Dietary chia seed induced changes in hepatic transcription factors and their target lipogenic and oxidative enzyme activities in dyslipidaemic insulin-resistant rats

Salvia hispanica L. (chia) seed improves redox state and reverts extracellular matrix collagen deposition in skeletal muscle of sucrose-rich diet-fed rats

Skeletal muscle (SkM) is a plastic and dynamic tissue, essential in energy metabolism. Growing evidence suggests a close relationship between intramuscular fat accumulation, oxidative stress (OS), extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, and metabolic deregulation in SkM. Nowadays natural products emerge as promising alternatives for the treatment of metabolic disorders. We have previously shown that chia seed administration reverts SkM lipotoxicity and whole-body insulin resistant (IR) in sucrose-rich diet (SRD) fed rats. The purpose of the present study was to assess the involvement of OS and fibrosis in SkM metabolic impairment of insulin-resistant rats fed a long-term SRD and the effects of chia seed upon these mechanisms as therapeutic strategy. Results showed that insulin-resistant SRD-fed rats exhibited sarcopenia, increase in lipid peroxidation, altered redox state, and ECM remodeling-increased collagen deposition and lower activity of the metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) in SkM. Chia seed increased ferric ion reducing antioxidant power and glutathione reduced form levels, and the activities of glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase enzymes. Moreover, chia seed reversed fibrosis and restored the MMP-2 activity. This work reveals a participation of the OS and ECM remodeling in the metabolic alterations of SkM in our experimental model. Moreover, current data show novel properties of chia seed with the potential to attenuate SkM OS and fibrosis, hallmark of insulin-resistant muscle.

The nutritional profile of chia seeds and sprouts: tailoring germination practices for enhancing health benefits-a comprehensive review

Chia seeds have gained significant attention due to their unique composition and potential health benefits, including high dietary fibers, omega-3 fatty acids, proteins, and phenolic compounds. These components contribute to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory effects, as well as their ability to improve glucose metabolism and dyslipidemia. Germination is recognized as a promising strategy to enhance the nutritional value and bioavailability of chia seeds. Chia seed sprouts have been found to exhibit increased essential amino acid content, elevated levels of dietary fiber and total phenols, and enhanced antioxidant capability. However, there is limited information available concerning the dynamic changes of bioactive compounds during the germination process and the key factors influencing these alterations in biosynthetic pathways. Additionally, the influence of various processing conditions, such as temperature, light exposure, and duration, on the nutritional value of chia seed sprouts requires further investigation. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the nutritional profile of chia seeds and the dynamic changes that occur during germination. Furthermore, the potential for tailored germination practices to produce chia sprouts with personalized nutrition, targeting specific health needs, is also discussed.

Structural characterization of chia seed polysaccharides and evaluation of its immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities

This study aims to extract an active heteropolysaccharide Chia seed polysaccharide (CSP-A) and further purified by DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow and Sepharose CL-6B chromatographic column, characterize its structure, and evaluate its antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities. Structural analysis revealed that CSP-A was composed of d-mannose, d-glucuronic acid and d-xylose in a molar ratio of 1:3:4 with molecular weight of 1.688 × 105 Da, owning 4 sugar residues of β-d-Manp-(1→, →4)-α-d-GlcpA-(1→, →2,4)-β-d-Xylp-(1→, and → 4)-β-d-Manp-(1 →. Congo red assay and microscopic characteristics showed that CSP-A in its solution may possess a helical conformation. In vitro experiments showed that CSP-A had moderate DPPH· and OH· scavenging activities. CSP-A also enhanced the phagocytosis ability of RAW 264.7 cells and prompted the release of NO, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β from RAW 264.7 cells, which indicated CSP-A had immune regulation effect. This experiment provides scientific basis for further utilization and development of chia seeds, a kind of functional food.

Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: Metabolism and health implications

Recently, omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFAs) have gained substantial interest due to their specific structure and biological functions. Humans cannot naturally produce these fatty acids (FAs), making it crucial to obtain them from our diet. This comprehensive review details n-3 LC-PUFAs and their role in promoting and maintaining optimal health. The article thoroughly analyses several sources of n-3 LC-PUFAs and their respective bioavailability, covering marine, microbial and plant-based sources. Furthermore, we provide an in-depth analysis of the biological impacts of n-3 LC-PUFAs on health conditions, with particular emphasis on cardiovascular disease (CVD), gastrointestinal (GI) cancer, diabetes, depression, arthritis, and cognition. In addition, we highlight the significance of fortification and supplementation of n-3 LC-PUFAs in both functional foods and dietary supplements. Additionally, we conducted a detailed analysis of the several kinds of n-3 LC-PUFAs supplements currently available in the market, including an assessment of their recommended intake, safety, and effectiveness. The dietary guidelines associated with n-3 LC-PUFAs are also highlighted, focusing on the significance of maintaining a well-balanced intake of n-3 PUFAs to enhance health benefits. Lastly, we highlight future directions for further research in this area and their potential implications for public health.

Comparative Analysis of Metabolic Variations, Antioxidant Profiles and Antimicrobial Activity of Salvia hispanica (Chia) Seed, Sprout, Leaf, Flower, Root and Herb Extracts

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the phytochemical profiles of the seeds, sprouts, leaves, flowers, roots and herb of Salvia hispanica and to demonstrate their significant contribution to antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Applied methods were: HPLC-DAD coupled with post-column derivatization with ABTS reagent, untargeted metabolomics performed by LC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS, and two-fold micro-dilution broth method, which involved suspending a solution of tested compounds dissolved in DMSO in Mueller–Hinton broth for bacteria or Mueller–Hinton broth with 2% glucose for fungi. Metabolomic profiling using LC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS used in this study yielded the identification and preliminary characterization of one hundred fifteen compounds. The dominant class of compounds was terpenoids (31 compounds), followed by flavonoids (21 compounds), phenolic acids and derivatives (19 compounds), organic acids (16 compounds) and others (fatty acids, sugars and unidentified compounds). The organic and phenolic acids were the most abundant classes in terms of total peak area, with distribution depending on the plant raw materials obtained from S. hispanica. The main compound among this class for all types of extracts was rosmarinic acid which was proven to be the most abundant for antioxidant potential. All tested extracts exhibited considerable antibacterial and antifungal activity. The strongest bioactivity was found in leaf extracts, which presented bactericidal activity against Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus, S. epidermidis, M. luteus and E. faecalis). The work represents the first compendium of knowledge comparing different S. hispanica plant raw materials in terms of the profile of biologically active metabolites and their contribution to antioxidant, antimicrobial and antifungal activity.

Salvia hispanica L. (chia) seed ameliorates liver injury and oxidative stress by modulating NrF2 and NFκB expression in sucrose-rich diet-fed rats

The aim of this study was to analyze the liver injury and oxidative stress in an experimental model of Metabolic Syndrome (MS) induced by chronic administration of a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) and to evaluate the effects of chia seed as a therapeutic strategy. Male Wistar rats were fed with a reference diet (RD) -6 months- or a SRD -3 months. Then, the latter group was randomly divided into two subgroups. One subgroup continued receiving the SRD for up to 6 months and the other was fed with a SRD where whole chia seed was incorporated as a source of dietary fat for the next 3 months (SRD+CHIA). The results showed that rats fed with a SRD for a long period of time developed dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, hepatic lipid accumulation, liver injury, hepatic lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. Hepatic NrF2 expression was significantly decreased. In addition, a significant increase in hepatic NFκB p65 expression and a positive correlation of this with plasma TNFα levels were found. The administration of chia seed for 3 months reversed dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, lipid accumulation, liver injury, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. In the liver tissue, NrF2 expression was normalized and NFκB p65 expression was decreased, the latter was associated with a decrease in plasma TNFα levels. The present study showed new aspects of liver damage, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in dyslipidemic insulin resistant rats chronically fed with a sucrose-rich diet. However, we demonstrated new properties and molecular mechanisms associated with the beneficial anti-oxidant effects of chia seed consumption.

α-Linolenic acid rich-chia seed modulates visceral adipose tissue collagen deposition, lipolytic enzymes expression, insulin signaling and GLUT-4 levels in a diet-induced adiposity rodent model

Given obesity and its associated metabolic disorders have reached epidemic proportions, the study of therapeutic strategies targeting white adipose tissue (WAT) are of main research interest. We previously shown that α-linolenic acid-rich chia seed was able to ameliorate a wide range of metabolic disorders including body fat accretion in sucrose-rich diet (SRD)-fed rats, an experimental model of visceral adiposity and insulin resistance. However, the mechanisms involved are not fully clarified. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of chia seed administration upon WAT remodeling and key enzymes that controls lipolysis, insulin signaling (tAKT, pAKT), and GLUT-4 levels in different visceral fat pad depots (epididymal -eWAT- and retroperitoneal -rWAT- adipose tissues) of SRD-fed rats. Results showed that chia seed reduces adipocytes hypertrophy, the increased lipid content and collagen deposition in both WAT. These changes were accompanied by a significant reduction of HSL and ATGL protein levels in eWAT and HSL protein levels in rWAT. Moreover, chia seed restored the altered expression pattern of the pAKT observed in SRD-fed rats, and modulated GLUT-4 levels. Chia seed could be a dietary intervention of great relevance with potential beneficial effects in the management of body fat excess and WAT function.

Chia seeds and chemical-elicited sprouts supplementation ameliorates insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and hepatic steatosis in obese rats

Chia seeds (CS) and sprouts are rich in bioactive compounds. This study aimed to assess the effects of germination and chemical elicitation (salicylic acid [SA]; hydrogen peroxide [H₂ O₂ ]) on proximate chemical, total phenolics compounds (TPC), non-extractable proanthocyanidins (NEPA), and carotenoids content of chia sprouts; besides, the effects of their supplementation on obesity-associated complications in rats fed with high-fat and fructose diet (HFFD) were evaluated. Protein, carbohydrate, TPC, NEPA, and carotenoids content were higher in sprouts than CS; elicitation enhanced TPC and carotenoids compared to non-elicited (NE) sprouts. CS, NE, and elicited chia sprouts ameliorated insulin resistance and dyslipidemia at the same level in HFFD-fed rats. NE and SA-chia sprouts exerted the biggest reduction in hepatic triglycerides, which could be partially related to inhibition of pancreatic lipase activity. In addition, SA elicitation induced the greatest effect on insulin levels and corporal weight. CS and their sprouts decreased obesity and its complication, mainly SA-elicited sprouts. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The growing epidemic of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and obesity has led to the search for prevention and treatment through lifestyle changes, including the consumption of foods rich in bioactive compounds, such as seeds and their sprouts. Since sprouts contain higher concentrations of bioactive compounds and nutrients than seed, germination is a natural alternative to produce ready-to-eat functional foods. Chemical elicitation is a strategy to increase even more the bioactivity of sprouts. CS has been recognized for its beneficial health effects ameliorating dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. This study demonstrates that elicitation, with SA and H₂ O₂ , during germination of CS, increases the nutrient and phytochemical content of sprouts, with beneficial effects on body weight gain, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and prevention of NAFLD progression in diet-induced obese rats. Therefore, chia sprouts, natural and elicited, may be used as potential nutraceutical foods for the prevention and treatment of obesity and its complications.

The Current State of Knowledge on Salvia hispanica and Salviae hispanicae semen (Chia Seeds)

Chia seeds (Salviae hispanicae semen) are obtained from Salvia hispanica L. This raw material is distinguished by its rich chemical composition and valuable nutritional properties. It is currently referred to as “health food”. The purpose of the present work was to perform a literature review on S. hispanica and chia seeds, focusing on their chemical composition, biological properties, dietary importance, and medicinal uses. The valuable biological properties of chia seeds are related to their rich chemical composition, with particularly high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids, polyphenols, as well as vitamins and bioelements. The available scientific literature indicates the cardioprotective, hypotensive, antidiabetic, and antiatherosclerotic effects of this raw material. In addition, studies based on in vitro assays and animal and human models have proven that chia seeds are characterized by neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. These properties indicate a valuable role of chia in the prevention of civilization diseases. Chia seeds are increasingly popular in functional food and cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. That is attributed not only to their desirable chemical composition and biological activity but also to their high availability. Nevertheless, S. hispanica is also the object of specific biotechnological studies aimed at elaboration of micropropagation protocols of this plant species.

Effect of dietary chia supplementation on glucose metabolism and adipose tissue function markers in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease subjects

Introduction

Background: adipose tissue dysfunction is a key factor for diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) development. Chia (Salvia hispanica) is an abundant source of omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and fiber which could improve adipose tissue functionality. Aim: to analyze the effect of an isocaloric chia-supplemented diet on glucose metabolism, adipose tissue inflammation, and endothelial function markers in patients with NAFLD and early stages of diabetes. Methods: in 32 patients with previous NAFLD diagnosis, without known diabetes, the effect of a diet supplemented with ground chia (25 g/day/8 weeks) was evaluated. Visceral (VAF) and liver fat, plasma lipids, fatty acids, and cytokine profiles, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), insulinogenic index (IGI30), insulin disposition index (DIO), and endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) were analyzed. Before and after eight weeks of diet supplementation. Results: chia supplementation promoted increases in plasma alpha-linolenic acid (75 %) and fiber consumption (55 %), and a higher number of EPC (+126 %). Basal OGTT showed that nine patients had normal OGTT, 17 pre-diabetes, and six newly diagnosed diabetes. In patients with diabetes, chia favored a healthier adipose tissue (VAF -7 %, NAFLD -100 %, adiponectin +47 %, resistin -30 %, IL-6 -44 %, IL-1β -22 %) and upturn glucose metabolism through the improvement of beta-cell function (IGI30 +50 %, DIO +66 %). Conclusions: dietary supplementation with 25 g/day of ground chia may promote a healthier adipose tissue and improve pancreatic β-cell and endothelial function. Among patients with early metabolic abnormalities, phytochemical properties of chia may retard diabetes progression and advanced stages of liver damage.

Effects of Salvia hispanica L. (chia) seed on blood coagulation, endothelial dysfunction and liver fibrosis in an experimental model of Metabolic Syndrome

The aim of this study was to analyze blood coagulation, endothelial dysfunction and liver fibrosis in an experimental model of Metabolic Syndrome (MS) induced by chronic administration of a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) and to evaluate the effects of chia seed as a therapeutic strategy. Male Wistar rats were fed with a reference diet (RD) - 6 months - or a SRD - 3 months. Then, the last group was randomly divided into two subgroups. One subgroup continued receiving the SRD for up to 6 months and the other was fed with a SRD where whole chia seed was incorporated as the source of dietary fat for the next 3 months (SRD + CHIA). Results showed that rats fed a SRD for a long period of time develop dyslipidemia, visceral adiposity, insulin resistance, and a hypercoagulable and hypofibrinolytic basal state. Hepatic VCAM-1 (main adhesion molecules involved in endothelial dysfunction) expression was significantly increased. In addition, the SRD group presented hepatic steatosis, a significant increase in interstitial collagen deposition and hydroxyproline content. Liver TGF-β1 (a key cytokine involved in fibrogenesis) levels increased and a negative correlation with PPARα protein mass levels was found. The administration of chia seed for 3 months reversed dyslipidemia, visceral adiposity and insulin resistance. Platelet count, coagulation parameters and plasma fibrinogen levels were normalized. In the liver tissue, VCAM-1 expression, steatosis, interstitial collagen deposition and the hydroxyproline content decreased. TGF-β1 expression was decreased and this was associated with an increase in the PPARα protein levels. The present study showed new aspects in the progression from liver steatosis to fibrosis in dyslipidemic insulin-resistant rats chronically fed a sucrose-rich diet. Chia seed supplementation could be used as a functional food and a potential dietary strategy to prevent or ameliorate disorders related to atherothrombotic cardiovascular events and NASH.

Assessment of the Phytochemical and Nutrimental Composition of Dark Chia Seed (Salvia hispánica L.)

Chia seeds are rich sources of different macro and micronutrients associated with health benefits; thus, they may be considered as a functional food. However, the composition depends on the variety, origin, climate and soil. Here, we show a comprehensive characterization of extractable and non-extractable phenolic compounds of dark chia seed Salvia hispanica L. using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-quadrupole time-of-flight (HPLC-ESI-QTOF) and discuss potential health benefits associated with the presence of a number of nutritional and bioactive compounds. We report that dark chia from Jalisco is a high-fiber food, containing omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids (phenylalanine and tryptophan), and nucleosides (adenosine, guanidine and uridine), and rich in antioxidant phenolic compounds, mainly caffeic acid metabolites. Our data suggest that chia seeds may be used as ingredients for the development of functional foods and dietary supplements.

Salvia hispanica L. (chia) seed promotes body fat depletion and modulates adipocyte lipid handling in sucrose-rich diet-fed rats

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of Salvia hispanica L. (chia) seed upon metabolic pathways that play a key role in adipose tissue lipid handling which could be involved in visceral adiposity reduction developed in rats fed a sucrose-rich diet (SRD). Male Wistar rats were fed with a reference diet (RD) -6 months- or SRD-3 months. Then, the last group was randomly divided into two subgroups. One subgroup continued receiving the SRD up to 6 months and the other was fed with a SRD where whole chia seed was incorporated as the source of dietary fat for the next 3 months (SRD + CHIA). Results showed that chia seed in the SRD-fed rat reduced the abdominal and thoracic circumferences, carcass fat content, adipose tissue weights, and visceral adiposity index. This was accompanied by an improvement in insulin sensitivity and plasma lipid profile. In epididymal adipose tissue, the decreased fat cell triglyceride content was associated with a reduction in both, FAT/CD 36 plasma membrane levels and the fat synthesis enzyme activities. There were not changes in oxidative CPT enzyme activities. PKCβ and the precursor and mature forms of SREBP-1 protein levels were decreased, while pAMPK was increased. Our findings suggest that chia seed supplementation can modulate essential pathways of lipid metabolism in adipose tissue, contributing to reduced visceral fat accumulation in SRD-fed rats.

Protein Digests and Pure Peptides from Chia Seed Prevented Adipogenesis and Inflammation by Inhibiting PPARγ and NF-κB Pathways in 3T3L-1 Adipocytes

The objective was to evaluate the mechanisms of digested total proteins (DTP), albumin, glutelin, and pure peptides from chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) to prevent adipogenesis and its associated inflammation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Preadipocytes (3T3-L1) were treated during differentiation with either DTP or digested albumin or glutelin (1 mg/mL) or pure peptides NSPGPHDVALDQ and RMVLPEYELLYE (100 µM). Differentiated adipocytes also received DTP, digested albumin or glutelin (1 mg/mL), before (prevention) or after (inhibition) induced inflammation by addition of conditioned medium (CM) from inflamed macrophages. All treatments prevented adipogenesis, reducing more than 50% the expression of PPARγ and to a lesser extent lipoprotein lipase (LPL), fatty acid synthase (FAS), sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), lipase activity and triglycerides. Inflammation induced by CM was reduced mainly during prevention, while DTP decreased expression of NF-κB (−48.4%), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (−46.2%) and COX-2 (−64.5%), p < 0.05. Secretions of nitric oxide, PGE2 and TNFα were reduced by all treatments, p < 0.05. DTP reduced expressions of iNOS (−52.1%) and COX-2 (−66.4%). Furthermore, digested samples and pure peptides prevented adipogenesis by modulating PPARγ and additionally, preventing and even inhibiting inflammation in adipocytes by inhibition of PPARγ and NF-κB expression. These results highlight the effectiveness of digested total proteins and peptides from chia seed against adipogenesis complications in vitro.

Chia (Salvia hispanica)-supplemented diet ameliorates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and its metabolic abnormalities in humans

Background

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a public health problem lacking an approved pharmacological treatment. Omega-3 fatty acids have shown to reverse NAFLD. Chia is a seed rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA), antioxidants, and fiber; therefore, it could be useful to treat NAFLD.

Methods

In a single arm experimental design study, the effect of 25 g/day of milled chia was assessed in 25 patients with NAFLD. After two weeks of dietary stabilization (basal condition) and eight weeks of a chia-supplemented isocaloric diet, liver:spleen attenuation index and visceral abdominal fat (VAF) were measured by computed tomography. Lipids, lipoproteins, free fatty acids (FFA), and ALA plasma concentrations were also determined.

Results

Dietary chia supplementation induced an increase in plasma ALA concentration (75%) and dietary fiber (55%) consumption. After chia supplementation, VAF (9%), body weight (1.4%), total cholesterol (2.5%), non-high density lipoprotein cholesterol (3.2%), and circulating FFA (8%) decreased. Furthermore, NAFLD regressed in 52% of the treated patients (P < 0.05 for all).

Conclusions

The results of the present study show that 25 g/day of milled chia ameliorates NAFLD. Chia is an accessible vegetal source of omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and fiber, which could have the potential to prevent metabolic abnormalities in NAFLD patients. Considering that there is no pharmacological treatment approved for NAFLD, the findings of the present study suggest that a chia-supplemented diet could be an innovative alternative to control this disease.

Retrospectively registered

https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03942822

Methylophiopogonanone A, an Ophiopogon homoisoflavonoid, alleviates high-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia: assessment of its potential mechanism

Methylophiopogonanone A (MO-A), a homoisoflavonoid extracted from Ophiopogon japonicus, has been shown to attenuate myocardial apoptosis and improve cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. However, the hypolipidemic effects remain unknown. This study was performed to investigate a potential hypolipidemic effect of MO-A in hyperlipidemia rats, as well as its underlying mechanism of action. A rat model of hyperlipidemia was induced by a high-fat diet (HFD). Animals were randomly divided into three groups (n=8/group): normal control group (NC), HFD group, and HFD+MO-A (10 mg·kg-1·d-1) treatment group. The effects of MO-A on serum lipids, body weight, activity of lipoprotein metabolism enzyme, and gene expression of lipid metabolism were evaluated in HFD-induced rats. In HFD-induced rats, pretreatment with MO-A decreased the body weight gain and reduced serum and hepatic lipid levels. In addition, pretreatment with MO-A improved the activities of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase in serum and liver, down-regulated mRNA expression of acetyl CoA carboxylase and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c, and up-regulated mRNA expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α in the liver. Our results indicated that MO-A showed strong ability to ameliorate the hyperlipidemia in HFD-induced rats. MO-A might be a potential candidate for prevention of overweight and dyslipidemia induced by HFD.

Dietary chia seeds (Salvia hispanica) improve acute dyslipidemia and steatohepatitis in rats

Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) are rich in omega fatty acids. Dyslipidemia and steatohepatitis are diseases that require effective treatments in obese and non-obese patients. The aim was to evaluate the effect of chia intake on acute tyloxapol (TI)-induced dyslipidemia, on acute carbon tetrachloride (TC)-induced steatohepatitis, and on mixed damage (TC+TI) in non-obese rats. Four experimental groups were fed for 4 weeks a diet with established rodent food (DE), and four groups were fed a diet with 15% added chia (DC). Plasma samples were analyzed for total cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, biochemical liver damage markers, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Liver samples were used to quantify glycogen, catalase, lipid peroxidation, and TNF-α. A histopathological analysis was performed. DC intake partially or totally prevented steatohepatitis, and reduced lipids in the dyslipidemic groups. The hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects of chia may be correlated to its high content of α-linolenic acid (omega-3) and phenolics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Metabolic syndrome is associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are currently the most common causes of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. Dyslipidemia is a significant risk factor for NAFLD and NASH. Non-obese patients may have NAFLD or NASH. Metabolic syndrome and dyslipidemia are more strongly associated with NAFLD in non-obese than in obese patients. This is the first study evaluating the hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects of chia seed intake on acute dyslipidemia and/or steatohepatitis caused by the individual or combined administration of the inducers tyloxapol and carbon tetrachloride, respectively, in non-obese rats. The pharmacological effects of dietary chia are correlated to its high content of omega-3 and omega-6 (1:1), protein, dietary fiber, and phenolics. The results suggest that inclusion of chia in diets of non-obese patients with dyslipidemia and/or NAFLD/NASH may improve their health state and preventing cirrhosis or HCC.

A Renewable Source as a Functional Food: Chia Seed

Background:

Chia seed is not a new food for humanity. The seed has been used in many different areas since the Aztecs, especially the food items. The chia seed is -becoming increasingly important because of its nutritional and functional properties and it is described as “the seed of the 21st century” and “new gold and super nutrient”.

Background:

In this review, general characteristics, nutritional composition, fields of usage, effects on health and importance in human nutrition of the chia seed have been evaluated.

Conclusion:

This seed is shown as an important source of dietary fiber (soluble and insoluble), omega- 3 fatty acids, proteins, bioactive and polyphenolic compounds. It also has many physicochemical and functional properties that make it more suitable for the food industry. Chia seed is a good thickener, gel forming and chelating agent, foam enhancer, emulsifier, suspending agent and rehydration factor. Foods such as frozen products, bakery products, beverages, sweets, pasta, and sausages can be enriched with seeds and chia oil can be used as fat replacer for these products. Some studies have shown that consumption of the seed is beneficial for health problems such as dyslipidemia, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases and insulin resistance. However, the results of studies demonstrating the effect of the seeds on diseases have been controversial and many of the studies on this subject are animal studies. There is a need for further studies to reveal the effects of chia seed on human health and its importance in the food industry.

The Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value of Chia Seeds-Current State of Knowledge

Chia (Salvia hispanica) is an annual herbaceous plant, the seeds of which were consumed already thousands of years ago. Current research results indicate a high nutritive value for chia seeds and confirm their extensive health-promoting properties. Research indicates that components of chia seeds are ascribed a beneficial effect on the improvement of the blood lipid profile, through their hypotensive, hypoglycaemic, antimicrobial and immunostimulatory effects. This article provides a review of the most important information concerning the potential application of chia seeds in food production. The chemical composition of chia seeds is presented and the effect of their consumption on human health is discussed. Technological properties of chia seeds are shown and current legal regulations concerning their potential use in the food industry are presented.

Chia seed oil as an additive to yogurt

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a 2% chia seed oil addition to natural yogurt on its quality and to determine whether chia seed oil can be used as an additive in fermented milk products. The dominant species of microorganisms found in yogurt was Lb. delbruecki subsp. bulgaricus. The number in natural yogurt varied from 6.2 to 6.3·106 CFU·g-1 and in enriched yogurt between 6.1 and 6.3·106 CFU·g-1. Chia seed oil contained 4.5 g of sterol per 100 g of oil. The addition of 2% chia seed oil to natural yogurt resulted in a high content of phytosterol in yogurt. Natural yogurt contained 1.2 g of cholesterol in 100 g of the fat fraction of yogurt. Enriched yogurt contained 2 g of phytosterols. The addition of 2% chia seed oil to natural yogurt resulted in higher amounts of unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic and α-linolenic acid.

Chia Seed (Salvia hispanica L.) as a Source of Proteins and Bioactive Peptides with Health Benefits: A Review

The consumption of chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) has increased in recent years due its high content of omega-3 fatty acids and dietary fiber. This seed also has a high concentration of proteins and essential amino acids, becoming a promising source of bioactive peptides. The objective of this review was to identify the composition and the beneficial effects of chia seeds (S. hispanica L.), their proteins, peptides, and their potential impact on human health. The UniProt database was used to identify the chia proteins and their amino acid sequences. The BIOPEP database was used to analyze the peptides's bioactive potential. A total of 20 proteins were cataloged in chia seed, 12 of those were involved in the regular metabolic processes of the plant cells. However, eight proteins were specifically related to production and storage of plant lipids, thus explaining the high concentration of lipids in chia seeds (around 30%), especially omega-3 fatty acids (around 20%). The analyses of amino acid sequences showed peptides with bioactive potential, including dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and antioxidant capacity. These results correlated with the main health benefits of whole chia seed in humans such as antioxidant capacity, and hypotensive, hypoglycemic, and anticholesterolemic effects. Such relation can be associated with chia protein and peptide compositions and therefore needs further investigation in vitro and in vivo.

Lipoprotein Profile in Aged Rats Fed Chia Oil- or Hydroxytyrosol-Enriched Pork in High Cholesterol/High Saturated Fat Diets

Restructuring pork (RP) by adding new functional ingredients, like Chia oil (one of the richest natural source of α-linolenic acid) or hydroxytyrosol (HxT) (potent antioxidant), both with hypolipidemic activities, is one of the strategies that may help to reduce the potential negative effects of high meat products consumption. The aim of this study was to evaluate the Chia oil- or HxT-enriched-RP effect on the lipoprotein profile of aged rats fed high-fat, high-energy, and cholesterol-enriched diets. RP samples were prepared by mixing lean pork and lard with or without Chia oil (152.2 g/kg fresh matter) or HxT (3.6 g/kg fresh matter). Diets were prepared by mixing a semisynthetic diet with freeze-dried RP. Groups of 1-year male Wistar rats were fed the following experimental diets for 8 weeks: C, control-RP diet; HC, cholesterol-enriched-RP diet; and Chia oil-RP (CHIA) and HxT, Chia oil- or hydroxytyrosol-RP, cholesterol-enriched diet. Plasma lipid, lipoprotein profile, SREBP-1c protein, and low-density lipoproteins (LDL) receptor gene (Ldlr) expressions were evaluated. Compared to C diet, the HC diet increased plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, free fatty acids, total lipids, and SREBP-1c expression, but reduced Ldlr expression and significantly modified the lipoprotein profile, giving rise to the presence of high levels of atherogenic cholesterol-enriched very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) particles. Compared to the HC diet, the HxT diet did not produce significant changes in feed intake but it reduced the body weight. Chia oil and HxT partially arrested the negative effects of the high-fat, high-energy, and cholesterol-enriched meat-based diets on lipemia and lipoproteinemia, mostly by reducing the amount of cholesterol content in VLDL (60% and 74% less in CHIA and HxT vs. HC, respectively) and the VLDL total mass (59% and 63% less in CHIA and HxT vs. HC, respectively). Free fatty acids (FFA) significantly correlated with adipose tissue weight and VLDL total mass (both p < 0.05), and plasma triglycerides, phospholipids, total lipids, and SREBP-1c (all p < 0.001), suggesting the important role of FFA in lipoprotein metabolism. Results support the recommendation to include these ingredients in pork products addressed to reduce the presence of increased atherogenic particles in aged people at CVD risk consuming large amounts of pork.

Dietary fish oil ameliorates adipose tissue dysfunction in insulin-resistant rats fed a sucrose-rich diet improving oxidative stress, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and uncoupling protein 2

This work aims to assess the possible beneficial effects of dietary fish oil (FO) on the pre-existing adipose tissue dysfunction through the improvement or reversion of the mechanisms underlying oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines in dyslipemic insulin-resistant rats. Wistar rats were fed a sucrose rich diet (SRD) for 6 months. After that half of the animals continued with the SRD until month 8 while in the other half corn oil was replaced by FO for 2 months (SRD + FO). A reference group consumed a control diet all the time. In an epididymal fat pad, we analyzed antioxidant and oxidant enzyme activities, ROS content, glutathione redox state, the protein level of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and the expression and protein levels of uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) as well as oxidative stress biomarkers and TNF-α and IL-6 plasma levels. Besides these, insulin sensitivity and the composition of fatty acid phospholipids of adipose tissue were measured. Compared with the SRD the SRD + FO fed group showed a decrease of fat pad weight and the antioxidant and oxidant enzyme activities and ROS content returned to control values along with normal plasma TNF-α and IL-6 levels. FO normalized both the decrease of PPARγ protein and the increase of protein and expression of UCP2. Furthermore, FO increased the n-3/n-6 fatty acid ratio in the adipose tissue phospholipids and normalized dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. Finally, these findings reinforce the view that dietary FO may exert a beneficial effect in ameliorating the dyslipidemia and insulin resistance in this animal model.

Isolation and structural elucidation by 2D NMR of planteose, a major oligosaccharide in the mucilage of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds

An oligosaccharide was isolated in high purity and excellent yield from the water-extractable mucilage of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds using an optimized solid-phase extraction method. LC-MS analysis showed that the compound presents a molecular mass of 504Da and trifluoroacetic acid hydrolysis revealed that it consists of galactose, glucose and fructose. Glycosidic linkage analysis showed that the oligosaccharide contains two non-reducing ends corresponding to terminal glucopyranose and terminal galactopyranose, respectively. The oligosaccharide was identified as planteose by the complete assignment of a series of 2D NMR spectra (COSY, TOCSY, ROESY, HSQC, and HMBC). The significance of the presence of planteose in chia seeds is discussed in the context of nutrition and food applications.

Could post-weaning dietary chia seed mitigate the development of dyslipidemia, liver steatosis and altered glucose homeostasis in offspring exposed to a sucrose-rich diet from utero to adulthood?

The present work analyzes the effects of dietary chia seeds during postnatal life in offspring exposed to a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) from utero to adulthood. At weaning, chia seed (rich in α-linolenic acid) replaced corn oil (rich in linoleic acid) in the SRD. At 150 days of offspring life, anthropometrical parameters, blood pressure, plasma metabolites, hepatic lipid metabolism and glucose homeostasis were analyzed. Results showed that chia was able to prevent the development of hypertension, liver steatosis, hypertriglyceridemia and hypercholesterolemia. Normal triacylglycerol secretion and triacylglycerol clearance were accompanied by an improvement of de novo hepatic lipogenic and carnitine-palmitoyl transferase-1 enzymatic activities, associated with an accretion of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the total composition of liver homogenate. Glucose homeostasis and plasma free fatty acid levels were improved while visceral adiposity was slightly decreased. These results confirm that the incorporation of chia seed in the diet in postnatal life may provide a viable therapeutic option for preventing/mitigating adverse outcomes induced by an SRD from utero to adulthood.

Vegetable oils rich in alpha linolenic acid increment hepatic n-3 LCPUFA, modulating the fatty acid metabolism and antioxidant response in rats

Alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3, ALA) is an essential fatty acid and the metabolic precursor of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) from the n-3 family with relevant physiological and metabolic roles: eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5 n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 n-3, DHA). Western diet lacks of suitable intake of n-3 LCPUFA and there are recommendations to increase the dietary supply of such nutrients. Seed oils rich in ALA such as those from rosa mosqueta (Rosa rubiginosa), sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubis) and chia (Salvia hispanica) may constitute an alternative that merits research. This study evaluated hepatic and epididymal accretion and biosynthesis of n-3 LCPUFA, the activity and expression of Δ-5 and Δ-6 desaturase enzymes, the expression and DNA-binding activity of PPAR-α and SREBP-1c, oxidative stress parameters and the activity of antioxidative enzymes in rats fed sunflower oil (SFO, 1% ALA) as control group, canola oil (CO, 10% ALA), rosa mosqueta oil (RMO, 33% ALA), sacha inchi oil (SIO, 49% ALA) and chia oil (ChO, 64% ALA) as single lipid source. A larger supply of ALA increased the accretion of n-3 LCPUFA, the activity and expression of desaturases, the antioxidative status, the expression and DNA-binding of PPAR-α, the oxidation of fatty acids and the activity of antioxidant enzymes, whereas the expression and DNA-binding activity of SREBP-1c transcription factor and the biosynthetic activity of fatty acids declined. Results showed that oils rich in ALA such as SIO and ChO may trigger metabolic responses in rats such as those produced by n-3 PUFA.

Mechanisms Involved in the Improvement of Lipotoxicity and Impaired Lipid Metabolism by Dietary α-Linolenic Acid Rich Salvia hispanica L (Salba) Seed in the Heart of Dyslipemic Insulin-Resistant Rats

This study explores the mechanisms underlying the altered lipid metabolism in the heart of dyslipemic insulin-resistant (IR) rats fed a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) and investigates if chia seeds (rich in α-linolenic acid 18:3, n-3 ALA) improve/reverse cardiac lipotoxicity. Wistar rats received an SRD-diet for three months. Half of the animals continued with the SRD up to month 6. The other half was fed an SRD in which the fat source, corn oil (CO), was replaced by chia seeds from month 3 to 6 (SRD+chia). A reference group consumed a control diet (CD) all the time. Triglyceride, long-chain acyl CoA (LC ACoA) and diacylglycerol (DAG) contents, pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHc) and muscle-type carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (M-CPT1) activities and protein mass levels of M-CPT1, membrane fatty acid transporter (FAT/CD36), peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α (PPARα) and uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) were analyzed. Results show that: (a) the hearts of SRD-fed rats display lipotoxicity suggesting impaired myocardial lipid utilization; (b) Compared with the SRD group, dietary chia normalizes blood pressure; reverses/improves heart lipotoxicity, glucose oxidation, the increased protein mass level of FAT/CD36, and the impaired insulin stimulated FAT/CD36 translocation to the plasma membrane. The enhanced M-CPT1 activity is markedly reduced without similar changes in protein mass. PPARα slightly decreases, while the UCP2 protein level remains unchanged in all groups. Normalization of dyslipidemia and IR by chia reduces plasma fatty acids (FAs) availability, suggesting that a different milieu prevents the robust translocation of FAT/CD36. This could reduce the influx of FAs, decreasing the elevated M-CPT1 activity and lipid storage and improving glucose oxidation in cardiac muscles of SRD-fed rats.

Overproduction of altered VLDL in an insulin-resistance rat model: Influence of SREBP-1c and PPAR-α

BACKGROUND

In insulin-resistance, VLDL presents alterations that increase its atherogenic potential. The mechanism by which insulin-resistance promotes the production of altered VLDL is still not completely understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c) and of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α), with the features of composition and size of VLDL in an insulin-resistance rat model induced by a sucrose rich diet (SRD).

METHODS

The study was conducted on 12 male Wistar rats (180g) receiving SRD (12 weeks) and 12 controls. Lipid profile, free fatty acids, glucose, and insulin were measured. Lipid content in liver and visceral fat were assessed. Isolated VLDL (d<1.006g/ml) was characterized by its chemical composition and size by HPLC. The respective hepatic expression of SREBP-1c and PPAR-α was determined (Western blot).

RESULTS

As expected, SRD had elevated triglycerides (TG), free fatty acids and insulin levels, and decreased HDL-cholesterol (p<0.05), together with augmented hepatic and visceral fat (p<0.05). SRD showed higher VLDL total mass - with increased TG content - and predominance of large VLDL (p<0.05). SRD showed an increase in SREBP-1c (precursor and mature forms) and decreased PPAR-α expression (p<0.045). SREBP-1c forms were positively associated with VLDL total mass (p<0.04), VLDL-TG% (p<0.019), and large VLDL% (p<0.002). On the other hand, PPAR-α correlated negatively with VLDL total mass (p=0.05), VLDL-TG% (p=0.005), and large VLDL% (p=0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

Insulin-resistance, by coordinated activation of SREBP-1c and reduction of PPAR-α, could promote the secretion of larger and TG over-enriched VLDL particles, with greater atherogenic capacity.

Time course of adipose tissue dysfunction associated with antioxidant defense, inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress in dyslipemic insulin resistant rats

Time course of adipose tissue dysfunction in dyslipemic insulin resistant rats.

Dietary Salba (Salvia hispanica L) seed rich in α-linolenic acid improves adipose tissue dysfunction and the altered skeletal muscle glucose and lipid metabolism in dyslipidemic insulin-resistant rats

This work reports the effect of dietary Salba (chia) seed rich in n-3 α-linolenic acid on the morphological and metabolic aspects involved in adipose tissue dysfunction and the mechanisms underlying the impaired glucose and lipid metabolism in the skeletal muscle of rats fed a sucrose-rich diet (SRD). Rats were fed a SRD for 3 months. Thereafter, half the rats continued with SRD while in the other half, corn oil (CO) was replaced by chia seed for 3 months (SRD+chia). In control group, corn starch replaced sucrose. The replacement of CO by chia seed in the SRD reduced adipocyte hypertrophy, cell volume and size distribution, improved lipogenic enzyme activities, lipolysis and the anti-lipolytic action of insulin. In the skeletal muscle lipid storage, glucose phosphorylation and oxidation were normalized. Chia seed reversed the impaired insulin stimulated glycogen synthase activity, glycogen, glucose-6-phosphate and GLUT-4 protein levels as well as insulin resistance and dyslipidemia.