Maternal diet as a modifier of offspring epigenetics

Maternal Malnutrition and Elevated Disease Risk in Offspring

US populations have seen dramatic increases in the prevalence of chronic disease over the past three generations. Rapid increases in type 2 diabetes and obesity have occurred in all the states but have been particularly striking in the Deep South. These increases have contributed to decreases in life expectancy and to painful elevations in health care costs. The causes of worsening population health are complex and incompletely understood. However, there is strong evidence that vulnerability to chronic conditions is determined in early life. Most chronic diseases are developmentally driven. There are specific stressors experienced in early life that influence epigenetic and structural changes during development. These include malnutrition, severe levels of social stress, toxic chemicals, and low oxygen levels. Most US populations have experienced a decrease in the quality of the food they consume as industrial foods have replaced garden-grown foods. Thus, the consumption of too few nutrients before and during pregnancy and during lactation influences the growth of the placenta and fetal organs and their level of resilience when faced with stresses in postnatal life and particularly as adults. Animal studies have shown that the effects of poor nutrition can be passed on to future generations. The most powerful way that the current epidemics of obesity and insulin resistance can be reversed is by providing key nutrients to prospective mothers and those already pregnant.

Maternal non-compliance with recommended folic acid supplement use alters global DNA methylation in cord blood of newborns: A cohort study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Prenatal folate exposure may alter epigenetic marks in the offspring. We aimed to evaluate associations between prenatal exposure to folic acid (FA) in preconception and in utero with cord blood DNA methylation in long interspersed nuclear element 1 (LINE-1) and Alu short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) as markers of global DNA methylation levels.

METHODS

Data come from 325 mother-child pairs participating in the Nutrition in Early Life and Asthma (NELA) birth cohort (2015-2018). Pregnant women were asked about supplement use, including brand name and dose, one month before pregnancy (preconception) and through the trimesters of pregnancy. Maternal dietary folate intake was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire with additional questions for FA supplement use. Folate serum levels were measured in mothers at 24 weeks of gestation and in cord blood of newborns. DNA methylation was quantitatively assessed by bisulfite pyrosequencing on 5 LINE-1 and 3 Alu different elements. Associations were estimated using multivariable linear regression models.

RESULTS

A reduction in methylation levels of LINE-1 in newborns was associated with the use of FA supplements below the recommended doses (<400 ug/day) during preconception (-0.50; 95% CI: -0.91, -0.09; P = 0.016), and from preconception up to 12 weeks of gestation (-0.48; 95% CI: -0.88, -0.08; P = 0.018). Maternal use of FA supplements above the tolerable upper intake level of 1000 ug/day from preconception until 12 weeks of gestation was also related to lower methylation in LINE-1 at birth (-0.77; 95% CI: -1.52, -0.02; P = 0.044). Neither FA supplement use after 12 weeks of gestation nor maternal total folate intake (diet plus supplements) were associated with global DNA methylation levels at birth.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal non-compliance with the use of FA supplement recommendations from preconception up to 12 weeks of gestation reduces offspring global DNA methylation levels at birth.

The supplementation of female dogs with live yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii CNCM I-1079 acts as gut stabilizer at whelping and modulates immunometabolic phenotype of the puppies

Time around parturition is a stressful period for both bitches and their puppies. The use of probiotics has been proposed, e.g., in pigs, to improve health status of sows, their reproductive performances and in turn, the health and performance of their progeny. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the impact, on both dams and puppies, of a supplementation of bitches with the live yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii CNCM I-1079 (SB-1079) during the second part of the gestation and the lactation period. A total of 36 bitches of medium and large-sized breeds were enrolled. They were divided into two groups, one of which received 1.3 × 109 colony forming units of live yeast per day. At dam's level, SB-1079 yeast shaped a different microbiota structure between the two groups just after whelping, impacted alpha diversity and some plasma metabolites related to energy metabolism. Regarding reproductive performances, SB-1079 improved gross energy of the colostrum (1.4 vs. 1.2 kcal of ME/g) as well as the concentration of protein in milk at Day 7 after parturition (10.4 vs. 7.6%). SB-1079 also reduced the odds of having low birth weight in the litter. At puppy's level, a modulation of immunometabolic phenotype is suggested by the observation of increased growth rates during the early pediatric period (i.e., between 21 and 56 days of life, 225 vs. 190%) and a decrease of the IL-8:IL-10 ratio after vaccination against rabies (4.2 vs. 16.9). Our findings suggest that SB-1079 supplementation during gestation and lactation has the potential to enhance health of bitches and in turn health of puppies through maternal programming.

Butyrate reduction and HDAC4 increase underlie maternal high fructose-induced metabolic dysfunction in hippocampal astrocytes in female rats

Maternal nutrient intake influences the health of the offspring via microenvironmental systems in digestion and absorption. Maternal high fructose diet (HFD) impairs hippocampus-dependent memory in adult female rat offspring. However, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unclear. Maternal HFD causes microbiota dysbiosis. In this study, we find that the plasma level of butyrate, a major metabolite of microbiota, is significantly decreased in the adult female maternal HFD offspring. In these rats, GPR43, a butyrate receptor was downregulated in the hippocampus. Moreover, the expressions of mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) were downregulated in the hippocampus. The decreases of these functional proteins were reversed by fructooligosaccharides (FOS, a probiotic) treatment in adulthood. Astrocytes are critical for energy metabolism in the brain. Primary astrocyte culture from female maternal HFD offspring indicated that GPR43 and the mitochondrial biogenesis were significantly suppressed, which was reversed by supplemental butyrate incubation. The oxygen consumption rate (OCR) was reduced in the HFD group and rescued by butyrate. Intriguingly, the nuclear histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) was enhanced in the HFD group, suggesting an inhibitory role of butyrate on histone deacetylase activity. Inhibition of HDAC4 effectively restored the OCR, bioenergetics, and biogenesis of mitochondria. Together, these results suggested that the impaired butyrate signaling by maternal HFD could underlie the reduced mitochondrial functions in the hippocampus via HDAC4-mediated epigenetic changes.

Dietary nutrients during gestation cause obesity and related metabolic changes by altering DNA methylation in the offspring

Growing evidence shows that maternal nutrition from preconception until lactation has an important effect on the development of non-communicable diseases in the offspring. Biological responses to environmental stress during pregnancy, including undernutrition or overnutrition of various nutrients, are transmitted in part by DNA methylation. The aim of the present narrative review is to summarize literature data on altered DNA methylation patterns caused by maternal macronutrient or vitamin intake and its association with offspring's phenotype (obesity and related metabolic changes). With our literature search, we found evidence for the association between alterations in DNA methylation pattern of different genes caused by maternal under- or overnutrition of several nutrients (protein, fructose, fat, vitamin D, methyl-group donor nutrients) during 3 critical periods of programming (preconception, pregnancy, lactation) and the development of obesity or related metabolic changes (glucose, insulin, lipid, leptin, adiponectin levels, blood pressure, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) in offspring. The review highlights that maternal consumption of several nutrients could individually affect the development of offspring's obesity and related metabolic changes via alterations in DNA methylation.

Inheritance of environment-induced phenotypic changes through epigenetic mechanisms

Growing evidence suggests that epigenetic changes through various parental environmental factors alter the phenotypes of descendants in various organisms. Environmental factors, including exposure to chemicals, stress and abnormal nutrition, affect the epigenome in parental germ cells by different epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modification as well as small RNAs via metabolites. Some current remaining questions are the causal relationship between environment-induced epigenetic changes in germ cells and altered phenotypes of descendants, and the molecular basis of how the abnormal epigenetic changes escape reprogramming in germ cells. In this review, we introduce representative examples of intergenerational and transgenerational inheritance of phenotypic changes through parental environmental factors and the accompanied epigenetic and metabolic changes, with a focus on animal species. We also discuss the molecular mechanisms of epigenomic inheritance and their possible biological significance.

Evolutionary adaptation to juvenile malnutrition impacts adult metabolism and impairs adult fitness in Drosophila

Juvenile undernutrition has lasting effects on adult metabolism of the affected individuals, but it is unclear how adult physiology is shaped over evolutionary time by natural selection driven by juvenile undernutrition. We combined RNAseq, targeted metabolomics, and genomics to study the consequences of evolution under juvenile undernutrition for metabolism of reproductively active adult females of Drosophila melanogaster. Compared to Control populations maintained on standard diet, Selected populations maintained for over 230 generations on a nutrient-poor larval diet evolved major changes in adult gene expression and metabolite abundance, in particular affecting amino acid and purine metabolism. The evolved differences in adult gene expression and metabolite abundance between Selected and Control populations were positively correlated with the corresponding differences previously reported for Selected versus Control larvae. This implies that genetic variants affect both stages similarly. Even when well fed, the metabolic profile of Selected flies resembled that of flies subject to starvation. Finally, Selected flies had lower reproductive output than Controls even when both were raised under the conditions under which the Selected populations evolved. These results imply that evolutionary adaptation to juvenile undernutrition has large pleiotropic consequences for adult metabolism, and that they are costly rather than adaptive for adult fitness. Thus, juvenile and adult metabolism do not appear to evolve independently from each other even in a holometabolous species where the two life stages are separated by a complete metamorphosis.

Physiologic and epigenetic effects of nutrients on disease pathways

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Epigenetic regulation by nutrients can influence the development of specific diseases. This study sought to examine the effect of individual nutrients and nutrient families in the context of preventing chronic metabolic diseases via epigenetic regulation. The inhibition of lipid accumulation and inflammation by nutrients including proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals were observed, and histone acetylation by histone acetyltransferase (HAT) was measured. Correlative analyses were also performed.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Nutrients were selected according to information from the Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. Selected nutrient functionalities, including the attenuation of fatty acid-induced lipid accumulation and lipopolysaccharide-mediated acute inflammation were evaluated in mouse macrophage Raw264.7 and mouse hepatocyte AML-12 cells. Effects of the selected nutrients on in vitro HAT inhibition were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Nitric oxide (NO) production correlated with HAT activity, which was regulated by the amino acids group, suggesting that amino acids potentially contribute to the attenuation of NO production via the inhibition of HAT activity. Unsaturated fatty acids tended to attenuate inflammation by inhibiting NO production, which may be attributable to the inhibition of in vitro HAT activity. In contrast to water-soluble vitamins, the lipid-soluble vitamins significantly decreased NO production. Water- and lipid-soluble vitamins both exhibited significant inhibitory activities against HAT. In addition, calcium and manganese significantly inhibited lipid accumulation, NO production, and HAT activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Several candidate nutrients and their family members may have roles in the prevention of diseases, including hepatic steatosis and inflammation-related diseases (i.e., nonalcoholic steatohepatitis) via epigenetic regulation. Further studies are warranted to determine which specific amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids and lipid-soluble vitamins or specific minerals influence the development of steatosis and inflammatory-related diseases.

DNA methylation of pck1 might contribute to the programming effects of early high-carbohydrate diets feeding to the glucose metabolism across two generations in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The purpose of this study is to assess the effects of early high-carbohydrate stimulus on glucose metabolism in zebrafish (Danio rerio) over two generations and explore the mechanisms that explain those nutritional programming effects via epigenetic modifications. The larvae were delivered a high-carbohydrate diet (53.66%) that was used as an early nutritional stimulus from the first feeding to the end of the yolk sac (FF) and 5 days after yolk-sac exhaustion (YE). The larvae (F0) and their offspring (F1) were then both fed the control diet (22.69%) until adulthood (15 weeks), and they were challenged with a high-carbohydrate diet (35.36%) at the 16th week. The results indicated that early stimulus immediately raised the mRNA levels of genes involved in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. At the end of F0 challenge, both treatment groups decreased the plasma glucose levels, increased the expression levels of glucokinase (gck), and inhibited the mRNA during gluconeogenesis. When challenged in F1, the glucose levels were lower in FF (F1), and the mRNA levels of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (pck1) were decreased in FF (F1) and YE (F1). Besides, in both experimental groups (F0 and F1), the CpG island of pck1 maintained lower levels of hypermethylated expression from F0 adult, 24 h post-fertilization embryo, to F1 adult. In conclusion, these results indicated that an early high-carbohydrate stimulus could significantly reprogram glucose metabolism in adult zebrafish, that those modifications could be partially transmitted to the next generation, and that the DNA methylation of pck1 might work as a stable epigenetic marker to contribute to those processes.

The impact of early-life environment on absence epilepsy and neuropsychiatric comorbidities

This review discusses the long-term effects of early-life environment on epileptogenesis, epilepsy, and neuropsychiatric comorbidities with an emphasis on the absence epilepsy. The WAG/Rij rat strain is a well-validated genetic model of absence epilepsy with mild depression-like (dysthymia) comorbidity. Although pathologic phenotype in WAG/Rij rats is genetically determined, convincing evidence presented in this review suggests that the absence epilepsy and depression-like comorbidity in WAG/Rij rats may be governed by early-life events, such as prenatal drug exposure, early-life stress, neonatal maternal separation, neonatal handling, maternal care, environmental enrichment, neonatal sensory impairments, neonatal tactile stimulation, and maternal diet. The data, as presented here, indicate that some early environmental events can promote and accelerate the development of absence seizures and their neuropsychiatric comorbidities, while others may exert anti-epileptogenic and disease-modifying effects. The early environment can lead to phenotypic alterations in offspring due to epigenetic modifications of gene expression, which may have maladaptive consequences or represent a therapeutic value. Targeting DNA methylation with a maternal methyl-enriched diet during the perinatal period appears to be a new preventive epigenetic anti-absence therapy. A number of caveats related to the maternal methyl-enriched diet and prospects for future research are discussed.

A perspective on diet, epigenetics and complex diseases: where is the field headed next?

Dietary factors can regulate epigenetic processes during life, modulating the intracellular pools of metabolites necessary for epigenetic reactions and regulating the activity of epigenetic enzymes. Their effects are strong during the prenatal life, when epigenetic patterns are written, allowing organogenesis. However, interactions between diet and the epigenome continue throughout life and likely contribute to the onset and progression of various complex diseases. Here, we review the contribution of dietary factors to the epigenetic changes observed in complex diseases and suggest future steps to better address this issue, focusing on neurobehavioral, neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, obesity and Type 2 diabetes, cancer and inflammatory skin diseases.

The Potential Role of PPARs in the Fetal Origins of Adult Disease

The fetal origins of adult disease (FOAD) hypothesis holds that events during early development have a profound impact on one’s risk for the development of future adult disease. Studies from humans and animals have demonstrated that many diseases can begin in childhood and are caused by a variety of early life traumas, including maternal malnutrition, maternal disease conditions, lifestyle changes, exposure to toxins/chemicals, improper medication during pregnancy, and so on. Recently, the roles of Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) in FOAD have been increasingly appreciated due to their wide variety of biological actions. PPARs are members of the nuclear hormone receptor subfamily, consisting of three distinct subtypes: PPARα, β/δ, and γ, highly expressed in the reproductive tissues. By controlling the maturation of the oocyte, ovulation, implantation of the embryo, development of the placenta, and male fertility, the PPARs play a crucial role in the transition from embryo to fetus in developing mammals. Exposure to adverse events in early life exerts a profound influence on the methylation pattern of PPARs in offspring organs, which can affect development and health throughout the life course, and even across generations. In this review, we summarize the latest research on PPARs in the area of FOAD, highlight the important role of PPARs in FOAD, and provide a potential strategy for early prevention of FOAD.

Paternal transgenerational nutritional epigenetic effect: A new insight into nutritional manipulation to reduce the use of antibiotics in animal feeding

The use of antibiotics in animal feeding has been banned in many countries because of increasing concerns about the development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics and potential issues on food safety. Searching for antibiotic substitutes is essential. Applying transgenerational epigenetic technology to animal production could be an alternative. Some environmental changes can be transferred to memory-like responses in the offspring through epigenetic mechanisms without changing the DNA sequence. In this paper, we reviewed those nutrients and non-nutritional additives that have transgenerational epigenetic effects, including some amino acids, vitamins, and polysaccharides. The paternal transgenerational nutritional epigenetic regulation was particularly focused on mechanism of the substantial contribution of male stud animals to the animal industries. We illustrated the effects of paternal transgenerational epigenetics on the metabolism and immunity in farming animals and proposed strategies to modulate male breeding livestock or poultry.

Effects of a maternal high-fat diet on adipose tissue in murine offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to analyze the influence of a maternal and/or offspring high-fat diet (HFD) on the morphology of the offspring adipocytes and amount of food and energy consumption. The search was conducted through Pubmed, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases up to October 31st, 2021. The outcomes were extracted and pooled as a standardized mean difference with random effect models. 5,004 articles were found in the databases. Of these, only 31 were selected for this systematic review and 21 were included in the meta-analysis. A large discrepancy in the percentage of fat composing the HFD (from 14% to 62% fat content) was observed. Considering the increase of adipose tissue by hyperplasia (cell number increase) and hypertrophy (cell size increase) in HFD models, the meta-analysis showed that excessive consumption of a maternal HFD influences the development of visceral white adipose tissue in offspring, related to adipocyte hypertrophy, regardless of their HFD or control diet consumption. Upon following a long-term HFD, hyperplasia was confirmed in the offspring. When analyzing the secondary outcome in terms of the amount of food and energy consumed, there was an increase of caloric intake in the offspring fed with HFD whose mothers consumed HFD. Furthermore, the adipocyte hypertrophy in different regions of the adipose tissue is related to the sex of the pups. Thus, the adipose tissue obesity phenotypes in offspring are programmed by maternal consumption of a high-fat diet, independent of postnatal diet.

Epigenetic Aging in Early Life: Role of Maternal and Early Childhood Nutrition

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Early life presents a pivotal period during which nutritional exposures are more likely to cause epigenetic modifications, which may impact an individual's health during adulthood. This article reviews the current evidence regarding maternal and early childhood nutritional exposures and their role in epigenetic aging.

RECENT FINDINGS

Maternal and early life consumption of diets higher in fiber, antioxidants, polyphenols, B vitamins, vitamin D, and ω-3 fatty acids is associated with slower epigenetic aging. Conversely, diets higher in glycemic load, fat, saturated fat, and ω-6 fatty acids demonstrate a positive association with epigenetic aging. Maternal and early life nutrition directly and indirectly influences epigenetic aging via changes in one-carbon metabolism, cardiometabolic health, and the microbiome. Clinical trials are warranted to determine the specific foods, dietary patterns, and dietary supplements that will normalize or lower epigenetic aging across the life course.

Epigenetic Effect of Maternal Methyl-Group Donor Intake on Offspring’s Health and Disease

Maternal exposure to some dietary and environmental factors during embryonic development can affect offspring’s phenotype and, furthermore, the risk of developing diseases later in life. One potential mechanism responsible for this early programming may be the modification of the epigenome, such as DNA methylation. Methyl-group donors are essential for DNA methylation and are shown to have an important role in fetal development and later health. The main goal of the present review is to summarize the available literature data on the epigenetic effect (DNA methylation) of maternal methyl-group donor availability on reproductivity, perinatal outcome, and later health of the offspring. In our literature search, we found evidence for the association between alterations in DNA methylation patterns caused by different maternal methyl-group donor (folate, choline, methionine, betaine) intake and reproductivity, birth weight, neural tube defect, congenital heart defect, cleft lip and palate, brain development, and the development of obesity and associated non-communicable diseases in later life. We can conclude that maternal methyl-group donor availability could affect offspring’s health via alterations in DNA methylation and may be a major link between early environmental exposure and the development of diseases in the offspring. However, still, further studies are necessary to confirm the associations and causal relationships.

Cumulative Metabolic and Epigenetic Effects of Paternal and/or Maternal Supplementation with Arachidonic Acid across Three Consecutive Generations in Mice

Apart from the known associations between arachidonic acid (AA), weight gain, and neurological and immune function, AA exposure leads to alterations in global and gene-specific DNA methylation (DNAm) and fatty acid (FA) content in human cultured cells. However, it is unknown as to whether the latter effects occur in vivo and are maintained over extended periods of time and across generations. To address this issue, we asked whether AA supplementation for three consecutive generations (prior to coitus in sires or in utero in dams) affected offspring growth phenotypes, in addition to liver DNAm and FA profiles in mice. Twelve-week-old BALB/c mice were exposed daily to AA dissolved in soybean oil (vehicle, VH), or VH only, for 10 days prior to mating or during the entire pregnancy (20 days). On average, 15 mice were supplemented per generation, followed by analysis of offspring body weight and liver traits (x average = 36 and 10 per generation, respectively). Body weight cumulatively increased in F2 and F3 offspring generations and positively correlated with milligrams of paternal or maternal offspring AA exposure. A concomitant increase in liver weight was observed. Notably, akin to AA-challenged cultured cells, global DNAm and cis-7-hexadecenoic acid (16:1n-9), an anti-inflammatory FA that is dependent on stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) activity, increased with milligrams of AA exposure. In accordance, liver Scd1 promoter methylation decreased with milligrams of germline AA exposure and was negatively correlated with liver weight. Our results show that mice retain cellular memories of AA exposure across generations that could potentially be beneficial to the innate immune system.

Lipid endocannabinoids in energy metabolism, stress and developmental programming

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) regulates brain development and function, energy metabolism and stress in a sex-, age- and tissue-dependent manner. The ECS comprises mainly the bioactive lipid ligands anandamide (AEA) and 2-aracdonoylglycerol (2-AG), cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2), and several metabolizing enzymes. The endocannabinoid tonus is increased in obesity, stimulating food intake and a preference for fat, reward, and lipid accumulation in peripheral tissues, as well as favoring a positive energy balance. Energy balance and stress responses share adaptive mechanisms regulated by the ECS that seem to underlie the complex relationship between feeding and emotional behavior. The ECS is also a key regulator of development. Environmental insults (diet, toxicants, and stress) in critical periods of developmental plasticity, such as gestation, lactation and adolescence, alter the ECS and may predispose individuals to the development of chronic diseases and behavioral changes in the long term. This review is focused on the ECS and the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD).

Maternal dietary fatty acid composition and newborn epigenetic aging-a geometric framework approach

BACKGROUND

Maternal nutrition is associated with epigenetic and cardiometabolic risk factors in offspring. Research in humans has primarily focused on assessing the impact of individual nutrients.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to assess the collective impact of maternal dietary MUFAs, PUFAs, and SFAs on epigenetic aging and cardiometabolic risk markers in healthy newborn infants using a geometric framework approach.

METHODS

Body fatness (n = 162), aortic intima-media thickness (aIMT; n = 131), heart rate variability (n = 118), and epigenetic age acceleration (n = 124) were assessed in newborn infants. Maternal dietary intake was cross-sectionally assessed in the immediate postpartum period via a validated 80-item self-administered FFQ. Generalized additive models were used to explore interactive associations of nutrient intake, with results visualized as response surfaces.

RESULTS

After adjustment for total energy intake, maternal age, gestational age, and sex there was a 3-way interactive association of MUFAs, PUFAs, and SFAs (P = 0.001) with newborn epigenetic aging. This suggests that the nature of each fat class association depends upon one another. Response surfaces revealed MUFAs were positively associated with newborn epigenetic age acceleration only at proportionately lower intakes of SFAs or PUFAs. We also demonstrate a potential beneficial association of omega-3 (n-3) PUFAs with newborn epigenetic age acceleration (P = 0.008). There was no significant association of fat class with newborn aIMT, heart rate variability, or body fatness.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we demonstrated an association between maternal dietary fat class composition and epigenetic aging in newborns. Future research should consider other characteristics such as the source of maternal dietary fatty acids.

Epigenetics in the Uterine Environment: How Maternal Diet and ART May Influence the Epigenome in the Offspring with Long-Term Health Consequences

The societal burden of non-communicable disease is closely linked with environmental exposures and lifestyle behaviours, including the adherence to a poor maternal diet from the earliest preimplantation period of the life course onwards. Epigenetic variations caused by a compromised maternal nutritional status can affect embryonic development. This review summarises the main epigenetic modifications in mammals, especially DNA methylation, histone modifications, and ncRNA. These epigenetic changes can compromise the health of the offspring later in life. We discuss different types of nutritional stressors in human and animal models, such as maternal undernutrition, seasonal diets, low-protein diet, high-fat diet, and synthetic folic acid supplement use, and how these nutritional exposures epigenetically affect target genes and their outcomes. In addition, we review the concept of thrifty genes during the preimplantation period, and some examples that relate to epigenetic change and diet. Finally, we discuss different examples of maternal diets, their effect on outcomes, and their relationship with assisted reproductive technology (ART), including their implications on epigenetic modifications.

Quality of Life and a Surveillant Endocannabinoid System

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is an important brain modulatory network. ECS regulates brain homeostasis throughout development, from progenitor fate decision to neuro- and gliogenesis, synaptogenesis, brain plasticity and circuit repair, up to learning, memory, fear, protection, and death. It is a major player in the hypothalamic-peripheral system-adipose tissue in the regulation of food intake, energy storage, nutritional status, and adipose tissue mass, consequently affecting obesity. Loss of ECS control might affect mood disorders (anxiety, hyperactivity, psychosis, and depression), lead to drug abuse, and impact neurodegenerative (Alzheimer's, Parkinson, Huntington, Multiple, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) and neurodevelopmental (autism spectrum) disorders. Practice of regular physical and/or mind-body mindfulness and meditative activities have been shown to modulate endocannabinoid (eCB) levels, in addition to other players as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). ECS is involved in pain, inflammation, metabolic and cardiovascular dysfunctions, general immune responses (asthma, allergy, and arthritis) and tumor expansion, both/either in the brain and/or in the periphery. The reason for such a vast impact is the fact that arachidonic acid, a precursor of eCBs, is present in every membrane cell of the body and on demand eCBs synthesis is regulated by electrical activity and calcium shifts. Novel lipid (lipoxins and resolvins) or peptide (hemopressin) players of the ECS also operate as regulators of physiological allostasis. Indeed, the presence of cannabinoid receptors in intracellular organelles as mitochondria or lysosomes, or in nuclear targets as PPARγ might impact energy consumption, metabolism and cell death. To live a better life implies in a vigilant ECS, through healthy diet selection (based on a balanced omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids), weekly exercises and meditation therapy, all of which regulating eCBs levels, surrounded by a constructive social network. Cannabidiol, a diet supplement has been a major player with anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, antidepressant, and antioxidant activities. Cognitive challenges and emotional intelligence might strengthen the ECS, which is built on a variety of synapses that modify human behavior. As therapeutically concerned, the ECS is essential for maintaining homeostasis and cannabinoids are promising tools to control innumerous targets.

The Impact of Maternal and Piglet Low Protein Diet and Their Interaction on the Porcine Liver Transcriptome around the Time of Weaning

Maternal diet during early gestation affects offspring phenotype, but it is unclear whether maternal diet during late gestation influences piglet metabolism. We evaluated the impact of two dietary protein levels in sow late gestation diet and piglet nursery diet on piglet metabolism. Diets met or exceeded the crude protein and amino acid requirements. Sows received either 12% (Lower, L) or 17% (Higher, H) crude protein (CP) during the last five weeks of gestation, and piglets received 16.5% (L) or 21% (H) CP from weaning at age 3.5 weeks. This resulted in a 2 × 2 factorial design with four sow/piglet diet treatment groups: HH and LL (match), HL and LH (mismatch). Piglet hepatic tissues were sampled and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were determined by RNA sequencing. At age 4.5 weeks, 25 genes were downregulated and 22 genes were upregulated in the mismatch compared to match groups. Several genes involved in catabolic pathways were upregulated in the mismatch compared to match groups, as were genes involved in lipid metabolism and inflammation. The results show a distinct interaction effect between maternal and nursery diets, implying that sow late gestation diet could be used to optimize piglet metabolism.

Periconceptional Maternal Diet Characterized by High Glycemic Loading Is Associated with Offspring Behavior in NEST

Maternal periconceptional diets have known associations with proper offspring neurodevelopment. Mechanisms for such associations include improper energy/nutrient balances between mother and fetus, as well as altered offspring epigenetics during development due to maternal nutrient and inflammatory status. Using a comprehensive food frequency questionnaire and assessing offspring temperament with the Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (n = 325, mean age = 13.9 months), we sought to test whether a maternal periconceptional diet characterized by high glycemic loading (MGL) would affect offspring temperament using adjusted ordinal regression. After limiting false discovery to 10%, offspring born to mothers in tertile 3 of glycemic loading (referent = tertile 1) were more likely to be in the next tertile of anxiety [OR (95% CI) = 4.51 (1.88-11.07)] and inhibition-related behaviors [OR (95% CI) = 3.42 (1.49-7.96)]. Male offspring were more likely to exhibit impulsive [OR (95% CI) = 5.55 (1.76-18.33)], anxiety [OR (95% CI) = 4.41 (1.33-15.30)], sleep dysregulation [OR (95% CI) = 4.14 (1.34-13.16)], empathy [6.68 (1.95-24.40)], and maladaptive behaviors [OR (95% CI) = 9.86 (2.81-37.18)], while females were more likely to exhibit increased anxiety-related behaviors [OR (95% CI) = 15.02 (3.14-84.27)]. These associations persisted when concurrently modeled with the maternal-Mediterranean dietary pattern. In a subset (n = 142), we also found MGL associated with increased mean methylation of the imprint control region of SGCE/PEG10. In conclusion, these findings highlight the importance of maternal dietary patterns on offspring neurodevelopment, offering avenues for prevention options for mothers.

Alteration of the Early Development Environment by Maternal Diet and the Occurrence of Autistic-like Phenotypes in Rat Offspring

Epidemiological and preclinical studies suggest that maternal obesity increases the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring. Here, we assessed the effects of exposure to modified maternal diets limited to pregnancy and lactation on brain development and behavior in rat offspring of both sexes. Among the studied diets, a maternal high-fat diet (HFD) disturbed the expression of ASD-related genes (Cacna1d, Nlgn3, and Shank1) and proteins (SHANK1 and TAOK2) in the prefrontal cortex of male offspring during adolescence. In addition, a maternal high-fat diet induced epigenetic changes by increasing cortical global DNA methylation and the expression of miR-423 and miR-494. As well as the molecular changes, behavioral studies have shown male-specific disturbances in social interaction and an increase in repetitive behavior during adolescence. Most of the observed changes disappeared in adulthood. In conclusion, we demonstrated the contribution of a maternal HFD to the predisposition to an ASD-like phenotype in male adolescent offspring, while a protective effect occurred in females.

Maternal periconceptional nutrition matters. A scoping review of the current literature

BACKGROUND

The importance of nutrition in reproductive health is widely acknowledged with special emphasis given to periconceptional maternal diet and its implications on embryo-fetal development, pregnancy complications, and the health of the offspring.

METHODS

Following the PRISMA guidelines, we searched for literature in PubMed, CINAHL, and WoS to gather newer information on how diet composition influences the concepts from the very early stages of pregnancy and how maternal health may be affected as well. Fifty-six studies published up to June 2020 met the inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

With its proportioned and diversified macronutrient composition, the Mediterranean Diet prevents congenital anomalies, preterm birth, hypertensive disorders, and gestational diabetes. Similar dietary patterns rich in vegetables, nuts, fish, and cereals increase the likelihood of conception and have a protective action, mediated by their antioxidant properties, against orofacial clefts, congenital heart and limb defects in the progeny. Conversely, the pro-inflammatory features of western diets, rich in processed foods and low in fruit content, diminish fertility, increase miscarriage rates, and enhance the risk of neural tube defects regardless of folate supplementation.

CONCLUSIONS

It may be concluded that within the multiple dietary options, some of them are soundly associated with beneficial effects for the mother and the newborn.Implications for practiceAn appropriate counseling must be offered to the woman of fertile age to make her aware of how periconceptional nutrition may help fulfill her reproductive expectations.

Dietary fat intake during early pregnancy is associated with cord blood DNA methylation at IGF2 and H19 genes in newborns

Maternal fat intake during pregnancy affects fetal growth, but mechanisms underlying this relationship are unclear. We performed an exploratory study of the associations of fat consumption during pregnancy with cord blood DNA methylation of the insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) and H19 genes. We used data from 96 uncomplicated full-term pregnancies of mothers of whom majority had normal body mass index (BMI) (66%) in Project Viva, a prospective pre-birth cohort. We assessed maternal diet with validated food frequency questionnaires during the first and second trimesters and measured DNA methylation in segments of the IGF2- and H19-differentially methylated regions (DMRs) by pyrosequencing DNA extracted from umbilical cord blood samples. Mean (SD) age was 32.8 (4.1) years and prepregnancy BMI was 24.0 (4.4) kg/m² . Mean DNA methylation was 56.3% (3.9%) for IGF2-DMR and 44.6% (1.9%) for H19-DMR. Greater first trimester intake of omega-6 polyunsaturated fat (effect per 1% of calories at the expense of carbohydrates) was associated with lower DNA methylation of IGF2-DMR (-1.2%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -2.2%, -0.2%) and higher DNA methylation at H19-DMR (0.8%; 95% CI: 0.3%, 1.3%). On the other hand, greater first trimester intake of omega-3 polyunsaturated fat was associated with lower DNA methylation of the H19-DMR (-4.3%; 95% CI: -7.9%, -0.8%). We did not find significant associations of IGF2 and H19 methylation with IGF2 cord blood levels. Our findings suggest that early prenatal fat intake (omega-3, omega-6, and saturated fatty acids) may influence DNA methylation at the IGF2 and H19 locus, which could impact fetal development and long-term health.

Low levels of sulfur and cobalt during the pre- and periconceptional periods affect the oocyte yield of donors and the DNA methylome of preimplantation bovine embryos

Maternal nutrition is critical in mammalian development, influencing the epigenetic reprogramming of gametes, embryos, and fetal programming. We evaluated the effects of different levels of sulfur (S) and cobalt (Co) in the maternal diet throughout the pre- and periconceptional periods on the biochemical and reproductive parameters of the donors and the DNA methylome of the progeny in Bos indicus cattle. The low-S/Co group differed from the control with respect to homocysteine, folic acid, B12, insulin growth factor 1, and glucose. The oocyte yield was lower in heifers from the low S/Co group than that in the control heifers. Embryos from the low-S/Co group exhibited 2320 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) across the genome compared with the control embryos. We also characterized candidate DMRs linked to the DNMT1 and DNMT3B genes in the blood and sperm cells of the adult progeny. A DMR located in DNMT1 that was identified in embryos remained differentially methylated in the sperm of the progeny from the low-S/Co group. Therefore, we associated changes in specific compounds in the maternal diet with DNA methylation modifications in the progeny. Our results help to elucidate the impact of maternal nutrition on epigenetic reprogramming in livestock, opening new avenues of research to study the effect of disturbed epigenetic patterns in early life on health and fertility in adulthood. Considering that cattle are physiologically similar to humans with respect to gestational length, our study may serve as a model for studies related to the developmental origin of health and disease in humans.

Association of Prepregnancy BMI, Gestational Weight Gain, and Child Birth Weight with Metabolic Dysfunction in Children and Adolescents with Obesity

OBJECTIVES

Previous studies have reported that maternal prepregnancy body mass index (BMI), gestational weight gain (GWG), and child birth weight are positively associated with metabolic dysfunction (a broader term than metabolic syndrome) in children and adolescents. Physical activity habits may play a role in reducing these risk factors. The objectives of this study were to investigate the association of prepregnancy BMI, GWG, child birth weight, physical activity, and sedentary time with metabolic dysfunction in a cohort of children and adolescents with obesity.

METHODS

Participants (N = 117; 53% Hispanic) were children and adolescents, aged 8 to 17 years, with obesity. Fasting serum glucose, insulin, and a complete lipid profile were obtained. Body weight, height, waist circumference, and blood pressure were measured. A self-reported survey assessed prepregnancy BMI, GWG, child birth weight, physical activity, and sedentary time. The χ² test and the Mantel-Haenzel test statistic were used to examine the differences in proportions for the outcome of metabolic dysfunction.

RESULTS

In this sample, 76.9% of children and adolescents had metabolic dysfunction. Prepregnancy BMI and GWG were not associated with metabolic dysfunction. Child birth weight and sedentary behavior were positively correlated (P = 0.033 and P = 0.015, respectively) with a diagnosis of metabolic dysfunction. Physical activity levels were not associated with metabolic dysfunction. Hispanic and non-Hispanic youth were similar for all risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to previous studies, prepregnancy BMI and GWG were not correlated with metabolic dysfunction. These findings support the need for lifestyle interventions, particularly in reducing sedentary behaviors, in obese children and adolescents.

Patterns of Epigenetic Diversity in Two Sympatric Fish Species: Genetic vs. Environmental Determinants

Epigenetic components are hypothesized to be sensitive to the environment, which should permit species to adapt to environmental changes. In wild populations, epigenetic variation should therefore be mainly driven by environmental variation. Here, we tested whether epigenetic variation (DNA methylation) observed in wild populations is related to their genetic background, and/or to the local environment. Focusing on two sympatric freshwater fish species (Gobio occitaniae and Phoxinus phoxinus), we tested the relationships between epigenetic differentiation, genetic differentiation (using microsatellite and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers), and environmental distances between sites. We identify positive relationships between pairwise genetic and epigenetic distances in both species. Moreover, epigenetic marks better discriminated populations than genetic markers, especially in G. occitaniae. In G. occitaniae, both pairwise epigenetic and genetic distances were significantly associated to environmental distances between sites. Nonetheless, when controlling for genetic differentiation, the link between epigenetic differentiation and environmental distances was not significant anymore, indicating a noncausal relationship. Our results suggest that fish epigenetic variation is mainly genetically determined and that the environment weakly contributed to epigenetic variation. We advocate the need to control for the genetic background of populations when inferring causal links between epigenetic variation and environmental heterogeneity in wild populations.

Cuscuta chinensis flavonoids down-regulate the DNA methylation of the H19/Igf2 imprinted control region and estrogen receptor alpha promoter of the testis in bisphenol A exposed mouse offspring

Exposure to the emerging contaminant bisphenol A (BPA) is ubiquitous and associated with reproductive disorders. The BPA effect as an endocrine disruptor is widely known but other mechanisms underlying developmental disease, such as epigenetic modifications, still remain unclear. The objective of this study was to investigate whether Cuscuta chinensis flavonoids (CCFs) can be used as a dietary supplement to reverse BPA-induced epigenetic disorders, by analyzing the molecular processes related to BPA impairment of testicular development. BPA and different concentrations of CCFs were administered to the dams at gestation day (GD) 0.5-17.5. The testis and serum of male mice were collected at postnatal day (PND) 21 and PND 56 for the detection of related indicators. Our results showed that compared with the BPA group, CCFs could significantly increase the serum contents of testosterone (T), estradiol (E2) in males at PND 21 and PND 56, as well as the contents and transcription levels of DNA methyltransferase 3A (Dnmt3A), Dnmt3B in males at PND 21 and that of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) at PND 56. The expressions of Dnmt1 and ERα at PND 21 and ERβ at both PND 21 and PND 56 in males were significantly decreased with the administration of different concentrations of CCFs (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). CCFs also significantly inhibited the BPA-induced hypermethylated status of the ERα promoter and H19/Igf2 imprinting control region (ICR) in the testis at PND 56. These results indicated that CCFs could decrease the methylation levels of ERα and H19/Igf2 genes by inhibiting the expression of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), thereby decreasing the levels of reproductive hormones and receptors in adult males, and ultimately alleviating the negative effect of BPA on testicular development in male mice.

A Review of Maternal Nutrition during Pregnancy and Impact on the Offspring through Development: Evidence from Animal Models of Over- and Undernutrition

Similarities in offspring phenotype due to maternal under- or over-nutrition during gestation have been observed in studies conducted at University of Wyoming. In these studies, ewes were either nutrient-restricted (NR) from early to mid-gestation, or fed an obesogenic diet (MO) from preconception through term. Offspring necropsies occurred at mid-gestation, late-gestation, and after parturition. At mid gestation, body weights of NR fetuses were ~30% lighter than controls, whereas MO fetuses were ~30% heavier than those of controls. At birth, lambs born to NR, MO, and control ewes exhibited similar weights. This was a consequence of accelerated fetal growth rates in NR ewes, and reduced fetal growth rates in MO ewes in late gestation, when compared to their respective controls. These fetal growth patterns resulted in remarkably similar effects of increased susceptibility to obesity, cardiovascular disease, and glucose intolerance in offspring programmed mostly during fetal stages of development. These data provide evidence that maternal under- and over-nutrition similarly induce the development of the same cadre of physical and metabolic problems in postnatal life.

Fetal expression of genes related to metabolic function is impacted by supplementation of ground beef and sucrose during gestation in a swine model

To determine the effects of maternal supplementation on the mRNA abundance of genes associated with metabolic function in fetal muscle and liver, pregnant sows (Landrace × Yorkshire; initial body weight (BW) 221.58 ± 33.26 kg; n = 21) fed a complete gestation diet (corn-soybean meal based diet, CSM) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 isocaloric supplementation treatments: control (CON, 378 g/d CSM, n = 5), sucrose (SUGAR, 255 g/d crystalized sugar, n = 5), cooked ground beef (BEEF, 330 g/d n = 6), or BEEF + SUGAR (B+S, 165 g/d cooked ground beef and 129 g/d crystalized sugar, n = 5), from days 40 to 110 of gestation. Sows were euthanized on day 111 of gestation. Two male and 2 female fetuses of median BW were selected from each litter, and samples of the longissimus dorsi muscle and liver were collected. Relative transcript level was quantified via qPCR with HPRT1 as the reference gene for both muscle and liver samples. The following genes were selected and analyzed in the muscle: IGF1R, IGF2, IGF2R, GYS-1, IRS-1, INSR, SREBP-1C, and LEPR; while the following were analyzed in the liver: IGF2, IGF2R, FBFase, G6PC, PC, PCK1, FGF21, and LIPC. No effect of fetal sex by maternal treatment interaction was observed in mRNA abundance of any of the genes evaluated (P > 0.11). In muscle, the maternal nutritional treatment influenced (P = 0.02) IGF2 mRNA abundance, with B+S and SUGAR fetuses having lower abundance than CON, which was not different from BEEF. Additionally, SREBP-1 mRNA abundance was greater (P < 0.01) for B+S compared with CON, BEEF, or SUGAR fetuses; and females tended (P = 0.06) to have an increased abundance of SREBP-1 than males. In fetal liver, IGF2R mRNA abundance was greater (P = 0.01) for CON and BEEF than SUGAR and B+S; while FBPase mRNA abundance was greater (P = 0.03) for B+S compared with the other groups. In addition, maternal nutritional tended (P = 0.06) to influence LIPC mRNA abundance, with increased abundance in CON compared with SUGAR and B+S. These data indicate limited changes in transcript abundance due to substitution of supplemental sugar by ground beef during mid to late gestation. However, the differential expression of FBPase and SREBP-1c in response to the simultaneous supplementation of sucrose and ground beef warrants further investigations, since these genes may play important roles in determining the offspring susceptibility to metabolic diseases.

Maternal high-fat diet up-regulates type-1 cannabinoid receptor with estrogen signaling changes in a sex- and depot- specific manner in white adipose tissue of adult rat offspring

PURPOSE

Obesity and high-fat (HF) diet are associated with over activation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS). We have demonstrated that maternal HF diet induces early obesity and modulates cannabinoid signaling in visceral (VIS) and subcutaneous (SUB) white adipose tissue (WAT) in weanling rat offspring. We hypothesized that perinatal maternal HF diet would program the expression of ECS in adipose tissue in a long-term way in parallel to alterations in epigenetic markers and sex hormone signaling.

METHODS

Progenitor female rats received control diet (C, 9% fat) or isocaloric high-fat diet (HF, 28% fat) for 8 weeks before mating, gestation, and lactation. All pups were weaned to C diet and they were euthanized at 180 days old.

RESULTS

Maternal HF diet induced overweight and increased SUB WAT mass of male and female adult offspring. Maternal HF diet induced hypertrophy of VIS and SUB adipocytes only in female offspring associated with increased type 1 cannabinoid receptor protein (CB1) and mRNA (Cnr1) levels. These changes were associated with increased estrogen receptor α binding to Cnr1 promoter in SUB WAT of adult female offspring, which may contribute to higher expression of Cnr1.

CONCLUSION

Increased CB1 signaling in adipose tissue might contribute to higher adiposity programmed by maternal HF diet because endocannabinoids stimulate the accumulation of fat in the adipose tissue. Our findings provide molecular insights into sex-specific targets for anti-obesity therapies based on the endocannabinoid system.

Environmental Stimulation Counteracts the Suppressive Effects of Maternal High-Fructose Diet on Cell Proliferation and Neuronal Differentiation in the Dentate Gyrus of Adult Female Offspring via Histone Deacetylase 4

Maternal high-fructose diets (HFD) impair the learning and memory capacity of adult female offspring via histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4). Hippocampal adult neurogenesis is important for supporting the function of existing neural circuits. In this study, we investigated the effects of maternal HFD on hippocampal neural stem cell (NSC) proliferation and neuronal differentiation in adult offspring. Increased nuclear HDAC4 enzyme activity was detected in the hippocampus of HFD female offspring. The Western blot analyses indicated that the expressions of sex-determining region Y box2 (SOX2) and the transcription factor Paired Box 6 (PAX6), which are critical for the progression of NSC proliferation and differentiation, were downregulated. Concurrently, the expression of Ki67 (a cellular marker for proliferation) and doublecortin (DCX), which are related to NSC division and neuronal differentiation, was suppressed. Intracerebroventricular infusion with class II HDAC inhibitor (Mc1568, 4 weeks) led to the upregulation of these proteins. Environmental stimulation reversed the expression of Ki67 and DCX and the counts of Ki67- and DCX-positive cells in the hippocampi of HFD offspring as a result of providing the enriched housing for 4 weeks. Together, these results demonstrate that the suppressive effects of maternal HFD on hippocampal NSC proliferation and neuronal differentiation are reversibly mediated through HDAC4 and can be effectively reversed by environmental stimulation. The advantageous effects of environmental enrichment were possibly mediated by HDAC4 suppression.

Relationship of maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy and lactation to offspring health

A balanced maternal diet is essential for proper fetal development, and the consumption of a nutritionally inadequate diet during intrauterine development and early childhood is associated with a significantly increased risk of metabolic and brain disorders in offspring. The current literature indicates that maternal exposure to a high-fat diet exerts an irreversible influence on the general health of the offspring. This review of preclinical research examines the relationship between a maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy or lactation and metabolic changes, molecular alterations in the brain, and behavioral disorders in offspring. Animal models indicate that offspring exposed to a maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy and lactation manifest increased depressive-like and aggressive behaviors, reduced cognitive development, and symptoms of metabolic syndrome. Recently, epigenetic and molecular studies have shown that maternal nutrition during pregnancy and the suckling period modifies the development of neurotransmitter circuits and many other factors important to central nervous system development. This finding confirms the importance of a balanced maternal diet for the health of offspring.

Maternal trauma and fear history predict BDNF methylation and gene expression in newborns

Trauma and related fear exert significant influence on mental and physical health throughout the lifespan and are associated with intergenerational patterns of development, health, and behavior. DNA methylation and gene expression are involved in our developmental adaptations to our experiences and can be influenced by social interventions. Patterns of DNA methylation and expression of a gene involved in neurodevelopment and psychiatric risk (BDNF) have been linked with childhood trauma. Given the intergenerational patterns of health and behavior, and previous links between childhood trauma and BDNF methylation and expression, this study investigated the potential for maternal history of traumatic experiences to influence development in her newborn, via changes in her newborn’s BDNF methylation and expression. We found that mothers’ trauma history was associated with epigenetic regulation of BDNF in their newborns. Moreover, the association between maternal trauma and BDNF methylation and expression patterns were moderated by newborn sex. Male newborns showed increased BDNF expression with maternal exposure to child abuse (p = .001), and increased BDNF methylation with greater maternal fear (p = .001). Female newborns showed reduced BDNF expression with greater maternal fear (p = .004). Practitioners strive to identify prevention and intervention avenues that will reduce the harmful effects of trauma. Future research should consider the potential for maternal historical trauma experiences to influence offspring DNA methylation and gene expression in a manner that could alter development and inform novel prevention strategies.

The Effects of Maternal and Postnatal Dietary Methyl Nutrients on Epigenetic Changes that Lead to Non-Communicable Diseases in Adulthood

The risk for non-communicable diseases in adulthood can be programmed by early nutrition. This programming is mediated by changes in expression of key genes in various metabolic pathways during development, which persist into adulthood. These developmental modifications of genes are due to epigenetic alterations in DNA methylation patterns. Recent studies have demonstrated that DNA methylation can be affected by maternal or early postnatal diets. Because methyl groups for methylation reactions come from methionine cycle nutrients (i.e., methionine, choline, betaine, folate), deficiency or supplementation of these methyl nutrients can directly change epigenetic regulation of genes permanently. Although many studies have described the early programming of adult diseases by maternal and infant nutrition, this review discusses studies that have associated early dietary methyl nutrient manipulation with direct effects on epigenetic patterns that could lead to chronic diseases in adulthood. The maternal supply of methyl nutrients during gestation and lactation can alter epigenetics, but programming effects vary depending on the timing of dietary intervention, the type of methyl nutrient manipulated, and the tissue responsible for the phenotype. Moreover, the postnatal manipulation of methyl nutrients can program epigenetics, but more research is needed on whether this approach can rescue maternally programmed offspring.

Assessing the potential of a Virtual Patient Advocate to provide preconception care and health advice to women living in Australia

A preconception Virtual Patient Advocate (VPA) called "Gabby" supported African-American women to decrease their preconception health risks and may be a scalable resource to increase women's access to preconception care. Aims were to assess the acceptability of a preconception VPA in women living in Australia and document the changes required to adapt Gabby to suit an Australian context. Taking a descriptive qualitative approach, nonpregnant female participants (n = 31), aged 18-45 years, living in metropolitan and regional Victoria, Australia interacted with Gabby. Focus groups (n = 7) that gathered participants' perspectives of their experience with Gabby ran in July-August 2019 before being transcribed verbatim and thematically analyzed. Six interrelated themes and 12 subthemes were identified. Participants found VPAs to be an acceptable provider of health information with potential to increase women's access preconception health advice. Gabby was considered to be trustworthy and was able to develop rapport with participants in a relatively short time. Context-specific, relevant, tailored and trustworthy information and advice were considered more important that Gabby's physical appearance. Participants had strong opinions about potential technological advancements (e.g., reminders and rewards) and addressing navigation issues to increase Gabby's acceptability. Participants envisaged that they would use Gabby for readily available and evidence-based information before seeking advice from a health professional if required. Overall, the concept VPAs to provide preconception advice and Gabby were acceptable to participants. Future development of VPAs, Gabby, and other online technology-based resources should consider women's high expectations of the online health information they choose to interact with.

MicroRNA-124-3p suppresses mouse lip mesenchymal cell proliferation through the regulation of genes associated with cleft lip in the mouse

Background

Cleft lip (CL), one of the most common congenital birth defects, shows considerable geographic and ethnic variation, with contribution of both genetic and environmental factors. Mouse genetic studies have identified several CL-associated genes. However, it remains elusive how these CL-associated genes are regulated and involved in CL. Environmental factors may regulate these genes at the post-transcriptional level through the regulation of non-coding microRNAs (miRNAs). In this study, we sought to identify miRNAs associated with CL in mice.

Results

Through a systematic literature review and a Mouse Genome Informatics (MGI) database search, we identified 55 genes that were associated with CL in mice. Subsequent bioinformatic analysis of these genes predicted that a total of 33 miRNAs target multiple CL-associated genes, with 20 CL-associated genes being potentially regulated by multiple miRNAs. To experimentally validate miRNA function in cell proliferation, we conducted cell proliferation/viability assays for the selected five candidate miRNAs (miR-124-3p, let-7a-5p, let-7b-5p, let-7c-5p, and let-7d-5p). Overexpression of miR-124-3p, but not of the others, inhibited cell proliferation through suppression of CL-associated genes in cultured mouse embryonic lip mesenchymal cells (MELM cells) isolated from the developing mouse lip region. By contrast, miR-124-3p knockdown had no effect on MELM cell proliferation. This miRNA-gene regulatory mechanism was mostly conserved in O9–1 cells, an established cranial neural crest cell line. Expression of miR-124-3p was low in the maxillary processes at E10.5, when lip mesenchymal cells proliferate, whereas it was greatly increased at later developmental stages, suggesting that miR-124-3p expression is suppressed during the proliferation phase in normal palate development.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that upregulated miR-124-3p inhibits cell proliferation in cultured lip cells through suppression of CL-associated genes. These results will have a significant impact, not only on our knowledge about lip morphogenesis, but also on the development of clinical approaches for the diagnosis and prevention of CL.

Associations of maternal diet with infant adiposity at birth, 6 months and 12 months

OBJECTIVES

To assess associations between maternal prenatal diet quality and infant adiposity.

DESIGN

The design was a prospective birth cohort.

SETTING

We used data from the Nurture study, a cohort of women and their infants residing in the southeastern USA.

PARTICIPANTS AND EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

Between 2013 and 2015, we enrolled 860 women between 20 and 36 weeks' gestation. After reconsenting at delivery and excluding women with implausible calorie intakes, we measured dietary intake using the Block food frequency questionnaire, and assessed diet quality using a modified Alternate Healthy Eating Index 2010 (AHEI-2010), which assessed intake of 10 food categories, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts/legumes, fats, meats, beverages and sodium (excluding alcohol).

OUTCOMES

We assessed birth weight for gestational age z-score, small and large for gestational age, low birth weight and macrosomia. Outcomes at 6 and 12 months were weight-for-length z-score, sum of subscapular and triceps skinfold thickness (SS+TR) and subscapular-to-triceps skinfold ratio (SS:TR).

RESULTS

Among mothers, 70.2% were black and 20.9% were white; less than half (45.2%) reported having a high school diploma or less. Among infants, 8.7% were low birth weight and 8.6% were small for gestational age. Unadjusted estimates showed that a higher AHEI-2010 score, was associated with a higher birth weight for gestational z-score (β=0.01; 95% CI 0.002 to 0.02; p=0.02) and a greater likelihood of macrosomia (OR=1.04; 95% CI 1.004 to 1.09; p=0.03). After adjustment, maternal diet quality was not associated with infant adiposity at birth, 6 or 12 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Although poor maternal diet quality during pregnancy was not associated with infant adiposity in our study, maternal diet during pregnancy may still be an important and modifiable factor of public health importance.

Effect of a low glycaemic index diet during pregnancy on maternal and cord blood metabolomic profiles: results from the ROLO randomized controlled trial

Background

Elevated post-prandial blood glucose during pregnancy has been associated with adverse pregnancy and offspring outcomes, such as maternal gestational diabetes and excessive foetal growth. The ROLO Study is a randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigating the effect of a low glycaemic index (GI) diet in pregnancy to prevent foetal macrosomia (birth weight > 4000 g). We described the impact of a low-GI diet on the maternal and feto-placental unit metabolism by studying how the ROLO intervention affected maternal and cord blood metabolomes.

Methods

Fasting maternal plasma samples pre- and post-intervention of 51 pregnant women and 132 cord blood samples were measured with a targeted metabolomics approach using liquid-chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The differences between RCT groups were explored via multivariate models with covariates correction. Significance was set at Bonferroni-corrected level of 0.05.

Results

A total of 262 metabolites species, sums and ratios were investigated. While no metabolite reached statistical significance after Bonferroni correction, many maternal phospholipids and acylcarnitines were elevated in the intervention group at uncorrected 0.05 alpha level. Most species contained saturated and monounsaturated fatty acid chains with 16 or 18 carbon atoms. In cord blood, no differences were identified between RCT groups.

Conclusions

A low-GI diet in pregnancy was associated with a trend to modest but consistent changes in maternal lipid and fatty acid metabolism. The intervention seemed not to affect foetal metabolism. Our exploratory findings may be used to direct further investigations about low GI diets before and during pregnancy, to improve patient care for pre-conceptional and pregnant women with lipid dysregulations and potentially modulate the offspring's risk for future metabolic diseases.

Trial registration

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN54392969.

MicroRNA-374a, -4680, and -133b suppress cell proliferation through the regulation of genes associated with human cleft palate in cultured human palate cells

Background

Cleft palate (CP) is the second most common congenital birth defect; however, the relationship between CP-associated genes and epigenetic regulation remains largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the contribution of microRNAs (miRNAs) to cell proliferation and regulation of genes involved in CP development.

Methods

In order to identify all genes for which mutations or association/linkage have been found in individuals with CP, we conducted a systematic literature search, followed by bioinformatics analyses for these genes. We validated the bioinformatics results experimentally by conducting cell proliferation assays and miRNA-gene regulatory analyses in cultured human palatal mesenchymal cells treated with each miRNA mimic.

Results

We identified 131 CP-associated genes in the systematic review. The bioinformatics analysis indicated that the CP genes were associated with signaling pathways, microRNAs (miRNAs), metabolic pathways, and cell proliferation. A total 17 miRNAs were recognized as potential modifiers of human CP genes. To validate miRNA function in cell proliferation, a main cause of CP, we conducted cell proliferation/viability assays for the top 11 candidate miRNAs from our bioinformatics analysis. Overexpression of miR-133b, miR-374a-5p, and miR-4680-3p resulted in a more than 30% reduction in cell proliferation activity in human palatal mesenchymal cell cultures. We found that several downstream target CP genes predicted by the bioinformatics analyses were significantly downregulated through induction of these miRNAs (FGFR1, GCH1, PAX7, SMC2, and SUMO1 by miR-133b; ARNT, BMP2, CRISPLD1, FGFR2, JARID2, MSX1, NOG, RHPN2, RUNX2, WNT5A and ZNF236 by miR-374a-5p; and ERBB2, JADE1, MTHFD1 and WNT5A by miR-4680-3p) in cultured cells.

Conclusions

Our results indicate that miR-374a-5p, miR-4680-3p, and miR-133b regulate expression of genes that are involved in the etiology of human CP, providing insight into the association between CP-associated genes and potential targets of miRNAs in palate development.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12920-019-0546-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Enhanced hepatic cholesterol accumulation induced by maternal betaine exposure is associated with hypermethylation of CYP7A1 gene promoter

PURPOSE

Betaine contains three methyl groups and plays a critical role in regulating glucose and lipid metabolism via epigenetic modifications. However, it is unclear whether prenatal betaine intake could affect cholesterol metabolism of progeny through DNA methylation.

METHODS

Hence, pregnant rats were randomly divided into control and betaine groups fed standard diet or 1% betaine supplementation diet, respectively, throughout gestation and lactation.

RESULTS

Maternal betaine exposure significantly (P < 0.05) increased serum and hepatic cholesterol contents but not triglyceride levels in offspring rats. Accordantly, maternal intake of betaine markedly downregulated (P < 0.05) hepatic cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression at both the mRNA and protein level, while the protein content of low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) was upregulated in the liver of betaine-exposed rats. In addition, prenatal betaine supplementation extremely increased (P < 0.05) hepatic betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) expression at the mRNA and protein level but not affected the expression of other key enzymes involved in methionine metabolism. Furthermore, hepatic hypermethylation of CYP7A1 gene promoter was observed in progeny rats derived from betaine-supplemented dams.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide evidence that maternal betaine supplementation significantly enhances hepatic cholesterol contents accompanied with alterations of cholesterol metabolic genes and hypermethylation in offspring rats at weaning.

Prenatal epigenetics diets play protective roles against environmental pollution

It is thought that germ cells and preimplantation embryos during development are most susceptible to endogenous and exogenous environmental factors because the epigenome in those cells is undergoing dramatic elimination and reconstruction. Exposure to environmental factors such as nutrition, climate, stress, pathogens, toxins, and even social behavior during gametogenesis and early embryogenesis has been shown to influence disease susceptibility in the offspring. Early-life epigenetic modifications, which determine the expression of genetic information stored in the genome, are viewed as one of the general mechanisms linking prenatal exposure and phenotypic changes later in life. From atmospheric pollution, endocrine-disrupting chemicals to heavy metals, research increasingly suggests that environmental pollutions have already produced significant consequences on human health. Moreover, mounting evidence now links such pollution to relevant modification in the epigenome. The epigenetics diet, referring to a class of bioactive dietary compounds such as isothiocyanates in broccoli, genistein in soybean, resveratrol in grape, epigallocatechin-3-gallate in green tea, and ascorbic acid in fruits, has been shown to modify the epigenome leading to beneficial health outcomes. This review will primarily focus on the causes and consequences of prenatal environment pollution exposure on the epigenome, and the potential protective role of the epigenetics diet, which could play a central role in neutralizing epigenomic aberrations against environmental pollutions.

Maternal high-fat diet impairs leptin signaling and up-regulates type-1 cannabinoid receptor with sex-specific epigenetic changes in the hypothalamus of newborn rats

Maternal nutritional imbalances trigger developmental adaptations involving early epigenetic mechanisms associated with adult chronic disease. Maternal high-fat (HF) diet promotes obesity and hypothalamic leptin resistance in male rat offspring at weaning and adulthood. Leptin resistance is associated with over activation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS mainly consists of endocannabinoids derived from n-6 fatty acids and cannabinoid receptors (CB1 coded by Cnr1 and CB2 coded by Cnr2). The CB1 activation in hypothalamus stimulates feeding and appetite for fat while CB2 activation seems to play an immunomodulatory role. We demonstrated that maternal HF diet increases hypothalamic CB1 in male offspring while increases CB2 in female offspring at birth, prior to obesity development. However, the molecular mechanisms behind these changes remain unexplored. We hypothesized that maternal HF diet would down-regulate leptin signaling and up-regulate Cnr1 mRNA levels in the hypothalamus of the offspring at birth, associated with sex-specific changes in epigenetic markers and sex steroid signaling. To test our hypothesis, we used progenitor female rats that received control diet (C, 9% fat) or isocaloric high-fat diet (HF, 28% fat) from 8 weeks before mating until delivery. Blood, hypothalamus and carcass from C and HF male and female offspring were collected for biochemical and molecular analyses at birth. Maternal HF diet down-regulated the transcriptional factor STAT3 in the hypothalamus of male and female offspring, but induced hypoleptinemia only in males and decreased phosphorylated STAT3 only in female offspring. Because leptin acts through STAT3 pathway to inhibit central ECS, our results suggest that leptin pathway impairment might contribute to increased levels of Crn1 mRNA in hypothalamus of both sex offspring. Besides, maternal HF diet increased the histone acetylation percentage of Cnr1 promoter in male offspring and increased the androgen receptor binding to the Cnr1 promoter, which can contribute to higher expression of Cnr1 in newborn HF offspring. Maternal HF diet increased plasma n6 to n3 fatty acid ratio in male offspring, which is an important risk factor to metabolic diseases and might indicate an over activation of endocannabinoid signaling. Thus, although maternal HF diet programs a similar phenotype in adult offspring of both sexes (obesity, hyperphagia and higher preference for fat), here we showed that molecular mechanisms involving leptin signaling, ECS, epigenetic markers and sex hormone signaling were modified prior to obesity development and can differ between newborn male and female offspring. These observations may provide molecular insights into sex-specific targets for anti-obesity therapies.

Preovulatory exposure to a protein-restricted diet disrupts amino acid kinetics and alters mitochondrial structure and function in the rat oocyte and is partially rescued by folic acid

BACKGROUND

Detrimental exposures during pregnancy have been implicated in programming offspring to develop permanent changes in physiology and metabolism, increasing the risk for developing diseases in adulthood such as hypertension, diabetes, heart disease and obesity. This study investigated the effects of protein restriction on the metabolism of amino acids within the oocyte, liver, and whole organism in a rat model as well as effects on mitochondrial ultrastructure and function in the cumulus oocyte complex.

METHODS

Wistar outbred female rats 8-11 weeks of age (n = 24) were assigned to three isocaloric dietary groups, including control (C), low protein (LP) and low protein supplemented with folate (LPF). Animals were superovulated and 48 h later underwent central catheterization. Isotopic tracers of 1-¹³C-5C²H₃-methionine, ²H₂-cysteine, U-¹³C₃-cysteine and U-¹³C₃-serine were administered by a 4 h prime-constant rate infusion. After sacrifice, oocytes were denuded of cumulus cells and liver specimens were obtained.

RESULTS

Oocytes demonstrated reduced serine flux in LP vs. LPF (p < 0.05), reduced cysteine flux in LP and LPF vs. C (p < 0.05), and a trend toward reduced transsulfuration in LP vs. C and LPF. Folic acid supplementation reversed observed effects on serine flux and transsulfuration. Preovulatory protein restriction increased whole-body methionine transmethylation, methionine transsulfuration and the flux of serine in LP and LPF vs. C (p = 0.003, p = 0.002, p = 0.005). The concentration of glutathione was increased in erythrocytes and liver in LP and LPF vs. C (p = 0.003 and p = 0.0003). Oocyte mitochondrial ultrastructure in LP and LPF had increased proportions of abnormal mitochondria vs. C (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05). Cumulus cell mitochondrial ultrastructure in LP and LPF groups had increased proportions of abnormal mitochondria vs. C (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05). Preovulatory protein restriction altered oocyte expression of Drp1, Opa-1, Mfn1/2, Parl and Ndufb6 (p < 0.05) and Hk2 (p < 0.01), which are genes involved in mitochondrial fission (division) and fusion, mitochondrial apoptotic mechanisms, respiratory electron transport and glucose metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

Preovulatory protein restriction resulted in altered amino acid metabolism, abnormal cumulus oocyte complex mitochondrial ultrastructure and differential oocyte expression of genes related to mitochondrial biogenesis.

Can epigenetics translate environmental cues into phenotypes?

Living organisms are constantly exposed to wide ranges of environmental cues. They react to these cues by undergoing a battery of phenotypic responses, such as by altering their physiological and behavioral traits, in order to adapt and survive in the changed environments. The adaptive response of a species induced by environmental cues is typically thought to be associated with its genetic diversity such that higher genetic diversity provides increased adaptive potential. This originates from the general consensus that phenotypic traits have a genetic basis and are subject to Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian inheritance. There is no doubt about the validity of these principles, supported by the successful introgression of specific traits during (selective) breeding. However, a range of recent studies provided fascinating evidences suggesting that environmental effects experienced by an organism during its lifetime can have marked influences on its phenotype, and additionally the organism can pass on the acquired phenotypes to its subsequent generations through non-genetic mechanisms (also termed as epigenetic mechanism) - a notion that dates back to Lamarck and has been controversial ever since. In this review, we describe how the epigenetics has reshaped our long perception about the inheritance/development of phenotypes within organisms, contrasting with the classical gene-based view of inheritance. We particularly highlighted recent developments in our understanding of inheritance of parental environmental induced phenotypic traits in multicellular organisms under different environmental conditions, and discuss how modifications of the epigenome contribute to the determination of the adult phenotype of future generations.

Mini Nutritional Assessment Scores Indicate Higher Risk for Prospective Mortality and Contrasting Correlation With Age-Related Epigenetic Biomarkers

The plasticity of the individual epigenetic landscape that goes to countless rearrangements throughout life is closely the reflection of environmental factors such as chemical exposure, socio-economic status and nutrient intakes both early and late in life. The Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) is a well-validated tool for assessing malnutrition in old people. It includes 6 (MNA-SF) or 18 (MNA-LF) self-reported questions derived from general, anthropometric, dietary, and self- assessment. We evaluated the association between the nutritional status, as measured by MNA, and methylation biomarkers we previously demonstrated to be associated with chronological and biological age in human. We found that malnutrition is positively correlated with DNA methylation status at the global level, in line with our previous reports. On the contrary, most of the sites located within specific genes, which were previously reported to be correlated with chronological and biological aging, showed to be not affected by malnutrition, or even to have correlations with malnutrition opposite to those previously reported with frailty. These results may suggest that malnutrition is among the first effects of disability and other age- related problems and a generalized non-specific epigenetic remodeling may be the initial response of the organism. By contrast, the fine remodeling of specific genomic sites is scarcely affected by malnutrition and may respond to a more complex interaction of different factors. Therefore, although malnutrition in the elderly is certainly a risk factor for survival, this is partially independent of the aging process of the organism which leads to the methylation remodeling previously described to measure chronological and biological aging.

Perigestational high folic acid: impact on offspring's peripheral metabolic response

Perigestational excess folic acid programmed offspring to increased weight gain, but also to adipocyte hypertrophy, associated with Lpl upregulation, and to hyperglycemia, possibly due to VAT and skeletal muscle Glut4 downregulation.