Assessing the concentration of phthalate esters (PAEs) and bisphenol A (BPA) and the genotoxic potential of treated wastewater (final effluent) in Saudi Arabia

Chemical-toxicological insights and process comparison for estrogenic activity mitigation in municipal wastewater treatment plants

Efforts in water ecosystem conservation require an understanding of causative factors and removal efficacies associated with mixture toxicity during wastewater treatment. This study conducts a comprehensive investigation into the interplay between wastewater estrogenic activity and 30 estrogen-like endocrine disrupting chemicals (EEDCs) across 12 municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) spanning four seasons in China. Results reveal substantial estrogenic activity in all WWTPs and potential endocrine-disrupting risks in over 37.5 % of final effluent samples, with heightened effects during colder seasons. While phthalates are the predominant EEDCs (concentrations ranging from 86.39 %) for both estrogenic activity and major EEDCs (phthalates and estrogens), with the secondary and tertiary treatment segments contributing 88.59 ± 8.12 % and 11.41 ± 8.12 %, respectively. Among various secondary treatment processes, the anaerobic/anoxic/oxic-membrane bioreactor (A/A/O-MBR) excels in removing both estrogenic activity and EEDCs. In tertiary treatment, removal efficiencies increase with the inclusion of components involving physical, chemical, and biological removal principles. Furthermore, correlation and multiple liner regression analysis establish a significant (p < 0.05) positive association between solid retention time (SRT) and removal efficiencies of estrogenic activity and EEDCs within WWTPs. This study provides valuable insights from the perspective of prioritizing key pollutants, the necessity of integrating more efficient secondary and tertiary treatment processes, along with adjustments to operational parameters like SRT, to mitigate estrogenic activity in municipal WWTPs. This contribution aids in managing endocrine-disrupting risks in wastewater as part of ecological conservation efforts.

Toxicity of bisphenol A and p-nitrophenol on tomato plants: Morpho-physiological, ionomic profile, and antioxidants/defense-related gene expression studies

Bisphenol A (BPA) and p-nitrophenol (PNP) are emerging contaminants of soils due to their wide presence in agricultural and industrial products. Thus, the present study aimed to integrate morpho-physiological, ionic homeostasis, and defense- and antioxidant-related genes in the response of tomato plants to BPA or PNP stress, an area of research that has been scarcely studied. In this work, increasing the levels of BPA and PNP in the soil intensified their drastic effects on the biomass and photosynthetic pigments of tomato plants. Moreover, BPA and PNP induced osmotic stress on tomato plants by reducing soluble sugars and soluble proteins relative to control. The soil contamination with BPA and PNP treatments caused a decline in the levels of macro- and micro-elements in the foliar tissues of tomatoes while simultaneously increasing the contents of non-essential micronutrients. The Fourier transform infrared analysis of the active components in tomato leaves revealed that BPA influenced the presence of certain functional groups, resulting in the absence of some functional groups, while on PNP treatment, there was a shift observed in certain functional groups compared to the control. At the molecular level, BPA and PNP induced an increase in the gene expression of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase, with the exception of POD gene expression under BPA stress. The expression of the thaumatin-like protein gene increased at the highest level of PNP and a moderate level of BPA without any significant effect of both pollutants on the expression of the tubulin (TUB) gene. The comprehensive analysis of biochemical responses in tomato plants subjected to BPA and PNP stress illustrates valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying tolerance to these pollutants.

Efficient adsorption of organic pollutants phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) utilizing magnetite functionalized covalent organic frameworks (MCOFs): A promising future material for industrial applications

The utilization of phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) as the major component in plastic and its derivative industry has raised concerns among the public due to the harmful effects caused by these organic pollutants. These pollutants are found to exhibit unique physicochemical properties that allow the pollutants to have prolonged existence in the environment, thus causing damage to the environment. Since phthalates and bisphenol A are used in a variety of industrial applications, the industry must recover these compounds from its water before releasing the pollutants into the environment. As a result, these materials have a promising future in industrial applications. Therefore, the discovery of new quick and reliable abatement technologies is important to ensure that these organic pollutants can be detected and removed from the water sources. This review highlights the use of the adsorption method to remove phthalates and BPA from water sources by employing novel modified adsorbent magnetite functionalized covalent organic frameworks (MCOFs). MCOFs is a new class of porous materials that have demonstrated promising features in a variety of applications due to their adaptable structures, significant surface areas, configurable porosity, and customizable chemistry. The structural attributes, functional design strategies, and specialized for environmental applications before offering some closing thoughts and suggestions for further research were discussed in this paper in addition to developing an innovative solution for the industry to the accessibility for clean water.

Seasonal distribution characteristics and ecological risk assessment of phthalate esters in surface sediment of Songhua River basin

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are typical industrial chemicals used in China. PAEs have received considerable attention because of their ubiquity and potential hazard to humans and the ecology. The spatiotemporal distributions of six PAEs in the surface sediments of the Songhua River in the spring (March), summer (July), and autumn (September) are investigated in this study. The total concentration of phthalic acid esters (∑6PAEs) ranges from 1.62 × 102 ng g-1 dry weight (dw) to 3.63 × 104 ng g-1·dw, where the amount in the spring is substantially higher (p < 0.01) than those in the autumn and summer. Seasonal variations in PAEs may be due to rainfall and temperature. The ∑6PAEs in the Songhua River's upper reaches are significantly higher than those in the middle and lower reaches (p < 0.05). Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are the two most abundant PAEs. The ecological hazard of five PAEs is assessed using the hazard quotient method. DBP and DEHP pose moderate or high ecological risks to aquatic organisms at various trophic levels. PAEs originate primarily from industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources. Absolute principal components-multiple linear regression results indicate that agricultural sources are the most dominant contributor to the ∑6PAEs (53.7%). Guidelines for controlling PAEs pollution in the Songhua River are proposed.

Bisphenols and phthalates in Australian wastewater: A statistical approach for estimating contributions from diffuse and point sources

Chemicals associated with plastics, such as bisphenols and phthalates, enter sewerage from both diffuse (domestic/commercial) and point (industrial) sources. In this study, we aimed to devise a conservative, statistical baseline to estimate contributions from these source types when sampling of specific sources is not possible. Population-normalised mass loads of two bisphenols and nine phthalates were estimated in wastewater samples from 22 sewage treatment plants (STPs) in 2019. Two multiday (10 and 7 day) pools were created for each STP. Baseline (diffuse) release thresholds were set at the mean of the first quartile (Q1) plus 10 times the standard deviation (STDV) of this quartile [Q1 mean + (10 x STDV)], with contributions over this considered to come from point sources. Chemicals with at least one population-normalised mass load more than three times their baseline were classified as point-source dominant and the remaining as diffuse-source dominant. Eleven of the twelve chemicals examined were detected above limits of quantification in all wastewater samples. Bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP) and di-methyl phthalate (DMP) were classified as point-source dominant chemicals. The total annual mass loads entering STPs across Australia were estimated to be 4.2 tonnes/year from diffuse sources and 4.5 tonnes/year from point sources for bisphenols, and 47 tonnes/year from diffuse sources and 5.9 tonnes/year from point sources for phthalates.

Review of Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) in China's water environments: Implications for environmental fate, transport and health risks

Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) are ubiquitous in soil and water system and have become a great issue of environmental and public health concern since the 1990s. However, the occurrence and mechanism(s) of EDCs' migration and transformation at the watershed scale are poorly understood. A review of EDCs pollution in China's major watersheds (and comparison to other countries) has been carried out to better assess these issues and associated ecological risks, compiling a large amount of data. Comparing the distribution characteristics of EDCs in water environments around the world and analyzing various measures and systems for managing EDCs internationally, the significant insights of the review are: 1) There are significant spatial differences and concentration variations of EDCs in surface water and groundwater in China, yet all regions present non-negligible ecological risks. 2) The hyporheic zone, as a transitional zone of surface water and groundwater interaction, can effectively adsorb and degrade EDCs and prevent the migration of high concentrations of EDCs from surface water to groundwater. This suggests that more attention needs to be paid to the role played by critical zones in water environments, when considering the removal of EDCs in water environments. 3) In China, there is a lack of comprehensive and effective regulations to limit and reduce EDCs generated during human activities and their discharge into the water environment. 4) To prevent the deterioration of surface water and groundwater quality, the monitoring and management of EDCs in water environments should be strengthened in China. This review provides a thorough survey of scientifically valid data and recommendations for the development of policies for the management of EDCs in China's water environment.

Acute exposure to realistic concentrations of Bisphenol-A trigger health damage in fish: Blood parameters, gene expression, oxidative stress

Despite much information regarding BPA toxicity in fish and other aquatic organisms, data is still misleading as most studies have utilized concentrations several orders of magnitude higher than those typically found in the environment. As an illustration, eight of the ten studies investigating the impact of BPA on the biochemical and hematological parameters of fish have employed concentrations on the order of mg/L. Therefore, the results may not accurately represent the effects observed in the natural environment. Considering the information above, our study aimed to 1) determine whether or not realistic concentrations of BPA might alter the biochemical and blood parameters of Danio rerio and trigger an inflammatory response in the fish liver, brain, gills, and gut and 2) determine which organ could be more affected after exposure to this chemical. Findings pinpoint that realistic concentrations of BPA prompted a substantial increase in antioxidant and oxidant biomarkers in fish, triggering an oxidative stress response in all organs. Likewise, the expression of different genes related to inflammation and apoptosis response was significantly augmented in all organs. Our Pearson correlation shows gene expression was closely associated with the oxidative stress response. Regarding blood parameters, acute exposure to BPA generated biochemical and hematological parameters increased concentration-dependent. Thus, it can be concluded that BPA, at environmentally relevant concentrations, threatens aquatic species, as it prompts polychromasia and liver dysfunction in fish after acute exposure.

The fate of phthalate acid esters in wastewater treatment plants and their impact on receiving waters

Phthalates (PAEs) are gaining attention and being researched as an endocrine disruptor as global plastic use surge. There is an urgent need to explore the key factors affecting the removal of PAEs from wastewater and the impact of wastewater effluent on receiving water. Here we investigated the levels and distribution patterns of 16 typical PAEs in surface water and five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) along the Dongyang River from Yiwu, China, collecting 42 surface water and 31 wastewater samples. We found that influent PAEs concentration and treatment process were the key factors affecting the degradation efficiency of PAEs in primary and secondary treatment, respectively. In primary treatment, long-chain PAEs were more easily removed (and sometimes less likely to accumulate) than short-chain PAEs, regardless of the influent PAEs concentration (a key factor in primary treatment), while in secondary treatment, short-chain PAEs were easily removed regardless of the treatment process (a factor in secondary treatment). This was not the case for long-chain PAEs, which were only more readily removed in the A/A/O process. In addition, by comparing the significant differences between wastewater and surface water, we found that the total PAEs in the treated effluent were significantly lower than in surface water upstream and in built-up urban areas, indicating that wastewater discharges in the study area did not increase PAEs in the receiving water. Finally, river in the city center and artificial treatment facilities in the study area were identified as requiring priority attention. The results of this study can serve as a model for controlling PAEs in other similar developing cities in China and provide valuable information on the fate of endocrine disruptor from wastewater treatment in China and their impact on surface water.

Integrated genotoxicity of secondary and tertiary treatment effluents in North China

Genotoxic effects on aquatic organisms caused by wastewater discharging have raised extensive concerns. However, the efficiency of various wastewater treatment processes to reduce effluent genotoxicity was not well known. Genotoxic effects of effluents from four secondary wastewater treatment plants (SWTPs) and a tertiary wastewater treatment plant (TTP) in north China on Chinese rare minnows (Gobiocypris rarus) were evaluated and the toxicity reduction efficiency of various treatment techniques was compared. SWTPs and TTP final effluents disturbed the antioxidant system and lipid peroxidation, with malondialdehyde (MDA) contents in the fish livers and gills increasing to 1.4-2.4 folds and 1.6-3.1 folds of control, respectively. Significant increases in erythrocytes micronucleus (MN) frequency were induced by effluent, and liver DNA damage caused by final SWTPs effluent was 29-54 % lower than TTP effluent. Further, DNA repair gene atm and growth arrest gene gadd45a were remarkably upregulated by SWTP and TTP final effluents to 1.8-12 folds and 4.1-15 folds, respectively, being consistent with the chromosomal aberration and DNA damage in liver tissue. Integrated biomarker response (IBR) of the tertiary effluent was 49 %-69 % lower than the secondary effluents. However, the final ozone disinfection at TTP caused an increase in the DNA damage, suggesting the generation of genotoxic by-products. UV disinfection at secondary treatment removed part of genotoxicity, with a reduction in IBR of 0 %-47 %. The total semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) detected in the final effluent contained 5 %-56 % potential genotoxic substances, removal of which was 9 %-51 % lower than non-genotoxic compounds. Microfiltration and reverse osmosis process exhibited good performance in removing both the integrated genotoxicity and the potential genotoxic SVOCs. Our finding shows that TTP is superior than SWTP for wastewater treatment due to higher genotoxicity removal, but ozone disinfection needs improvement by optimizing performance parameters or adding post-treatment processes, to achieve better protection for aquatic organisms against genotoxic contaminants.

The potential roles of carotenoids in enhancing phytoremediation of bisphenol A contaminated soil by promoting plant physiology and modulating rhizobacterial community of tobacco

The widespread occurrence of bisphenol A (BPA), a typical endocrine-disrupting compound, poses potential threat to ecosystem and public health. Carotenoids are essential natural pigments, playing important roles in photosynthesis and antioxidant defense of plants. This study aimed to verify the value of carotenoids in enhancing plant tolerance to BPA stress and improving phytoremediation efficiency of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), through exogenous application of β-carotene (a typical carotenoid) and endogenous upregulation of carotenoids by overexpression of β-carotene hydroxylase (chyb) gene in tobacco. The results demonstrated that exogenous applied β-carotene alleviated the toxic effects of BPA exposure (100 mg kg^-1) on wild-type (WT) tobacco plants after being cultivated for 40 d, reflecting by the increase of biomass (201.2%), chlorophyll content (27.5%) and the decrease of malondialdehyde (MDA) content (70.7%). Similar with the results of exogenous application of β-carotene, chyb gene overexpressing tobacco showed less phytotoxicity exposed to BPA, through enhancing photosynthetic efficiency (42.1%) and reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (18%). Notably, about 94.8% BPA in contaminated soil was removed under the cultivation of transgenic tobacco for 40 d, however, only 82.7% was removed in that of WT tobacco. Moreover, transgenic tobacco is beneficial for the growth of plant roots, thus upregulating the abundance of bacteria contributing to BPA degradation or soil nutrient cycling (e.g., Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Sphingomonas and MND1), which might further help to enhance plant growth and improve BPA removal efficiency in soil. This study extended our understanding of the possible mechanisms of carotenoids-involved alleviation of BPA stress in tobacco, providing a novel strategy to improve phytoremediation efficiency of plants in BPA contaminated soil.

Groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and bisphenol A: origin, characteristics, transport, and fate - A review

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) or phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) that may harm biota and human health. Humans can be exposed to these contaminants by drinking water consumption from water sources such as groundwater. Before their presence in aquifer systems, phthalates and BPA can be found in many matrices due to anthropogenic activities, which result in long-term transport to groundwater reservoirs by different mechanisms and reaction processes. The worldwide occurrence of phthalates and BPA concentrations in groundwater have ranged from 0.1 × 10^-3 to 3 203.33 µg L^-1 and from 0.09 × 10^-3 to 228.04 µg L^-1, respectively. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe the groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and BPA from the main environmental sources to groundwater. Overall, this article provides an overview that integrates phthalate and BPA environmental cycling, from their origin to human reception via groundwater consumption. Additionally, in this review, the readers can use the information provided as a principal basis for existing policy ratification and for governments to develop legislation that may incorporate these endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) as priority contaminants. Indeed, this may trigger the enactment of regulatory guidelines and public policies that help to reduce the exposure of these EDCs in humans by drinking water consumption.

Occurrence and distribution of phthalate esters and microplastics in wastewater treatment plants in Taiwan and their toxicological risks

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are fat soluble synthetic chemicals, usually regarded as plasticizers for being added in numerous plastic products. Thus, environmental and health hazards of PAEs are associated with increasing plastic pollution. In this study, PAEs from sludge samples collected from water, sewage, and industrial treatment plants (N = 17) were analyzed using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. Microplastics (MPs) were also quantified and correlated with PAEs. Results showed the highest average PAE concentrations in sewage treatment plants. The greatest ΣPAEs concentration were found in sewage treatment plant (STP4) with 32,414 μg/kg dw, while the lowest found in water treatment plant (WTP3) with 2062 μg/kg dw. Among different PAEs, di-(2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP) contributes the highest. Similarly, DEHP, di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP) and diisononyl phthalate (DiNP) significantly correlated with the total PAEs indicating their large contribution to sludge contamination. The abundance of microplastics in sludge ranged between 1 and 7 MP/g, highest at ITP6, but not detected in some stations. While microplastics may potentially increase PAEs, there was no significant relationship between ΣPAEs and MP abundance. The estimated human daily intake of DEHP and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) when contaminated sludge be used showed low toxicological risks to exposed adults. This research presents the sludge characteristics, PAEs, and microplastic concentrations in different wastewater treatment plants in Taiwan. PAE contamination was highly contributed by domestic and industrial wastes shown by their significant amounts in STP and ITP. Results further provide evidence for potential sludge recycling (WTP sludge) and application to soil.

Apoptotic susceptibility of pancreatic alpha cells to environmentally relevant dose levels of bisphenol-A versus dibutyl phthalate is mediated by HSP60/caspase-3 expression in male albino rats

Unfortunately, humanity is exposed to mixed plasticizers such as bisphenol-A (BPA) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) that are leached from the daily used plastic products. Previous studies have demonstrated their potential in pancreatic beta cell injury and diabetes induction. The study hypothesized that both compounds would affect the pancreatic alpha cells in albino rats when administered at environmentally relevant doses. Heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) and caspase-3 protein expression was also investigated as potential mechanisms. Thirty-six male Wistar albino rats were separated into four equal groups: control, BPA alone, DBP alone, and BPA + DBP combined groups. BPA and DBP were given in drinking water for 45 days in a dose of 4.5 and 0.8 µg/L, respectively. Fasting blood glucose, serum insulin, pancreatic tissue levels of malondialdehyde, and superoxide dismutase were measured. Pancreatic sections were subjected to hematoxylin & eosin (H & E) staining, glucagon, HSP60, and caspase-3 immunohistochemistry. Although all three experimental groups showed diffuse islet cell HSP60 immunoreactivity, rats exposed to BPA alone showed α-cell-only apoptosis, indicated by H & E changes and caspase-3 immunoreactivity, associated with reduced glucagon immunoreaction. However, rats exposed to DBP alone showed no changes in either α or β-cells. Both combined-exposed animals displayed α and β apoptotic changes associated with islet atrophy and reduced glucagon expression. In conclusion, the study suggested HSP60/caspase-3 interaction, caspase-3 activation, and initiation of apoptosis in α-cell only for BPA-alone exposure group, meanwhile DBP alone did not progress to apoptosis. Interestingly, both α/β cell effect was observed in the mixed group implying synergetic/additive action of both chemicals when combined.

Estrogenic activity and ecological risk of steroids, bisphenol A and phthalates after secondary and tertiary sewage treatment processes

Effluents of sewage treatment plants (STPs) are an important source of estrogenic substances to the receiving water bodies affecting their ecological safety. In this study, steroids, bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates were assessed in the secondary (SE) and tertiary effluent (TE) of three typical urban STPs in Beijing (China). In addition, the overall estrogenic activity in these effluents was assessed by an in-vitro bioassay (ERE-CALUX). Results showed that the concentrations and activities of estrogenic compounds in TE were lower than those in SE. The residual concentration of 17β-estradiol (E2) was the highest among the detected steroids, accounting for 51.6 ± 5.1% in SE and 57.5 ± 24.8% in TE. The residual level (25.2-41.6 ng/L) of BPA in effluents was significantly higher than that of steroids (0.2-28.8 ng/L). The residual concentration of diethyl phthalate was the highest among the detected phthalates accounting for 47.1 ± 5.1% in SE and 37.6 ± 11.5% in TE. Steroids and BPA had a higher removal rate (83.5% and 96.7%) in secondary and tertiary treatment than phthalates (68.8% and 83.1%). The hydrophobic characteristics of these estrogenic compounds determined the removal mechanism. The removal of steroids, BPA, dimethyl phthalate and diethyl phthalate (LogKow= 1.61-4.15) mainly occurred through biodegradation in the water phase, while the removal of dibutyl phthalate, butylbenzyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (LogKow= 4.27-7.50) mainly occurred in the solid phase after adsorption on and sedimentation of the suspended particulate matter. According to ERE-CALUX, the estrogenic activity in the final STP effluents was 3.2-45.6 ng E2-equivalents/L, which is higher than reported levels in the effluents of European STPs. Calculation of estrogenic equivalents by using substance specific chemical analysis indicated that the dominant contributor was E2 (56.4-88.4%), followed by 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) (4.1-34.8%), both also exerting a moderate risk to the aquatic ecosystem. While the upgrade of treatment processes in STPs has efficiently reduced the emission of estrogenic substances, their ecological risk was not yet phased out.

Accurate Removal of Toxic Organic Pollutants from Complex Water Matrices

Characteristic emerging pollutants at low concentration have raised much attention for causing a bottleneck in water remediation, especially in complex water matrices where high concentration of interferents coexist. In the future, tailored treatment methods are therefore of increasing significance for accurate removal of target pollutants in different water matrices. This critical review focuses on the overall strategies for accurately removing highly toxic emerging pollutants in the presence of typical interferents. The main difficulties hindering the improvement of selectivity in complex matrices are analyzed, implying that it is difficult to adopt a universal approach for multiple targets and water substrates. Selective methods based on assorted principles are proposed aiming to improve the anti-interference ability. Thus, typical approaches and fundamentals to achieve selectivity are subsequently summarized including their mechanism, superiority and inferior position, application scope, improvement method and the bottlenecks. The results show that different methods may be applicable to certain conditions and target pollutants. To better understand the mechanism of each selective method and further select the appropriate method, advanced methods for qualitative and quantitative characterization of selectivity are presented. The processes of adsorption, interaction, electron transfer, and bond breaking are discussed. Some comparable selective quantitative methods are helpful for promoting the development of related fields. The research framework of selectivity removal and its fundamentals are established. Presently, although continuous advances and remarkable achievements have been attained in the selective removal of characteristic organic pollutants, there are still various substantial challenges and opportunities. It is hopeful to inspire the researches on the new generation of water and wastewater treatment technology, which can selectively and preferentially treat characteristic pollutants, and establish a reliable research framework to lead the direction of environmental science.

In situ monitoring of phthalate esters (PAEs) pollution and environmental risk assessment in Poyang Lake Basin by DGT Technology using cyclodextrin polymer as binding phase

Poyang Lake is the first freshwater lake in China, which is an important drinking water source. In recent years, industrial pollution has led to the increased phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in Poyang Lake. PAEs are a class of typical endocrine disruptors that can accumulate in organisms and interfere with their secretion systems. Thus, the accurate determination of PAEs in Poyang Lake is important for health risk prediction and the development of corresponding control means. Monitoring organic pollutants in water using the diffusive gradient in thin films technique (DGT) has attracted much attention due to more accuracy and convenience than the traditional methods. This study used an inexpensive amphiphilic cyclodextrin polymer (PBCD) as the sorbent for the binding gel. This new binding gel has an ultra-high specific surface area and excellent adsorption performance. Diffusion coefficients of the five PAEs were determined, and the performance of DGT such as adsorption capacity and deployment time (1-4 days) was tested using five PAEs as models. The assembled PBCD-DGT was used to examine the performance in a complex simulated water environment. The sampling capability of PBCD-DGT was verified in Yangshan Lake, and a large-scale field application was conducted in Poyang Lake basin. The results of 11 sampling points showed that the concentration ranges of dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, diallyl phthalate, dipropyl phthalate, and dibutyl phthalate were 434-2594 ng/L, 40-314 ng/L, 80-527 ng/L, 45-308 ng/L, and ND-182 ng/L, respectively. The health risk index (HI) and ecological risk quotient (RQ) values of PAEs in the Poyang Lake watershed were far below 1, indictating a lower health and ecological risk. Considering that PAEs are bioaccumulative and persistent, it is very necessary to continue to pay attention to its pollution status and health and ecological risk changes in Poyang Lake Basin in the future.

Phthalates in the environment: characteristics, fate and transport, and advanced wastewater treatment technologies

Phthalates are well-known emerging contaminants that harm human health and the environment. Therefore, this review aims to discuss about the occurrence, fate, and phthalates concentration in the various environmental matrices (e.g., aquatic, sediment, soil, and sewage sludge). Hence, it is necessary to treat sources containing phthalates before discharging them to aqueous environment. Various advanced wastewater treatments including adsorption process (e.g., biochar, activated carbon), advanced oxidation processes (e.g., photo-fenton, ozonation, photocatalysis), and biological treatment (membrane bioreactor) have been successfully to address this issue with high removal efficiencies (70-95%). Also, the degradation mechanism was discussed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phthalate removal for the reader. Additionally, key factors that influenced the phthalates removal efficiency of these technologies were identified and summarized with a view towards pilot-scale and industrial applications.

A review on occurrence of emerging pollutants in waters of the MENA region

Little is known about the occurrence of emerging pollutants (EPs) in waters in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region despite the extensive use of low-quality water there. Available data dealing with the sources, occurrence and removal of EPs within the MENA region in different categories of water is collected, presented and analyzed in this literature review. According to the collected database, the occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the water matrix in the MENA region is available, respectively, for 13 and six countries of the 18 in total; no available data is registered for the rest. Altogether, 290 EPs have been observed in different water matrices across the MENA countries, stemming mainly from industrial effluents, agricultural practices, and discharge or reuse of treated wastewater (TWW). Pharmaceutical compounds figure among the most frequently reported compounds in wastewater, TWW, surface water, and drinking water. Nevertheless, pesticides are the most frequently detected pollutants in groundwater. Worryingly, 57 cases of EPs have been reported in different fresh and drinking waters, exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) and European Commission (EC) thresholds. Overall, pharmaceuticals, organic compounds, and pesticides are the most concerning EP groups. The review revealed the ineffectiveness of treatment processes used in the region to remove EPs. Negative removals of some EPs such as carbamazepine, erythromycin, and sulfamethoxazole were recorded, suggesting their possible accumulation or release during treatment. This underlines the need to set in place and strengthen control measures, treatment procedures, standards, and policies for such pollutants in the region.

Cyto-genotoxic potential of petroleum refinery wastewater mixed with domestic sewage used for irrigation of food crops in the vicinity of an oil refinery

Petroleum refinery wastewater combined with domestic sewage were collected from the open channel in the vicinity of Mathura oil refinery, UP (India) and analysed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for elemental analysis and organic pollutants, respectively. Several potentially toxic and non-toxic elements were found to be present in the wastewater samples. GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of several organic contaminants including pesticides. Wastewater samples were extracted using amberlite XAD4/8 resins and liquid-liquid extraction procedures using different organic solvents. The extracts were tested for their cyto-genotoxic potential using bacterial (Salmonella mutagenicity test, E. coli K-12 DNA repair defective mutants, Bacteriophage λ assay) and plant (Vigna mungo phytotoxicity test, Allium cepa chromosomal aberration assay) systems. A significant increase was observed in the number of revertants of TA97a, TA98 and TA100 strains with the test samples and XAD concentrated samples were found to be more mutagenic than liquid-liquid extracts. Colony forming units (CFUs) of DNA repair defective mutants of E. coli K-12 recA, lexA and polA declined significantly as compared to their isogenic wild-type counterparts with the test samples. Significant reduction in plaque forming units (PFUs) of bacteriophage λ was also found on treatment with the solvent extracts. Presence of several toxic pollutants in the wastewater apply prohibitive action on the seed germination process. Germination rate of Vigna mungo seeds as well as radicle and plumule lengths were found to be affected when treated with different concentration of wastewater as compared to control. Present study also indicated concentration dependent reduction in mitotic index of A. cepa i.e., 16.38% at 5% and 9.74% at 100% wastewater and percentage of aberrant cells were highest at 100% effluent. Present findings indicated that mutagenicity/genotoxicity of wastewater is due to the mixture of genotoxins; poses serious hazards to the receiving waterbodies which require continuous monitoring and remedial measures for their improvement.

Phthalate esters in surface sediments from fishing ports in Circum-Bohai-Sea region, China

The concentration, composition, distribution, and possible sources of phthalate esters (PAEs) in surface sediments from fishing ports in the Circum-Bohai-Sea region were investigated. The potential ecological risks of PAEs on three sensitive aquatic organisms (algae, crustacean, and fish) were assessed based on the risk quotient. The concentrations of 16 PAEs were in the range of 8.53-86.13 μg/g. Six PAEs, which were considered as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, were main congeners. Fishing ports with high PAE concentration were located near the eastern area of the Shandong Peninsula, the southern area of the Liaodong Peninsula, and the estuary of the Yellow River. Wastewater, atmospheric deposition, plastic, and rubber products were possible sources of PAEs. The PAEs showed medium to high ecological risks on the three aquatic organisms, and the ecological risks were attributed to four PAEs, including dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and benzylbutyl phthalate.

Biodegradation of Di-n-butyl phthalate in rhizosphere and growth-promoting effect of Cucumis sativus Linn. by a novel Pseudomonas sp. DNB-S1

Plant associated-bacteria can facilitate the host plant in overcoming contaminant-induced stress responses as well as improve plant development and growth. In this study, a successful approach was reported to reduce the Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) levels of polluted soil and, consequently, to improve cucumber growth. DBP suppressed development of cucumber seedings significantly, damage sub-cellular of root, especially the biomembrane system, and affected the microbial community structures of the soil. When DBP was applied at a concentration of 5 mg/kg to cucumber seedlings inoculated with degrading strain DNB-S1, the DBP residue in roots was very low. When the cucumber plants were exposed to DBP stress over 20 and 40 mg/kg DBP, the DBP residues in the roots inoculated with degrading strain DNB-S1 were reduced by 36.5% and 40.42% respectively, compared with the non-inoculation group. Moreover, DBP dissipation in rhizosphere soil is accelerated through inoculation with DNB-S1 which could effectively relieve the pressure of DBP stress on plant. The dry weight of cucumber roots inoculated with DBP-degrading bacterium was higher than that of non-inoculated seedlings. According to ultrastructural micrographs, the DBP-degrading bacteria could considerably alleviate the damaging effect of DBP on cucumber root cell organs. The application of strain DNB-S1 could efficiently alleviated the stress of DBP on the microbial community structure.

Reducing the reproductive toxicity activity of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum: a review of mechanisms and prospects

Food pollution can cause a variety of negative effects on human health, especially reproductive toxicity. Common food contaminants include biological contaminants, chemical contaminants, and physical contaminants, among which endocrine disruptors, pesticides, and heavy metals have the greatest reproductive toxicity in chemical contaminants. Humans mainly solve food pollution through three aspects: decreasing the pollution of food raw materials, lowering the pollution in food processing, and reducing the harm to the human body after food pollutants enter the human body. With more and more research on probiotics, not only beneficial effects, but also the ability to reduce the toxicity of food contaminants is found. Thus, microbial treatment has been proved to be a more effective way to deal with food pollution. Recent research shows that several strains of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum can adsorb or degrade some chemical pollutants and relieve inflammation and oxidative stress caused by them. This review summarized the research to explore the possible role of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum in protecting human reproductive ability and maintaining food safety.

Benzyl butyl phthalate activates prophage, threatening the stable operation of waste activated sludge anaerobic digestion

The stable operation of the anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge (WAS) is threatened by numerous emerging contaminants. Meanwhile, the extensive microplastic pollution increased the environmental exposure risk of plasticizer benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), the BBP content has reached a substantial level in WAS. However, the effect of BBP on WAS anaerobic digestion is still unknown. Here we show that high-level BBP brings on anaerobic digestion upset. The presence of 10.0 mg/L BBP (in sludge with 17,640 ± 510 mg/L TSS) led to deferred cell lysis, which was confirmed by the results of continuous parallel factor analysis of dissolved organic matter and the liberation of lactate dehydrogenase. Further, the deferred cell rupture was confirmed associate with prophage activation during WAS anaerobic digestion. Besides solubilization, the hydrolysis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis were also affected by the addition of BBP. The long-term effects of BBP revealed that the dominant microbial structure in anaerobic digester was stable, but the abundance of many functional microorganisms was changed, including short chain fatty acid producers and consumers. This work highlights one of the susceptibility mechanisms for WAS anaerobic digestion processes and provides new perspectives for the comprehensive assessment of emerging contaminant's environmental risks.

Seasonal distribution and ecological risks of phthalic acid esters in surface water of Taihu Lake, China

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are endocrine-disrupting compounds that are ubiquitous in surface water. However, early studies on PAEs only focused on six species on the priority contaminant list, and the seasonal variation in the PAE distribution in Taihu Lake, China is unclear. The present study investigated the occurrence, spatial distribution, and ecological risks of 16 PAEs in Taihu Lake during the dry, normal, and wet seasons. The results showed that dibutyl phthalate, diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), and diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) were the major species detected in the surface water of Taihu Lake. The summed concentration of the six priority PAEs accounted for less than 50% of the total, indicating that the contamination of the other PAE congeners was non-negligible. Significant seasonal effects were observed that the total PAE concentration was higher in the wet season than in the dry season, and there were significant positive correlations between the total PAE concentration and rainfall, the water reserve, and the water level. In the dry season, a relatively high PAE level was detected in the area close to the inflow river estuary and the tourist island in the lake. The concentrations of PAEs in the lakeshore area were higher than those in the lake center in the normal season, and were generally high in the wet season. DEHP posed high risks for fish regardless of the season, while butyl benzyl phthalate, DIBP, dihexyl phthalate, and diphenyl phthalate also showed high risks in the normal and wet seasons. These results suggest that the contamination and risks of congeners other than the priority PAEs are also of necessary concern, and seasonal variation should be considered for a comprehensive understanding of PAE contamination in surface water.

Quality assessment of environmental water by a simple and fast non-ionic hydrophobic natural deep eutectic solvent-based extraction procedure combined with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of plastic migrants

A non-ionic hydrophobic natural deep eutectic solvent (HNADES) based on thymol and menthol was proposed for the liquid-liquid microextraction of fourteen phthalates and one adipate from environmental water samples. Separation, identification, and quantification were achieved by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The main factors affecting the extraction efficiency were thoroughly studied. Sample pH of 8 and 100 μL of thymol:menthol at molar ratio 2:1 were selected as the best conditions, while ionic strength and type of dispersant solvent were not relevant for the extraction of the target compounds. The whole methodology was validated for treated wastewater, runoff, and pond water matrices, using di-n-butyl phthalate-3,4,5,6-d₄ and dihexyl phthalate-3,4,5,6-d₄ as surrogates. Recovery ranged from 70 to 127% with relative standard deviation values lower than 14%. Limits of quantification of the method were in the range 0.042-0.425 μg/L for treated wastewater, 0.015-0.386 μg/L for runoff, and 0.013-0.376 μg/L for pond water. The methodology was applied for the analysis of real treated wastewater, runoff, and pond water samples from different places of Tenerife and Gran Canaria (Canary Islands) finding the presence of diethyl phthalate, diallyl phthalate, dipropyl phthalate, benzylbutyl phthalate, di-n-butyl phthalate, bis-(2-n-butoxyethyl) phthalate, di-n-pentyl phthalate, dicyclohexyl phthalate, and bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate at concentrations between 105.2 and 3414 ng/L.

Exposure and tiered ecological risk assessment of phthalate esters in the surface water of Poyang Lake, China

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are a class of endocrine disruptors that are produced and used extensively in China. Given its presence in various products, a great quantity of PAEs flows into different aquatic systems each year. Hence, it is important to study the pollution levels and ecological risk of PAEs. This study investigated the distribution and seasonal variation of six priority PAEs in the surface water of Poyang Lake, the largest freshwater lake in China. In the wet season, the mean concentration of the total PAEs was 0.544 ± 0.173 μg/L, while the dry season concentration (1.003 ± 0.451 μg/L) nearly doubled. The most abundant PAE congeners were di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), followed by bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). To evaluate the ecological risks in Poyang Lake, the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) of four PAEs based on non-lethal effects were derived. For diethyl phthalate (DEP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), DBP, and DEHP, the PNECs were 31.6, 3.30, 2.31, and 0.0210 μg/L, respectively. The tiered ecological risk assessment showed that DEP and BBP posed no risk in Poyang Lake. Meanwhile, DBP posed a potential risk in Poyang Lake, but the risk of DEHP was unacceptable and requires more actions. Specifically, the probabilities of exceeding the threshold for the protection of 95% of the aquatic organisms (HC₅) were 3.30% and 4.43% for DEHP in the wet and dry season, respectively. This study provides an appropriate reference for the surface water management of PAE pollution in China.

Analysis of Microbial Communities and Pathogen Detection in Domestic Sewage Using Metagenomic Sequencing

Wastewater contains diverse microbes, and regular microbiological screening at wastewater treatment plants is essential for monitoring the wastewater treatment and protecting environmental health. In this study, a metagenomic approach was used to characterize the microbial communities in the influent and effluent of a conventional domestic sewage treatment plant in the metropolitan city of Jeddah. Bacteria were the prevalent type of microbe in both the influent and effluent, whereas archaea and viruses were each detected at <1% abundance. Greater diversity was observed in effluent bacterial populations compared with influent, despite containing similar major taxa. These taxa consisted primarily of Proteobacteria, followed by Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes. Metagenomic analysis provided broad profiles of 87 pathogenic/opportunistic bacteria belonging to 47 distinct genera in the domestic sewage samples, with most having <1% abundance. The archaea community included 20 methanogenic genera. The virus-associated sequences were classified mainly into the families Myoviridae, Siphoviridae, and Podoviridae. Genes related to resistance to antibiotics and toxic compounds, gram-negative cell wall components, and flagellar motility in prokaryotes identified in metagenomes from both types of samples. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of microbial communities in influent and effluent samples of a conventional domestic sewage treatment plant and suggests that metagenomic analysis is a feasible approach for microbiological monitoring of wastewater treatment.

Effect of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on Nrf2-regulated glutathione homeostasis in mouse kidney

Environmental toxicants such as phthalate have been involved in multiple health disorders including renal diseases. Oxidative damage is implicated in many alterations caused by phthalate especially the di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), which is the most useful phthalate. However, information regarding its mechanism of renal damage is lacking. The transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) regulates gene expression implicated in free radical scavenging and cytoprotection including the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) pathway. The aim of this study was to assess whether DEHP affects the Nrf2 pathway and the GSH concentration. Mice were divided into four groups: a control group and three groups treated with DEHP at different concentrations (5, 50, and 200 mg/kg body weight) for 30 days. Our results showed that DEHP altered the normal levels of serum biochemical parameters creatinine (CREA), urea, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). This phthalate caused oxidative damage through the induction of lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation as marked by increase of protein carbonyl (PC) and loss of protein-bound sulfhydryls (PSH). Simultaneously, DEHP treatment decreased the protein level of Nrf-2, HO-1, and GCLC (responsible of GSH synthesis) and decreased the GSH level. Inhibition of the Nrf2 pathway is related to the activation of the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. This apoptotic process is evidenced by an upregulation of p53 and Bax protein levels in addition to a downregulation of Bcl-2. Collectively, our data demonstrated that depletion of Nrf2 and GSH was associated with the elevation of oxidative stress and the activation of intrinsic apoptosis in mouse kidney treated with DEHP.

Pollution characteristics, spatial variation, and potential risks of phthalate esters in the water-sediment system of the Yangtze River estuary and its adjacent East China Sea

Spatiotemporal variability in seawater, spatial variation in sediment, pollution characteristics, and risks related to 16 phthalate esters (PAEs) were investigated in the Yangtze River estuary and its adjacent East China Sea. The total concentrations of ΣPAEs in surface water were 0.588-17.7 μg L^-1 in summer, 2.63-22.9 μg L^-1 in winter, and 1.93-20.7 μg L^-1 in spring, with average values of 2.05, 10.2, and 4.89 μg L^-1, respectively. PAE concentrations exhibited notable seasonal variations with the highest value in winter and the lowest value in summer. The seasonal variation in PAE concentrations may be influenced by runoff and diluted water from the Yangtze River. The chemical composition of PAEs showed that di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) had significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentrations than the other congeners and were the most abundant PAE species in sediment and seawater in all three seasons. In addition, DnBP and DiBP were the two main congeners in seawater, and DEHP concentrations were higher in sediment than in seawater. DEHP had higher potential risks to sensitive organisms in water environment than DnBP and DiBP, and DiBP and DnBP which presented high levels of risk in sedimentary environment. DMP and DEP in watery and sedimentary environments and DEHP in sedimentary environment showed no or low risks to sensitive organisms.

Prenatal di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate maternal exposure impairs the spatial memory of adult mouse offspring in a phase- and gender-dependent manner

DEHP is a wildly used plasticizer. Maternal DEHP exposure induced fetal growth restriction (FGR) and behavioral abnormalities in adolescence and adulthood mouse. The effect of low birth weight induced by DEHP on behaviors after growing up is not certain. In this study, the ICR pregnant mice were exposed to 200 mg/kg DEHP during gestation 6-12 days or 13-17 days, which can create FGR model. The F1 offspring were performed three ethological experiments at puberty (6 weeks postpartum) and adult period (8 weeks postpartum). The open field test was performed to detect the locomotor activity and anxiety, the elevated plus maze to test anxiety-like behavior, and the Morris water maze assay to measure the spatial learning and memory capability of male and female offspring. The results showed that spatial memory ability was dramatically impaired for male rather than female offspring in gestation 13-17 days' group. Other behaviors had no statistically different between groups. These findings suggest that prenatal DEHP exposure disturbed mouse offspring spatial memory ability in a phase- and gender-dependent manner.

Effects of di-n-butyl phthalate and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate on pollutant removal and microbial community during wastewater treatment

Due to the wide use of plastic products and the releasability of plasticizer into surrounding environment, the hazards, residues and effects of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in ecosystems have been paid more and more attention. Little information is available about the effects of PAEs on the normal wastewater treatment, although the distribution of PAEs in soil and other ecosystems is closely related to the discharge of sewage. In this study, the effects of high concentrations of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) on pollutant removal and the microbial community during landfill leachate treatment was investigated. After domestication, the activated sludge was used in the co-treatment of landfill leachate and simulated domestic wastewater. We verified that this process reduced the toxicity of landfill leachate. However, high concentrations of added DBP and DEHP were removed first, while the removal of these pollutants from raw landfill leachate was limited. The results of high-throughput sequencing revealed that the bacterial diversity was diminished and the microbial community structure was significantly affected by the addition of DBP and DEHP. The DBP and DEHP samples had 79.05% and 82.25% operational taxonomic units (OTU), respectively, in common with the raw activated sludge. Many genera of PAE-degrading bacteria that had no significant evolutionary relationship were found in the raw activated sludge. And the widespread presence of PAE-degrading bacteria could effectively keep the concentrations of PAEs low during the wastewater treatment.

Detecting phthalate esters in sludge particulates from wastewater treatment plants

This study proposed a method for analysis of 10 phthalate esters compounds from wastewater treatment plant sludges. The analytical efficiency of GC-MS for of target compounds was verified by a standard mixture of phthalate esters. The response factors related to the respective internal standards from a five-point calibration curve quantified the phthalate esters in individual compounds. Based on the literature compiled by environmental agencies, new generation phthalate compounds have been developed, such as di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP), di-iso-decyl phthalate (DiDP), as alternative to conventional phthalates. The analytical results showed that the total PAEs concentration was in the range from 7.4 to 138.6 mg kg^-1 dw in these seven analyzed sludge samples. More, di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP), di-iso-decyl phthalate (DiDP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) contributed to over 99% of PAEs in the sludge. The correlation between total PAEs concentration in household and sewage flow treated at seven WWTPs and concentrations of DEHP, DiNP and DiDP was significant.

Characterization of segregated greywater from Indian households-part B: emerging contaminants

Emerging contaminants (ECs) have become an increasing area of concern due to the likely impacts of these compounds on human health and the environment. Generally, products which are used for households and personal care activities contribute to major percentage of ECs in household greywater. Not much information on the presence of xenobiotic organic compounds in greywater is currently available. Therefore, the present study focused on the qualitative and quantitative analyses of emerging contaminants from different classifications of Indian households. The qualitative screening of emerging pollutants by solid-phase extraction-gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy (SPE-GC-MS) showed the presence of 78 different emerging contaminants from three different sources, which are categorized into ten different groups based on their chemical properties. The quantitative analysis of few selected target pollutants such as phthalic esters, namely diethyl hexyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, dioctyl phthalate, triclosan, bisphenol A, caffeine, acetaminophen, 3-methyl salicylic acid, 4-octylphenol, and 4-nonylphenol were found to be 0.38 ± 0.39 μg/L, 1.57 ± 1.54 μg/L, 4.77 ± 2.57 μg/L, 0.712 ± 0.17 μg/L, 5.82 ± 1.85 μg/L, 11.08 ± 2.64 μg/L, 2.30 ± 1.19 μg/L 13.18 ± 4.48 μg/L, 3.75 ± 1.90 μg/L, 4.95 ± 2.21 μg/L, and 5.96 μg/L, respectively. Risk assessment indicated that 63 compounds identified in the greywater can be considered priority pollutants. Based on the results obtained in the present study, effective zero-discharge liquid system can be designed for different sources of greywater and it can be recycled and reused without much risk. Graphical abstract .

Neurological effects of subchronic exposure to dioctyl phthalate (DOP), lead, and arsenic, individual and mixtures, in immature mice

Dioctyl phthalate (DOP) (200, 500, and 1000 mg kg^-1 bw, i.g.), Pb (Ac)₂ (50 mg L^-1, p.o.), and NaAsO₂ (10 mg L^-1, p.o.) were administered individually and as mixtures to weanling male mice for 8 weeks. It was observed that Pb, As, and DOP exposure could significantly inhibit the growth and development of mice. Compared with the Pb, As, and Pb + As groups, the activities of iNOS and TNOS were significantly increased, the levels of AChE and SOD were significantly decreased, and the level of MDA was significantly increased in the Pb + DOP-H, As + DOP-H, and Pb + As + DOP-H groups. The factorial analysis shows that the iNOS, TNOS, and AChE present synergistic effects on Pb, As, and DOP. A significant increase of escape latency and a significant decrease of original platform quadrant stops were observed between Pb + As + DOP-H and Pb + As groups. The factorial analysis shows that there was a synergistic effect on Pb, As, and DOP. Compared with that of the control group, the expression levels of caspase-3 and Bax expression in Pb + As, DOP-H, Pb + DOP-H, As + DOP-H, and Pb + As + DOP-H groups were significantly increased in the hippocampus. The expression levels of Bcl-2 expression decreased significantly and the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio increased significantly. Pathological alterations on the hippocampus were found in exposed groups. This result shows that combined exposure of Pb, As, and DOP could induce neurotoxicity, of which possible mechanism is hippocampal neuronal apoptosis. Graphical abstract This study shows that there were three components with eigenvalues greater than 1, which together explained 89.40% of total variance. The first component (PC1) showed high loadings on B-SOD, L-SOD, B-MDA, L-MDA, K-MDA, iNOS, tNOS, and AChE and accounted for 46.55% of the total variance after Varimax rotation. PC2 accounted for 23.81% of the total variance with high loadings on B-As, L-As, K-As, and K-SOD, whereas PC3 showed high loadings on B-Pb, L-Pb, and K-Pb and accounted for 19.04% of the total variance.

Exposure to DEHP or its metabolite MEHP promotes progesterone secretion and inhibits proliferation in mouse placenta or JEG-3 cells

Di (2-ethyl-hexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is an environmental endocrine disruptor and commonly used as plasticizer. Maternal DEHP exposure during pregnancy reduces placental size and destroys placental structure. However, the underlying mechanisms were unclear. In this study, we supposed that DEHP disturbs endocrine function of placenta to inhibit the proliferation of placental cell. Using radioimmunoassay and ELISA, we found that DEHP and its active metabolite mono (2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate (MEHP) promoted progesterone secretion in pregnant mouse and in JEG-3 cells, respectively. Therefore, placental endocrine function was altered by DEHP. The mRNA and protein level of progesterone synthetase 3β-HSD1 was elevated by DEHP, which is conducive to the synthesis of progesterone. The level of progesterone receptor was down-regulated by DEHP and MEHP in mouse placenta and in JEG-3 cells, respectively. PR deficiency further promoted the level of 3β-HSD1, which leads to a higher progesterone level. In turn, higher concentration of progesterone further inhibited the expression of PGR (PR gene). Therefore, higher progesterone down-regulated the level of its receptor PR. Meanwhile, decreased PR induced more progesterone secretion. There is a feedback loop between progesterone and PR. PR deficiency down-regulated the protein level of Cyclin D1 which plays an important role in cell proliferation. Accordingly, DEHP and its active metabolite MEHP can restrain proliferation of placental cell and disturb the progesterone secretion via decreasing the level of PR.

Pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products and microplastics contamination assessment of Al-Hassa irrigation network (Saudi Arabia) and its shallow lakes

This study assess the presence of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) and pesticides in different environmental compartments and microplastics in water of a characteristic lagoon wetland in Saudi Arabia to establish the transport, accumulation and fate of these pollutants in a water-stressed area under high anthropogenic pressure. In water, diazinon (up to 1016 ng L^-1), caffeine (up to 20,663 ng L^-1), diclofenac (up to 1390 ng L^-1) and paracetamol (up to 3069 ng L^-1) were at the highest concentrations. The substances with the highest frequency of detection were carbendazim, atorvastatin, caffeine, etoricoxib, lorazepam, metformin, ofloxacin, paracetamol, salicylic acid and tramadol. Considerably less pesticides and PPCPs at concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 126 ng g^-1 dry weight (d.w.) were detected in the other matrices (sediment ≫ soil > plants). The concentration of microplastics in water ranged from 0.7 to 7.8 items/L in the Al-Asfar lake and from 1.1 to 9.0 items/L in the Al-Hubail lake. Risk assessment [using hazards quotients (HQ)] was used to highlight pesticides and PPCPs of major ecological concern that should be closely monitored to avoid adverse effects.

Occurrence, fate and risk assessment of BPA and its substituents in wastewater treatment plant: A review

Several bisphenol analogues (BPs) are gradually replacing bisphenol A (BPA) in many fields, following strict restrictions on the production and use of BPA. The presence of micropollutants in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) may pose risks to the aquatic ecosystem and human health. In this review, we outlined the occurrence and fate of BPs in WWTPs, and estimated their potential risks to the aquatic ecosystem. BPA is still the most predominant bisphenol analogue in WWTPs with high detection rate and concentration, followed by bisphenol S (BPS) and F (BPF). Biodegradation and adsorption are the main removal pathways for removal of BPs in WWTPs. The secondary (activated sludge process, biological aerated filter, and membrane bioreactor) and advanced (membrane technique, ultraviolet disinfection, adsorption process, and ozonation) treatment processes show high removal efficiency for BPs, which are influenced by many factors such as sludge retention time and redox conditions. BPs other than BPA (assessed in this review) in effluent of WWTPs have low risks to Daphnia magna and early life stages on medaka, while BPA shows a medium or high risk under certain conditions. Knowledge gaps have been identified and future line of research on this class of chemicals in WWTPs is recommended. More data are needed to illustrate the occurrence and fate of BPs in WWTPs. Environmental risks of BPs other than BPA initiating from wastewater discharge to aquatic organisms remain largely unknown.

Health risk of phthalates in water environment: Occurrence in water resources, bottled water, and tap water, and burden of disease from exposure through drinking water in tehran, Iran

Occurrence of phthalates in water resources, bottled water, and tap water, and health risk of exposure to the phthalates through drinking water in Tehran, Iran, 2018 were studied. The six phthalates with the most health and environmental concerns, including di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP) were monitored in drinking water and water resources. The average levels (±standard deviation: SD) of the total phthalates in drinking water from the water distribution system, bottled water, surface waters, and ground waters were determined to be 0.76 ± 0.19, 0.96 ± 0.10, 1.06 ± 0.23, and 0.77 ± 0.06 μg/L, respectively. The dominant compounds in the phthalates were DMP and DEHP causing a contribution to the total phthalate levels higher than 60% in all the water sources. The phthalate levels of drinking water significantly increased by contact of hot water with disposable plastic and paper cups and by sunlight exposure of bottled water (p value < 0.05). The hazard quotients (HQs) of DEHP, BBP, DBP, and DEP for all ages both sexes combined were determined to be 1.56 × 10^-4, 1.01 × 10^-5, 1.80 × 10^-5, and 1.29 × 10^-6, respectively that were much lower than the boundary value of 1.0. The disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and DALY rate (per 100,000 people) attributable to DEHP intake through drinking water for all ages both sexes combined were estimated to be 6.385 (uncertainty interval: UI 95% 1.892 to 22.133), and 0.073 (0.022-0.255), respectively. The proportion of mortality in the attributable DALYs was over 96%. The attributable DALY rate exhibited no significant difference by sex, but was considerably affected by age in a manner that the DALY rates ranged from 0.052 (0.015-0.175) in the age group 65 y plus to 0.099 (0.026-0.304) in the age group 5 to 9 y. Both the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks of the phthalates in drinking water were considered to be very low. The results can also be of importance in terms of developing frameworks to expand the domain of burden of disease study to the other environmental risks.

The extent and predictors of phthalate exposure among couples undergoing in vitro fertilization treatment

Phthalates are chemicals used as plasticizers and solvents in many consumer products but are suspected of disrupting the endocrine system and are known for their reproductive/developmental health risks. This study examined the extent and predictors of phthalate exposure among 599 couples undergoing in vitro fertilization. A questionnaire was administered to obtain sociodemographic, health, and lifestyle data, and two spot urine samples were collected from the couples to analyze eight phthalate metabolites, cotinine (COT) as a smoking index, and creatinine to adjust for urine dilution. Seven phthalate metabolites were detected in > 94% of the urine samples, and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) was found in 24% of the women and 26% of their male partners. Median phthalate levels were highest for monoethyl phthalate (MEP), at 333.26 μg/l in women and 290 μg/l in male partners, and lowest for MBzP, at 1.17 μg/l in women and 1.14 μg/l in male partners. Correlation coefficients of ≥ 0.4 between the women and their male partners for the eight urinary phthalate metabolites may indicate a shared source of exposure. A multivariate regression model was used to assess the association between predictors and each urinary phthalate metabolite. Several potential predictors for the variations in specific urinary phthalate metabolites were identified, including the body mass index, age, socioeconomic status, and regional distribution for both women and their male partners but with slightly different patterns. Women with a history of breastfeeding, using bottled water for cooking and storing food in plastic bags had lower MEP (8.7%), mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP) (9.2%), and both mono-iso-butyl phthalate and MECPP (8.2 and 8.1%). A history of contraceptive use was associated with an increase in MECPP (8.7%), mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (11.4%), mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (7.6%), and the molar sum of bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites (8.9%). Urinary COT levels were associated with an increase of 10-16% in all urinary metabolites in women but of only 10.5% in mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in male partners. More than 95% of the couples reported the use of cosmetics, perfumes, and personal-care products, but we were not able to find associations with urinary phthalate metabolites, perhaps due to their short half-lives. MEP levels associated with the use of household cleaning products were 11.2% higher in male partners. Our levels were generally higher than those reported elsewhere, perhaps due to different lifestyles, cultural practices, dietary habits, use of personal-care products, and governmental legislation.

Water reuse, food production and public health: Adopting transdisciplinary, systems-based approaches to achieve water and food security in a changing climate

Climate change and population growth are contributing to a growing global freshwater crisis that is exacerbating agricultural water scarcity and compromising food security and public health. In light of these challenges, the increased reliance on nontraditional irrigation water sources, such as reclaimed or recycled water, is emerging as a potentially viable strategy to address water and food insecurity worldwide. This editorial provides an overview of the global need for agricultural water reuse and outlines the environmental and public health impacts associated with this practice. Policy implications, including an emphasis on "One Water" approaches, are discussed. Finally, the editorial leads off a Special Issue that includes a collection of articles reporting on the initial research and extension/outreach findings of CONSERVE: A Center of Excellence at the Nexus of Sustainable Water Reuse, Food and Health, funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture. Taken together, this compilation of articles addresses the overarching theme that transdisciplinary teams are key with regard to moving the science of agricultural water reuse forward to achieve water and food security and advance public health in a changing climate.

Uptake and accumulation of emerging contaminants in soil and plant treated with wastewater under real-world environmental conditions in the Al Hayer area (Saudi Arabia)

In arid and semi-arid areas the use of treated wastewater for crop irrigation and other agricultural practices, such as the use of pesticides, increase the number of emerging contaminants (ECs) in crops. Hazards of these practices to human being are largely unknown since there are few studies yet covering a short range of compounds and most of them under non-realistic conditions. This study aims at assessing this problem that will become global soon in an area of Saudi Arabia heavily affected by the reuse of treated wastewater and pesticide in order to ascertain its scale. The novelty of the study relays in the large number of ECs covered and the variety of crops (cabbage, barley, green beans, eggplants, chili, tomato and zucchini) analysed. Extraction procedure developed provided an appropriate extraction yield (up to 50% of the compounds were recovered within a 70-120% range), with good repeatability (relative standard deviations below 20% in most cases) and sensitivity (LOQ < 25 ng g^-1) for the model compounds. Determination by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight (LC-QqTOF-MS) is able to identify >2000 contaminants. Sixty-four ECs were identified in wastewater but of the sixty-four compounds, six pharmaceuticals (atenolol, caffeine, carbamazepine and its metabolites 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine, gemfibrozil, and naproxen) and seven pesticides (acetamiprid, atrazine deethyl, azoxystrobin, bupirimate, diazinon, malathion, pirimicarb and some of their metabolites) were detected in plants. Furhermore, one metabolite of the ibuprofen (not detected in water or soil), the ibuprofen hexoside was also found in plants. Up to our knowledge, this study demonstrate for the first time the accumulation of ECs in crops irrigated with treated wastewater under real non-controlled environmental conditions.

Toxicity of phthalate esters to lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and the soil microbial community under different soil conditions

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are globally used plasticizers and typical endocrine disruptors that can readily accumulate in agricultural products and represent a substantial risk to human health via the food chain. The range of soil properties has an important influence on the expression of PAE toxicity, and the mechanisms by which soil physical and chemical properties affect the expression of toxicity of target PAEs to plants and microorganisms requires further investigation. Important soil factors affecting the eco-toxicological effects of two typical PAEs, di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), on lettuce (Lactuca sativa) in a spiked soil were investigated in the present study. Soil at various pH values was spiked with three PAE concentrations (1, 5 and 20 mg DnBP or DEHP kg-1 soil), organic matter contents and water holding contents to simulate the greenhouse soil environment for 30 days. Their influence on the biomass, photosynthetic pigment contents, various physiological changes and soil microbial communities was determined as endpoints. The toxicity to lettuce of DnBP was higher than that of DEHP in the soil and soil pH was the most important factor affecting their single toxicity, followed by soil organic matter content and soil moisture content in agreement with the Biolog test results. Under different soil conditions total protein, total soluble sugar and free amino acid contents were positively correlated with concentrations of the target PAEs, but leaf area, biomass, •O2- activity, vitamin C content and soil microbial diversity indices showed the opposite trend. Chlorophyll a and carotenoid contents were more inhibited by DnBP together with impacts on indices of soil microbial diversity. The results suggest that soil conditions in greenhouses directly explain the patterns of pollutant toxicity displayed and impact the quantity, quality and food safety of vegetables produced using highly intensive production systems.

Analytical assessment to develop innovative nanostructured BPA-free epoxy-silica resins as multifunctional stone conservation materials

Bisphenol A (BPA)-free epoxy resins, synthesized from low molecular weight cycloaliphatic compounds, may represents promising materials for stone conservation due to their very appealing and tunable physico-chemical properties, such as viscosity, curing rate and penetration ability, being also easy to apply and handle. Furthermore, alkoxysilanes have been widely employed as inorganic strengtheners since they are easily hydrolysed inside lithic substrates affording SiO linkages with the stone matrix. Taking into account the advantages of these two classes of materials, this work has been focused on the development of innovative conservation materials, based on hybrid epoxy-silica BPA-free resins obtained by reaction of 1,4-cycloexanedimethanol diglycidylether (CHDM-DGE) with various siloxane precursors, i.e. glycidoxypropylmethyldiethoxysilane (GPTMS), tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and isobutyltrimethoxysilane (iBuTMS), using the 1,8-diaminooctane (DAO) as epoxy hardener. Thanks to Raman spectroscopy the synthesis processes have been successfully monitored, allowing the identification of oxirane rings opening as well as the formation of the cross-linked organic-inorganic networks. In accordance with the spectroscopic data, the thermal studies carried out by TGA and DSC techniques have pointed that GPTMS is a suitable siloxane precursor to synthesize the most stable samples against temperature degradation. GPTMS-containing resins have also shown good performances in the dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and in contact angle investigations, with values indicating considerable hydrophobic properties. SEM analyses have highlighted a great homogeneity over the entire observed areas, without formations of clusters and/or aggregates bigger than 45 μm, for the cited materials, confirming the efficiency of GPTMS as coupling agent to enhance the organic/inorganic interphase bonding. The variations provided by the incorporation of nanostructured titania, specifically synthesized, inside the epoxy-silica hybrids have been also evaluated. According to all the collected results, the hybrid materials here reported have proven to be promising multifunctional products for potential application in the field of stone conservation.

Effect of Rotary Evaporator Water Bath Temperature on Recovery Rate of Phthalate Esters

To clarify the influence of water bath temperature on the decompression and concentration efficiency of a rotary evaporator, accurate control of the water bath temperature is required. Therefore, the water bath temperature control system of a rotary evaporator was studied using the recovery rate of phthalate esters (PAEs) as the indicator. The results showed that when the temperature of the rotary evaporator was set at 40°C, the actual temperature range of the concentrated liquid would change from 26-41 to 39-41°C. By modifying the water bath temperature control system, the recovery rate of PAEs could be increased from 72.4% to 85.6% to 93.2%-98.5%. This test indicates that temperature has a great influence on vacuum concentration, and the recovery rate of PAEs can be improved by modifying the water bath temperature control system used in the rotary evaporator.

Residue levels and spatial distribution of phthalate acid esters in water and sediment from urban lakes of Guangzhou, China

The residue levels and composition profiles of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in water and sediment samples were investigated in eight urban lakes of Guangzhou, China. A total of 23 water and 16 sediment samples were collected. Results showed that all target PAEs were detected with dimethyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate as the most abundant compounds. The total concentrations of PAEs from different urban lakes were in the range of 273-1173 ng/L for water and 16.5-242 ng/g for sediments, with the geometric mean of 515 ng/L and 75.0 ng/g, respectively. Zhongshan Park Lake and Liwan Lake were the most highly contaminated with PAEs in water and in sediment, respectively. The spatial distribution of PAEs exhibited that distribution coefficients of PAEs between sediment and water are consistent with hydrophilicity of PAEs, and pollution levels and characteristics of PAEs in different lakes had a close relationship with the geographical location of the lake, industrial and commercial types, population density, and the association between the lake and the Pearl River. According to Pearson correlation analysis, PAEs would be derived from similar or identical sources. Risk assessment suggested that the exposure of PAEs in Guangzhou has a moderate toxicity at the current level.

Distribution and ecotoxicological state of phthalate esters in the sea-surface microlayer, seawater and sediment of the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea

The spatial distribution, chemical composition and ecological risk of 16 phthalate esters (PAEs) were investigated in the sea-surface microlayer (SML), seawater and sediment samples of the Bohai Sea (BS) and the Yellow Sea (YS). The concentration levels of the ΣPAEs spanned a range of 449-13441 ng L^-1 in the SML, 453-5108 ng L^-1 in seawater, and 1.24-15.8 mg kg^-1 in the sediment samples, respectively, with diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) as the dominant PAEs in both the water and sediment samples. The concentrations of ΣPAEs in the BS were higher than those in the YS. The vertical distribution of ΣPAEs in the water column showed that the concentrations were higher in the surface waters, but decreased slightly with depth, and started to increase at the bottom. Additionally, PAEs were significantly enriched in the SML, with an average enrichment factor of 1.46. The ecological risk of the PAEs was evaluated by the risk quotient (RQ) method, which indicated that DEHP posed a high risk to aquatic organisms in the whole water-phase, while the RQ values of DBP and DiBP reached a high risk levels in sedimentary environment.

Fate of four phthalate plasticizers under various wastewater treatment processes

The fate of four phthalate plasticizers during wastewater treatment processes at six different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) was investigated. Concentrations of benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisononyl phthalate (DiNP), and diisodecyl phthalate (DiDP) were determined prior to either aerobic or anaerobic (conventional and advanced) treatment, after treatment, and in final, dewatered solids. Despite their elevated use worldwide, the fate of DiNP and DiDP during wastewater treatment have not been well characterized. DEHP was readily degraded during aerobic treatments while anaerobic digestion resulted in either no significant change in concentrations or an increase in concentration, in the case of more advanced anaerobic processes (thermal hydrolysis pretreatment and a two-phase acid/gas process). Impacts of the various treatment systems on DiNP, DiDP, and BBP concentrations were more varied - anaerobic digestion led to significant decreases, increases, or no significant change for these compounds, depending on the treatment facility, while aerobic treatment was generally effective at degrading the compounds. Additionally, thermal hydrolysis pretreatment of sludge prior to anaerobic digestion resulted in increases in DiNP, DiDP, and BBP concentrations. The predicted environmental concentrations for all four compounds in soils after a single biosolids application were calculated and the risk quotients for DEHP in soils were determined. The estimated toxicity risk for DEHP in soils treated with a single application of sludge from any of the six studied WWTPs is lower than the level of concern for acute and chronic risk, as defined by the US EPA.

Occurrence, distribution, and ecological risks of phthalate esters in the seawater and sediment of Changjiang River Estuary and its adjacent area

A total of 133 seawater samples and 17 sediment samples were collected from 81 sampling sites in the Changjiang River Estuary and its adjacent area and were analyzed for 16 phthalate esters (PAEs). The Σ₁₆ PAE concentrations in the seawater and sediment samples ranged from 180.3ng·L^-1 to 3421ng·L^-1 and from 0.48μg·g^-1 to 29.94μg·g^-1dry weight (dw), respectively, with mean values of 943.6ng·L^-1 and 12.88μg·g^-1. The distribution of ∑₁₆PAE concentrations in the water column showed that PAE concentrations in the bottom samples were higher than those in the surface samples (except the transect C located inside the Changjiang River Estuary), with the maxima appearing in the bottom layer at the offshore stations. Among the 16 PAEs, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), and dibutyl phthalate (DnBP) dominated the PAEs, with 25.1%, 21.1%, and 18.9% of the Σ₁₆PAEs in seawater, respectively. The comparison of ∑₁₆PAEs and salinities in transects C and A6 suggested that the Changjiang River runoff was an important driving factor influencing the distribution of PAEs. DEHP concentrations in water samples and DEHP and DnBP concentrations in sediment samples exceeded the environmental risk levels (ERL), indicating their potential hazard to the ocean environment.