Molecular techniques and virus concentration methods have shown that previously unknown viruses are shed by humans and animals, and may be transmitted by sewage-contaminated water. In the present study, 10-L river-water samples from urban areas in Barcelona, Spain and Rio Janeiro, Brazil, have been analyzed to evaluate the viral dissemination of human viruses, validating also a low-cost concentration method for virus quantification in fresh water. Three viral groups were analyzed: (i) recently reported viruses, klassevirus (KV), asfarvirus-like virus (ASFLV), and the polyomaviruses Merkel cell (MCPyV), KI (KIPyV) and WU (WUPyV); (ii) the gastroenteritis agents noroviruses (NoV) and rotaviruses (RV); and (iii) the human fecal viral indicators in water, human adenoviruses (HAdV) and JC polyomaviruses (JCPyV). Virus detection was based on nested and quantitative PCR assays. For KV and ASFLV, nested PCR assays were developed for the present study. The method applied for virus concentration in fresh water samples is a one-step procedure based on a skimmed-milk flocculation procedure described previously for seawater. Using spiked river water samples, inter- and intra-laboratory assays showed a viral recovery rate of about 50% (20-95%) for HAdV, JCPyV, NoV and RV with a coefficient of variation ≤ 50%. HAdV and JCPyV were detected in 100% (12/12) of the river samples from Barcelona and Rio de Janeiro. Moreover, NoV GGII was detected in 83% (5/6) and MCPyV in 50% (3/6) of the samples from Barcelona, whereas none of the other viruses tested were detected. NoV GGII was detected in 33% (2/6), KV in 33% (2/6), ASFLV in 17% (1/6) and MCPyV in 50% (3/6) of the samples from Rio de Janeiro, whereas KIPyV and WUPyV were not detected. RV were only analyzed in Rio de Janeiro and resulted positive in 67% (4/6) of the samples. The procedure applied here to river water represents a useful, straightforward and cost-effective method that could be applied in routine water quality testing. The results of the assays expand our understanding of the global distribution of the viral pathogens studied here and their persistence in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byron Calgua
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, Barcelona 08028, Spain
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Murray TY, Mans J, Taylor MB. Human calicivirus diversity in wastewater in South Africa. J Appl Microbiol 2013; 114:1843-53. [PMID: 23414393 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
AIM To investigate the diversity of human caliciviruses (HuCVs) in wastewater from small- to medium-sized communities in five provinces of South Africa (SA). METHODS AND RESULTS Wastewater samples (51) were screened for norovirus (NoV) GI, GII, GIV and sapovirus (SaV) using real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR. Partial capsid nucleotide sequences were analysed for genotyping. At least one HuCV was detected in 42 samples (82%) with NoV GI being detected in 15 (29%), NoV GII in 32 (63%) and SaV in 37 (73%) samples. NoV GIV was not detected. Five NoV GI genotypes (GI.1, GI.3, GI.4, GI.8 and GI.unassigned), eight NoV GII genotypes (GII.2, GII.3, GII.4, GII.6, GII.7, GII.12, GII.13 and GII.17) and six SaV genotypes (GI.2, GI.3, GI.6, GI.7, GII.1 and GII.2) were characterized. CONCLUSIONS Many NoV and SaV genotypes were detected in wastewater, demonstrating a high genetic diversity of HuCVs in the surrounding communities. Caliciviruses were characterized from several provinces in SA, indicating widespread occurrence in the country. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This study provides valuable new data on CVs circulating in SA, including the first data on SaV strains from wastewater in Africa. Environmental surveillance is especially important in countries like SA where outbreak reporting systems or routine HuCV surveillance is lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Y Murray
- Department of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Arcadia, Pretoria, South Africa.
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Alhamlan F, Ederer M, Brown C, Coats E, Crawford R. Metagenomics-based analysis of viral communities in dairy lagoon wastewater. J Microbiol Methods 2013; 92:183-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2012.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 11/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
Quantitative microbiological risk assessment has hitherto been predominantly used for risks from exposure to bacteria. This chapter examines the requirements for full quantitative risk assessments for food- and waterborne viruses, and the interpretation and extrapolation of risk assessment outcomes. Future trends in quantitative risk assessment research for viruses are considered.
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Mathijs E, Stals A, Baert L, Botteldoorn N, Denayer S, Mauroy A, Scipioni A, Daube G, Dierick K, Herman L, Van Coillie E, Uyttendaele M, Thiry E. A review of known and hypothetical transmission routes for noroviruses. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2012; 4:131-52. [PMID: 23412887 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-012-9091-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 10/06/2012] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (NoVs) are considered a worldwide leading cause of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis. Due to a combination of prolonged shedding of high virus levels in feces, virus particle shedding during asymptomatic infections, and a high environmental persistence, NoVs are easily transmitted pathogens. Norovirus (NoV) outbreaks have often been reported and tend to affect a lot of people. NoV is spread via feces and vomit, but this NoV spread can occur through several transmission routes. While person-to-person transmission is without a doubt the dominant transmission route, human infective NoV outbreaks are often initiated by contaminated food or water. Zoonotic transmission of NoV has been investigated, but has thus far not been demonstrated. The presented review aims to give an overview of these NoV transmission routes. Regarding NoV person-to-person transmission, the NoV GII.4 genotype is discussed in the current review as it has been very successful for several decades but reasons for its success have only recently been suggested. Both pre-harvest and post-harvest contamination of food products can lead to NoV food borne illness. Pre-harvest contamination of food products mainly occurs via contact with polluted irrigation water in case of fresh produce or with contaminated harvesting water in case of bivalve molluscan shellfish. On the other hand, an infected food handler is considered as a major cause of post-harvest contamination of food products. Both transmission routes are reviewed by a summary of described NoV food borne outbreaks between 2000 and 2010. A third NoV transmission route occurs via water and the spread of NoV via river water, ground water, and surface water is reviewed. Finally, although zoonotic transmission remains hypothetical, a summary on the bovine and porcine NoV presence observed in animals is given and the presence of human infective NoV in animals is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Mathijs
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic diseases, Virology and Viral diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Boulevard du Colonster 20, 4000, Liège, Belgium
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Calgua B, Rodriguez-Manzano J, Hundesa A, Suñen E, Calvo M, Bofill-Mas S, Girones R. New methods for the concentration of viruses from urban sewage using quantitative PCR. J Virol Methods 2012; 187:215-21. [PMID: 23164995 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Revised: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Viruses are among the most important pathogens present in water contaminated with feces or urine and represent a serious risk to human health. Four procedures for concentrating viruses from sewage have been compared in this work, three of which were developed in the present study. Viruses were quantified using PCR techniques. According to statistical analysis and the sensitivity to detect human adenoviruses (HAdV), JC polyomaviruses (JCPyV) and noroviruses genogroup II (NoV GGII): (i) a new procedure (elution and skimmed-milk flocculation procedure (ESMP)) based on the elution of the viruses with glycine-alkaline buffer followed by organic flocculation with skimmed-milk was found to be the most efficient method when compared to (ii) ultrafiltration and glycine-alkaline elution, (iii) a lyophilization-based method and (iv) ultracentrifugation and glycine-alkaline elution. Through the analysis of replicate sewage samples, ESMP showed reproducible results with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 16% for HAdV, 12% for JCPyV and 17% for NoV GGII. Using spiked samples, the viral recoveries were estimated at 30-95% for HAdV, 55-90% for JCPyV and 45-50% for NoV GGII. ESMP was validated in a field study using twelve 24-h composite sewage samples collected in an urban sewage treatment plant in the North of Spain that reported 100% positive samples with mean values of HAdV, JCPyV and NoV GGII similar to those observed in other studies. Although all of the methods compared in this work yield consistently high values of virus detection and recovery in urban sewage, some require expensive laboratory equipment. ESMP is an effective low-cost procedure which allows a large number of samples to be processed simultaneously and is easily standardizable for its performance in a routine laboratory working in water monitoring. Moreover, in the present study, a CV was applied and proposed as a parameter to evaluate and compare the methods for detecting viruses in sewage samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byron Calgua
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, Barcelona 08028, Spain
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Poma HR, Cacciabue DG, Garcé B, Gonzo EE, Rajal VB. Towards a rational strategy for monitoring of microbiological quality of ambient waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2012; 433:98-109. [PMID: 22771467 PMCID: PMC4492939 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2012] [Revised: 06/07/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Water is one of the main sources of human exposure to microbiological hazards. Although legislation establishes regulatory standards in terms of fecal indicator bacteria to assess the microbiological quality of water, these do not necessarily predict the presence of pathogens such as parasites and viruses. Better surveillance and management strategies are needed to assess the risk of pathogens' waterborne transmission. We established a baseline dataset to characterize river water quality, identify changes over time, and design a rational monitoring strategy. Data from a year-long monthly monitoring campaign of the polluted Arenales River (Argentina), were analyzed to statistically correlate physicochemical and microbiological variables, the seasonal and longitudinal variations of the water quality and determine the similarity between study sites. The measured variables (sixteen) reflected the deterioration in the river quality through the city. Different viruses and parasites found did not correlate with the concentration of total and thermotolerant coliforms. There was significant seasonal variation for temperature, turbidity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, enterococci, and norovirus. Strong correlations between some variables were found; we selected eight variables (dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, total and thermotolerant coliforms, Enterococcus, and adenovirus and Microsporidium as viral and parasitological indicators, respectively) for future monitoring. There was similarity between the monitoring locations, which were grouped into four clusters validated by cophenetic correlation and supported by discriminant analysis. This allowed us to reduce the number of sites, from eleven down to five. Sixty seven percent of the total variance and the correlation structure between variables were explained using five principal components. All these analyses led to a new long-term systematic monitoring scheme. A rational monitoring strategy based on the selection of the most suitable monitoring points and of the most significant variables to measure, will result in optimal use of the limited resources available to adequately protect the public and environmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Ramiro Poma
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
| | | | - Beatriz Garcé
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
| | - Elio Emilio Gonzo
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
| | - Verónica Beatriz Rajal
- INIQUI-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta, 4400, Argentina
- Fogarty International Center, CCRBM, 6519 GBSF, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Rodríguez-Lázaro D, Cook N, Ruggeri FM, Sellwood J, Nasser A, Nascimento MSJ, D'Agostino M, Santos R, Saiz JC, Rzeżutka A, Bosch A, Gironés R, Carducci A, Muscillo M, Kovač K, Diez-Valcarce M, Vantarakis A, von Bonsdorff CH, de Roda Husman AM, Hernández M, van der Poel WHM. Virus hazards from food, water and other contaminated environments. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2012; 36:786-814. [PMID: 22091646 PMCID: PMC7114518 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00306.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous viruses of human or animal origin can spread in the environment and infect people via water and food, mostly through ingestion and occasionally through skin contact. These viruses are released into the environment by various routes including water run-offs and aerosols. Furthermore, zoonotic viruses may infect humans exposed to contaminated surface waters. Foodstuffs of animal origin can be contaminated, and their consumption may cause human infection if the viruses are not inactivated during food processing. Molecular epidemiology and surveillance of environmental samples are necessary to elucidate the public health hazards associated with exposure to environmental viruses. Whereas monitoring of viral nucleic acids by PCR methods is relatively straightforward and well documented, detection of infectious virus particles is technically more demanding and not always possible (e.g. human norovirus or hepatitis E virus). The human pathogenic viruses that are most relevant in this context are nonenveloped and belong to the families of the Caliciviridae, Adenoviridae, Hepeviridae, Picornaviridae and Reoviridae. Sampling methods and strategies, first-choice detection methods and evaluation criteria are reviewed.
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Kitajima M, Haramoto E, Phanuwan C, Katayama H, Furumai H. Molecular detection and genotyping of human noroviruses in influent and effluent water at a wastewater treatment plant in Japan. J Appl Microbiol 2012; 112:605-13. [PMID: 22221550 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2012.05231.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the prevalence, seasonality and genotype distribution of human noroviruses (NoVs) in wastewater in Japan. METHODS AND RESULTS Influent and effluent water samples were collected monthly for a year from a wastewater treatment plant and examined for the presence of genogroups I and II (GI and GII) NoVs. Using real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR assays, 12 (100%) influent and six (50%) effluent samples were positive for both GI and GII NoV genomes, with a higher prevalence in winter. A total of 152 different NoV strains, comprising 84 GI and 68 GII strains, were identified using seminested RT-PCR assays followed by cloning and sequence analysis. These strains were classified into nine GI genotypes (GI/1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12 and 14) and 13 GII genotypes (GII/1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 and 16), showing considerable genetic diversity. CONCLUSIONS Based on the partial capsid gene sequences, we identified a great number of NoV strains belonging to many genotypes, demonstrating that genetically diverse NoV strains are co-circulating in aquatic environments and human populations. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Our results clearly demonstrate the seasonal trend and genetic diversity of NoVs in wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kitajima
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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Baert L, Mattison K, Loisy-Hamon F, Harlow J, Martyres A, Lebeau B, Stals A, Van Coillie E, Herman L, Uyttendaele M. Review: Norovirus prevalence in Belgian, Canadian and French fresh produce: A threat to human health? Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 151:261-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/14/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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