Vulnerability of the fetal primate brain to moderate reduction in maternal global nutrient availability

Nurturing development: how a mother's nutrition shapes offspring's brain through the gut

Pregnancy is a transformative period marked by profound physical and emotional changes, with far-reaching consequences for both mother and child. Emerging research has illustrated the pivotal role of a mother's diet during pregnancy in influencing the prenatal gut microbiome and subsequently shaping the neurodevelopment of her offspring. The intricate interplay between maternal gut health, nutrition, and neurodevelopmental outcomes has emerged as a captivating field of investigation within developmental science. Acting as a dynamic bridge between mother and fetus, the maternal gut microbiome, directly and indirectly, impacts the offspring's neurodevelopment through diverse pathways. This comprehensive review delves into a spectrum of studies, clarifying putative mechanisms through which maternal nutrition, by modulating the gut microbiota, orchestrates the early stages of brain development. Drawing insights from animal models and human cohorts, this work underscores the profound implications of maternal gut health for neurodevelopmental trajectories and offers a glimpse into the formulation of targeted interventions able to optimize the health of both mother and offspring. The prospect of tailored dietary recommendations for expectant mothers emerges as a promising and accessible intervention to foster the growth of beneficial gut bacteria, potentially leading to enhanced cognitive outcomes and reduced risks of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Association between daily breakfast habit during pregnancy and neurodevelopment in 3-year-old offspring: The Japan Environment and Children's Study

The association between daily breakfast habits during pregnancy and offspring neurodevelopment remains unknown. We evaluated the association between breakfast habits during pregnancy and offspring neurodevelopment. Data of 72,260 women with singleton deliveries at and after 37 weeks of gestation enrolled during 2011-2014 in the Japan Environment and Children's Study were analysed. Offspring neurodevelopmental delays at 3 years of age were evaluated using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, Third Edition (ASQ-3). Participants were stratified by tertiles of maternal daily energy intake (DEI) (Groups 1, 2, and 3:< 1400, 1400-1799, and ≥ 1800 kcal, respectively) during pregnancy and by offspring sex. The adjusted odds ratio (aOR) for abnormality in communication among participants with daily breakfast consumption habit was 0.87 (95% confidence interval, 0.80-0.96). A stratified analysis based on total DEI showed no significant differences in the neurodevelopment of Group 1 offspring. The aOR for abnormality in communication was 0.80 (95% confidence interval, 0.68-0.94) in Group 2. The aOR for abnormality in personal-social characteristics was 0.84 (95% confidence interval, 0.71-0.99) in Group 3. Maternal daily breakfast habits are associated with offspring neurodevelopment at 3 years of age, with the association influenced by maternal DEI and offspring sex.

Valproic acid elevates HIF-1α-mediated CGB expression and suppresses glucose uptake in BeWo cells

Placental dysfunction can disrupt pregnancy. However, few studies have assessed the effects of chemical-induced toxicity on placental function. Here, we examined the effects of valproic acid (VPA) as a model chemical on production of hormones and on glucose uptake in human choriocarcinoma cell line BeWo. Cells were treated with forskolin to differentiate into syncytiotrophoblasts, which were then treated with VPA for 72 hr. Real-time RT-PCR analysis showed that VPA significantly increased the mRNA expression of chorionic gonadotropin β (CGB), a hormone that is produced by the placenta in the first trimester of pregnancy, relative to that in the forskolin-only group. It also suppressed the increase in intracellular glucose uptake and GLUT1 level observed in the forskolin-only group. RNA-seq analysis and pathway database analysis revealed that VPA consistently decreased the level of HIF-1α protein and expression of its downstream target genes HK2 and ADM in the hypoxia pathway. Cobalt chloride, a HIF-1α inducer, inhibited CGB upregulation in VPA-treated cells and rescued VPA-induced suppression of glucose uptake and GLUT1 level. Thus, HIF-1α-mediated elevation of CGB expression and suppression of glucose uptake by VPA is a novel mechanism of placental dysfunction.

Shaping the risk for late-life neurodegenerative disease: A systematic review on prenatal risk factors for Alzheimer's disease-related volumetric brain biomarkers

Environmental exposures including toxins and nutrition may hamper the developing brain in utero, limiting the brain's reserve capacity and increasing the risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The purpose of this systematic review is to summarize all currently available evidence for the association between prenatal exposures and AD-related volumetric brain biomarkers. We systematically searched MEDLINE and Embase for studies in humans reporting on associations between prenatal exposure(s) and AD-related volumetric brain biomarkers, including whole brain volume (WBV), hippocampal volume (HV) and/or temporal lobe volume (TLV) measured with structural magnetic resonance imaging (PROSPERO; CRD42020169317). Risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle Ottawa Scale. We identified 79 eligible studies (search date: August 30th, 2020; Ntotal=24,784; median age 10.7 years) reporting on WBV (N = 38), HV (N = 63) and/or TLV (N = 5) in exposure categories alcohol (N = 30), smoking (N = 7), illicit drugs (N = 14), mental health problems (N = 7), diet (N = 8), disease, treatment and physiology (N = 10), infections (N = 6) and environmental exposures (N = 3). Overall risk of bias was low. Prenatal exposure to alcohol, opioids, cocaine, nutrient shortage, placental dysfunction and maternal anemia was associated with smaller brain volumes. We conclude that the prenatal environment is important in shaping the risk for late-life neurodegenerative disease.

Virtual Ontogeny of Cortical Growth Preceding Mental Illness

BACKGROUND

Morphology of the human cerebral cortex differs across psychiatric disorders, with neurobiology and developmental origins mostly undetermined. Deviations in the tangential growth of the cerebral cortex during pre/perinatal periods may be reflected in individual variations in cortical surface area later in life.

METHODS

Interregional profiles of group differences in surface area between cases and controls were generated using T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging from 27,359 individuals including those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and high general psychopathology (through the Child Behavior Checklist). Similarity of interregional profiles of group differences in surface area and prenatal cell-specific gene expression was assessed.

RESULTS

Across the 11 cortical regions, group differences in cortical area for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, and Child Behavior Checklist were dominant in multimodal association cortices. The same interregional profiles were also associated with interregional profiles of (prenatal) gene expression specific to proliferative cells, namely radial glia and intermediate progenitor cells (greater expression, larger difference), as well as differentiated cells, namely excitatory neurons and endothelial and mural cells (greater expression, smaller difference). Finally, these cell types were implicated in known pre/perinatal risk factors for psychosis. Genes coexpressed with radial glia were enriched with genes implicated in congenital abnormalities, birth weight, hypoxia, and starvation. Genes coexpressed with endothelial and mural genes were enriched with genes associated with maternal hypertension and preterm birth.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support a neurodevelopmental model of vulnerability to mental illness whereby prenatal risk factors acting through cell-specific processes lead to deviations from typical brain development during pregnancy.

Are Brain and Cognitive Reserve Shaped by Early Life Circumstances?

When growing older, many people are faced with cognitive deterioration, which may even amount to a form of dementia at some point in time. Although neuropathological signs of dementia disorders can often be demonstrated in brains of patients, the degree to which clinical symptoms are present does mostly not accurately reflect the amount of neuropathology that is present. Sometimes existent pathology even goes without any obvious clinical presentation. An explanation for this phenomenon may be found in the concept of reserve capacity. Reserve capacity refers to the ability of the brain to effectively buffer changes that are associated with normal aging processes and to cope with pathological damage. A larger reserve capacity has been suggested to increase resilience against age-associated cognitive deterioration and dementia disorders. Traditionally, a division has been made between brain reserve, which is based on morphological characteristics of the brain, and cognitive reserve, which is based on functional characteristics of the brain. The present review discusses the premises that brain and cognitive reserve capacity are shaped by prenatal and early postnatal factors. Evidence is accumulating that circumstances during the first 1,000 days of life are of the utmost importance for the lifelong health of an individual. Cognitive deterioration and dementia disorders may also have their origin in early life and a potentially important pathway by which the early environment affects the risk for neurodegenerative diseases is by developmental programming of the reserve capacity of the brain. The basic idea behind developmental programming of brain and cognitive reserve is explained and an overview of studies that support this idea is presented. The review is concluded by a discussion of potential mechanisms, synthesis of the evidence and relevance and future directions in the field of developmental origins of reserve capacity.

Maternal Nutrition and Neurodevelopment: A Scoping Review

In this scoping review, we examined the association between maternal nutrition during pregnancy and neurodevelopment in offspring. We searched the Pubmed and ScienceDirect databases for articles published from 2000 to 2020 on inadequate intake of vitamins (B12, folate, vitamin D, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K), micronutrients (cooper, iron, creatine, choline, zinc, iodine), macronutrients (fatty acids, proteins), high fat diets, ketogenic diets, hypercaloric diets, and maternal undernutrition. Some older relevant articles were included. The search produced a total of 3590 articles, and 84 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Data were extracted and analyzed using charts and the frequency of terms used. We concluded that inadequate nutrient intake during pregnancy was associated with brain defects (diminished cerebral volume, spina bifida, alteration of hypothalamic and hippocampal pathways), an increased risk of abnormal behavior, neuropsychiatric disorders (ASD, ADHD, schizophrenia, anxiety, depression), altered cognition, visual impairment, and motor deficits. Future studies should establish and quantify the benefits of maternal nutrition during pregnancy on neurodevelopment and recommend adequate supplementation.

IGFBP-1 hyperphosphorylation in response to nutrient deprivation is mediated by activation of protein kinase Cα (PKCα)

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) is associated with decreased nutrient availability and reduced insulin-line growth factor (IGF)-I bioavailability via increased IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-1 phosphorylation. While protein kinase C (PKC) is implicated in IGFBP-1 hyperphosphorylation in nutrient deprivation, the mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesised that the interaction of PKCα with protein kinase CK2β and activation of PKCα under leucine deprivation (L0) mediate fetal hepatic IGFBP-1 hyperphosphorylation. Parallel Reaction Monitoring Mass Spectrometry (PRM-MS) followed by PKCα knockdown demonstrated the PKCα isoform interacts with IGFBP-1 and CK2β under L0. Pharmacological PKCα activation with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) increased whereas inhibition with bisindolylmaleimide II (Bis II) decreased IGFBP-1 phosphorylation (Ser101/119/169, Ser98 + 101 and Ser169 + 174), respectively. Furthermore, PMA mimicked L0-induced PKCα translocation and IGFBP-1 expression. PKCα expression was increased in baboon fetal liver in FGR, providing biological relevance in vivo. In summary, we report a novel nutrient-sensitive mechanism for PKCα in mediating IGFBP-1 hyperphosphorylation in FGR.

Malnutrition and the microbiome as modifiers of early neurodevelopment

Malnutrition refers to a dearth, excess, or altered differential ratios of calories, macronutrients, or micronutrients. Malnutrition, particularly during early life, is a pressing global health and socioeconomic burden that is increasingly associated with neurodevelopmental impairments. Understanding how perinatal malnutrition influences brain development is crucial to uncovering fundamental mechanisms for establishing behavioral neurocircuits, with the potential to inform public policy and clinical interventions for neurodevelopmental conditions. Recent studies reveal that the gut microbiome can mediate dietary effects on host physiology and that the microbiome modulates the development and function of the nervous system. This review discusses evidence that perinatal malnutrition alters brain development and examines the maternal and neonatal microbiome as a potential contributing factor.

Reduction of In Vivo Placental Amino Acid Transport Precedes the Development of Intrauterine Growth Restriction in the Non-Human Primate

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is associated with reduced placental amino acid transport (AAT). However, it remains to be established if changes in AAT contribute to restricted fetal growth. We hypothesized that reduced in vivo placental AAT precedes the development of IUGR in baboons with maternal nutrient restriction (MNR). Baboons were fed either a control (ad libitum) or MNR diet (70% of control diet) from gestational day (GD) 30. At GD 140, in vivo transplacental AA transport was measured by infusing nine ⁽¹³⁾C- or ⁽²⁾H-labeled essential amino acids (EAAs) as a bolus into the maternal circulation at cesarean section. A fetal vein-to-maternal artery mole percent excess ratio for each EAA was measured. Microvillous plasma membrane (MVM) system A and system L transport activity were determined. Fetal and placental weights were not significantly different between MNR and control. In vivo, the fetal vein-to-maternal artery mole percent excess ratio was significantly decreased for tryptophan in MNR. MVM system A and system L activity was markedly reduced in MNR. Reduction of in vivo placental amino acid transport precedes fetal growth restriction in the non-human primate, suggesting that reduced placental amino acid transfer may contribute to IUGR.

The impact of (ab)normal maternal environment on cortical development

The cortex in the mammalian brain is the most complex brain region that integrates sensory information and coordinates motor and cognitive processes. To perform such functions, the cortex contains multiple subtypes of neurons that are generated during embryogenesis. Newly born neurons migrate to their proper location in the cortex, grow axons and dendrites, and form neuronal circuits. These developmental processes in the fetal brain are regulated to a large extent by a great variety of factors derived from the mother - starting from simple nutrients as building blocks and ending with hormones. Thus, when the normal maternal environment is disturbed due to maternal infection, stress, malnutrition, or toxic substances, it might have a profound impact on cortical development and the offspring can develop a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders. Here we first describe the major developmental processes which generate neuronal diversity in the cortex. We then review our knowledge of how most common maternal insults affect cortical development, perturb neuronal circuits, and lead to neurodevelopmental disorders. We further present a concept of selective vulnerability of cortical neuronal subtypes to maternal-derived insults, where the vulnerability of cortical neurons and their progenitors to an insult depends on the time (developmental period), place (location in the developing brain), and type (unique features of a cell type and an insult). Finally, we provide evidence for the existence of selective vulnerability during cortical development and identify the most vulnerable neuronal types, stages of differentiation, and developmental time for major maternal-derived insults.

Genetic vulnerability of exposures to antenatal maternal treatments in 1- to 2-month-old infants

The growth and maturation of the nervous system are vulnerable during pregnancy. The impact of antenatal exposures to maternal treatments, in the context of genetic vulnerability of the fetus, on sensorimotor functioning in early infancy remains unexplored. Statistical features of head movements obtained from resting-state sleep fMRI scans are examined in 1- to 2-month-old infants, both those at high risk (HR) for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) due to a biological sibling with ASD and at low risk (LR) (N = 56). In utero exposures include maternal prescription medications (psychotropic Rx: N = 3_HR ; N = 5_LR vs. non-psychotropic Rx: N = 11_HR ; N = 9_LR vs. none: N = 11_HR ; N = 16_LR ), psychiatric diagnoses (two or more Dx₂ : N = 5_HR ; N = 1_LR ; one Dx₁ : N = 4_HR ; N = 5_LR ; no Dx: N = 12_HR ; N = 19_LR ), infections requiring antibiotics (infection: N = 5_HR ; N = 8_LR ; no infection: N = 20_HR ; N = 22_LR ), or high fever (fever: N = 2_HR ; N = 2_LR ; no fever: N = 23_HR ; N = 27_LR ). Movements with significantly higher variability are detected in infants exposed to psychotropics (e.g., opioid analgesics) and those whose mothers had fever, and this effect is significantly worse for infants at HR for ASD. Movements are significantly less variable in HR infants with non-psychotropic exposures (e.g., antibiotics). Heightened number of psychiatric or mental health conditions is associated with noisier movements in both risk groups. Genetic vulnerability due to in utero exposure to maternal treatments is an important future approach to be advanced in the field of early mind and brain development.

Early life malnutrition and fluctuating asymmetry in the rat bony labyrinth

Maternal malnutrition during gestation and lactation is known to have adverse effects on offspring. We evaluate the impact of maternal diet on offspring bony labyrinth morphology. The bony labyrinth develops early and is thought to be stable to protect vital sensory organs within. For these reasons, bony labyrinth morphology has been used extensively to assess locomotion, hearing function, and phylogeny in primates and numerous other taxa. While variation related to these parameters has been documented, there is still a component of intraspecific variation that is unexplained. Although the labyrinthine developmental window is small, it may provide the opportunity for developmental instability to produce corresponding shape differences, as measured by fluctuating asymmetry (FA). We hypothesized that (a) offspring with poor maternal diet would exhibit increased FA, but (b) no unilateral shape difference. To test these hypotheses, we used two groups of rats (Rattus norvegicus; Crl:WI[Han] strain), one control group and one group exposed to a isocaloric, protein-restricted maternal diet during gestation and suckling. Individuals were sampled at weaning, sexual maturity, and old age. A Procrustes analysis of variance identified statistically significant FA in all diet-age subgroups. No differences in level of FA were identified among the subgroups, rejecting our first hypothesis. A principal components analysis identified no unilateral shape differences, supporting our second hypothesis. These results indicate that bony labyrinth morphology is remarkably stable and likely protected from a poor maternal diet during development. In light of this result, other factors must be explored to explain intraspecific variation in labyrinthine shape.

Priming for Life: Early Life Nutrition and the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis

Microbes colonize the human body during the first moments of life and coexist with the host throughout the lifespan. Intestinal microbiota and their metabolites aid in the programming of important bodily systems such as the immune and the central nervous system during critical temporal windows of development, with possible structural and functional implications throughout the lifespan. These critical developmental windows perinatally (during the first 1000 days) are susceptible timepoints for insults that can endure long lasting effects on the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Environmental and parental factors like host genetics, mental health, nutrition, delivery and feeding mode, exposure to antibiotics, immune activation and microbiota composition antenatally, are all factors that are able to modulate the microbiota composition of mother and infant and may thus regulate important bodily functions. Among all these factors, early life nutrition plays a pivotal role in perinatal programming and in the modulation of offspring microbiota from birth throughout lifespan. This review aims to present current data on the impact of early life nutrition and microbiota priming of important bodily systems and all the factors influencing the microbial coexistence with the host during early life development.

The nonhuman primate hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis is an orchestrator of programming-aging interactions: role of nutrition

Developmental programming alters life-course multi-organ function and significantly affects life-course health. Recently, interest has developed in how programming may influence the rate of aging. This review describes interactions of nutrition and programming-aging interactions in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) development and function from fetal development to old age. A full picture of these interactions requires data on levels of HPA activity relating to the hypothalamic, adrenal cortical, circulating blood, and peripheral cortisol metabolism. Data are provided from studies on our baboon, nonhuman primate model both across the normal life course and in offspring of maternal baboons who were moderately undernourished by a global 30% diet reduction during pregnancy and lactation. Sex differences in offspring outcomes in response to similar challenges are described. The data clearly show programming of increased HPA axis activity by moderate maternal undernutrition. Increased postnatal circulating cortisol concentrations are related to accelerated aging of the brain and cardiovascular systems. Future studies should address peripheral cortisol production and the influence of aging advantage in females. These data support the view that the HPA is an orchestrator of interactions of programming-aging mechanisms.

Effects of maternal stress and nutrient restriction during gestation on offspring neuroanatomy in humans

Cognitive and mental health are major determinants of quality of life, allowing integration into society at all ages. Human epidemiological and animal studies indicate that in addition to genetic factors and lifestyle, prenatal environmental influences may program neuropsychiatric disorders in later life. While several human studies have examined the effects of prenatal stress and nutrient restriction on brain function and mental health in later life, potentially mediating effects of prenatal stress and nutrient restriction on offspring neuroanatomy in humans have been studied only in recent years. Based on neuroimaging and anatomical data, we comprehensively review the studies in this emerging field. We relate prenatal environmental influences to neuroanatomical abnormalities in the offspring, measured in utero and throughout life. We also assess the relationship between neuroanatomical abnormalities and cognitive and mental disorders. Timing- and gender-specific effects are considered, if reported. Our review provides evidence for adverse effects of an unfavorable prenatal environment on structural brain development that may contribute to the risk for cognitive, behavioral and mental health problems throughout life.

Growth patterns and cardiovascular abnormalities in SGA fetuses: 3. Late, adaptive and recovering growth restriction

OBJECTIVE

To characterize abnormal growth processes and their associated cardiovascular abnormalities in SGA fetuses using Individualized Growth Assessment (IGA).

METHODS

This longitudinal investigation utilized a SGA cohort [EFW and BW <10th percentile] derived from the PORTO study. Fetuses categorized by their Fetal Growth Pathology Score [FGPS1] patterns [Pattern 2 {n = 12}, Pattern 3 {n = 11}, Pattern 5 {n = 13}] were evaluated. Growth pathology was measured using the -FGPS1 and the individual composite Prenatal Growth Assessment Score {-icPGAS]. Paired cardiovascular assessments utilized measurements of the Pulsatility Index [umbilical artery {UA}, middle cerebral artery {MCA}, ductus venosus {DV}] and the myocardial performance index [MPI; heart]. Outcome variables were birth age [preterm or, term] and birth weight [small or normal (IGA criteria)].

RESULTS

Pattern 2 was usually characterized by a single, growth abnormality (67% of cases) of variable magnitude that occurred within two weeks of delivery {median onset age: 37.6 weeks}. The incidence of UA abnormalities was low (25%) while those of MCA and DV/MPI were high {60%, 42%}. Most neonates were of normal size (67%) and delivered at term (67%). Pattern 3 had an initial progressive growth restriction phase, followed by constant but abnormally low growth. Growth pathology had an early onset (median age: 31.6 weeks), was moderate but persistently abnormal. The incidences of cardiovascular abnormalities were moderate [30-50%]. Most neonates were abnormally small (80%) but delivered at term (90%). Pattern 5 had an initial progressive phase with an early onset [onset age {median}: 31.6 weeks]. However, this process was arrested and returned toward normal. Growth pathology magnitudes were minor as were the incidences of cardiovascular abnormalities. Neonatal size was usually normal and all fetuses delivered at term.

CONCLUSIONS

Characteristics of SGA Growth Restricted, Patterns 2, 3 and 5 are clearly different from those found in SGA Normal or SGA Growth Restricted Pattern 1 groups. They also differed from one another, indicating that growth restriction can manifest itself in several different ways. Pattern 2 is similar to "late" growth restriction reported previously. Patterns 3 and 5 are novel and have been designated as "adaptive" and "recovering" types of growth restriction.

Hyperphosphorylation of fetal liver IGFBP-1 precedes slowing of fetal growth in nutrient-restricted baboons and may be a mechanism underlying IUGR

In cultured fetal liver cells, insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding protein (IGFBP)-1 hyperphosphorylation in response to hypoxia and amino acid deprivation is mediated by inhibition of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and activation of amino acid response (AAR) signaling and casein kinase (CK)2. We hypothesized that fetal liver mTOR inhibition, activation of AAR and CK2, and IGFBP-1 hyperphosphorylation occur before development of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Pregnant baboons were fed a control (C) or a maternal nutrient restriction (MNR; 70% calories of control) diet starting at gestational day (GD) 30 (term GD 185). Umbilical blood and fetal liver tissue were obtained at GD 120 (C, n = 7; MNR, n = 10) and 165 (C, n = 7; MNR, n = 8). Fetal weights were unchanged at GD 120 but decreased at GD 165 in the MNR group (-13%, P = 0.03). IGFBP-1 phosphorylation, as determined by parallel reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (PRM-MS), immunohistochemistry, and/or Western blot, was enhanced in MNR fetal liver and umbilical plasma at GD 120 and 165. IGF-I receptor autophosphorylation^Tyr1135 (-64%, P = 0.05) was reduced in MNR fetal liver at GD 120. Furthermore, fetal liver CK2 (α/α'/β) expression, CK2β colocalization, proximity with IGFBP-1, and CK2 autophosphorylation^Tyr182 were greater at GD 120 and 165 in MNR vs. C. Additionally, mTOR complex (mTORC)1 (p-P70S6K^Thr389, -52%, P = 0.05) and mTORC2 (p-Akt^Ser473, -56%, P < 0.001) activity were decreased and AAR was activated (p-GCN2^Thr898, +117%, P = 0.02; p-eIF2α^Ser51, +294%, P = 0.002; p-ERK^Thr202, +111%, P = 0.03) in MNR liver at GD 120. Our data suggest that fetal liver IGFBP-1 hyperphosphorylation, mediated by mTOR inhibition and both AAR and CK2 activation, is a key link between restricted nutrient and oxygen availability and the development of IUGR.

Placental fatty acid transport across late gestation in a baboon model of intrauterine growth restriction

KEY POINTS

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is associated with perinatal morbidity and increased risk of lifelong disease, including neurodevelopmental impairment. Fatty acids (FA) are critical for normal brain development, although their transport across the placenta in IUGR pregnancies is poorly understood. The present study used a baboon model of IUGR (maternal nutrient restriction, MNR) to investigate placental expression of FA transport and binding proteins, and to determine gestational age-related changes in maternal and fetal plasma FA concentrations. We found MNR to be associated with increased placental expression of FA binding and transport proteins in late gestation, with fetal plasma FA concentrations that were similar to those of control animals. The present study is the first to report a profile of fetal and maternal plasma FA concentrations in a baboon model of growth restriction with data that suggest adaptation of placental transport to maintain delivery of critically needed FA.

ABSTRACT

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is associated with specific changes in placental transport of amino acids, folate and ions. However, little is known about placental fatty acid (FA) transport in IUGR. We hypothesized that placental FA transport proteins (FATP) and FA binding proteins (FABP) are up-regulated and fetal plasma FA concentrations are decreased at term in a baboon model of IUGR. Pregnant baboons were fed control or maternal nutrient restricted (MNR) diet (70% of control calories) from gestation day (GD) 30 (term 184 days). Plasma and placental samples were collected at GD120 (control n = 8, MNR n = 9), GD140 (control n = 6, MNR n = 7) and GD170 (control n = 6, MNR n = 6). Placentas were homogenized, and syncytiotrophoblast microvillous plasma membrane (MVM) and basal plasma membranes (BM) were isolated. Protein expression of FABP1, 3, 4 and 5 (homogenate) and FATP2, 4, and 6 (MVM, BM) was determined by Western blotting. FA content in maternal and umbilical vein plasma was measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Placental FABP1 and FABP5 expression was increased in MNR compared to controls at GD170, as was MVM FATP2 and FATP6 expression at GD140 and FATP2 expression at GD170. BM FATP4 and FATP6 expression was increased in MNR at GD140. Fetal plasma FA concentrations were similar in controls and MNR. These data suggest the adaptation of placental transport when aiming to maintain delivery of critically needed FAs for fetal growth and brain development.

History Information's are Indispensable in Developmental Assessment of Children

For achieving the good health and wellbeing for all children, the main role of pediatrician and other health care professionals is to follow their development. We implemented developmental monitoring for 465 children at the age of 12 - 60 months, in the period of 4 years (2016 - 2019), using standard algorithm in which start is always with child history. It should be comprehensive, and must include a detailed prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal history. Obtained results showed that 16.13% of participants have some serious illness in family history, and the same percentage (16.13%) manifested serious perinatal problems which imposed the support in intensive care unit. Breastfeed are 49,46 % of children. Only 7,53 % are not completely vaccinated. About the parameters for the development, we obtained that 11,83 % were not walking at the time of the assessment, and 65,81 % were not speaking. Toilet control was negative, and in 75,27 % they still were wearing diapers. Allergic manifestations at the time when the assessment was done is present in 8,60%. Finally, serious illness in child past history was positive in 19.35 % of evaluated sample. We concluded that a good history is needed and indispensable in the assessment process, particularly when exogenous causes are identified as the risk for the developmental delay. Obtained positive answers are directory for further investigation as well to correlate risk-consequences relationship.

Strength of nonhuman primate studies of developmental programming: review of sample sizes, challenges, and steps for future work

Nonhuman primate (NHP) studies are crucial to biomedical research. NHPs are the species most similar to humans in lifespan, body size, and hormonal profiles. Planning research requires statistical power evaluation, which is difficult to perform when lacking directly relevant preliminary data. This is especially true for NHP developmental programming studies, which are scarce. We review the sample sizes reported, challenges, areas needing further work, and goals of NHP maternal nutritional programming studies. The literature search included 27 keywords, for example, maternal obesity, intrauterine growth restriction, maternal high-fat diet, and maternal nutrient reduction. Only fetal and postnatal offspring studies involving tissue collection or imaging were included. Twenty-eight studies investigated maternal over-nutrition and 33 under-nutrition; 23 involved macaques and 38 baboons. Analysis by sex was performed in 19; minimum group size ranged from 1 to 8 (mean 4.7 ± 0.52, median 4, mode 3) and maximum group size from 3 to 16 (8.3 ± 0.93, 8, 8). Sexes were pooled in 42 studies; minimum group size ranged from 2 to 16 (mean 5.3 ± 0.35, median 6, mode 6) and maximum group size from 4 to 26 (10.2 ± 0.92, 8, 8). A typical study with sex-based analyses had group size minimum 4 and maximum 8 per sex. Among studies with sexes pooled, minimum group size averaged 6 and maximum 8. All studies reported some significant differences between groups. Therefore, studies with group sizes 3-8 can detect significance between groups. To address deficiencies in the literature, goals include increasing age range, more frequently considering sex as a biological variable, expanding topics, replicating studies, exploring intergenerational effects, and examining interventions.

Methylation of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Val66Met CpG site is associated with early onset bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) rs6265 (Val66Met) Met allele is associated with early onset (≤ 19 years old) bipolar disorder (BD). Val66Met (G196A) creates a CpG site when the Val/G allele is present. We sought to study the methylation of the BDNF promoter and its interaction with Val66Met genotype in BD.

METHODS

Sex/age-matched previously genotyped DNA samples from BD-Type 1 cases [N = 166: early onset (≤ 19 years old) n = 79, late onset (> 20 years old) n = 87] and controls (N = 162) were studied. Pyrosequencing of four CpGs in Promoter-I, four CpGs in promoter-IV, and two CpGs in Promoter-IX (CpG2 includes G= Val allele) was performed. Logistic regression adjusting for batch effect was used to compare cases vs. controls. Analyses also included stratification by disease onset and adjustment for Val66Met genotype. Secondary exploratory analyses for the association of life stressors, comorbid substance abuse, and psychotropic use with methylation patterns were performed.

RESULTS

Comparing all BD cases vs. controls and adjusting for Val66Met genotype, BD cases had significantly higher methylation in promoter -IX/CPG-2 (p = 0.0074). This was driven by early onset cases vs. controls (p = 0.00039) and not late onset cases vs. controls (p = 0.2).

LIMITATION

Relatively small sample size.

CONCLUSION

Early onset BD is associated with increased methylation of CpG site created by Val=G allele of the Val66Met variance. Further studies could include larger sample size and postmortem brain samples in an attempt to replicate these findings.

Significant Effects of Maternal Diet During Pregnancy on the Murine Fetal Brain Transcriptome and Offspring Behavior

BACKGROUND

Maternal over- and undernutrition in pregnancy plays a critical role in fetal brain development and function. The effects of different maternal diet compositions on intrauterine programing of the fetal brain is a lesser-explored area. The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of two chowmaternal diets on fetal brain gene expression signatures, fetal/neonatal growth, and neonatal and adult behavior in a mouse model.

METHODS

Throughout pregnancy and lactation, female C57Bl/6J mice were fed one of two standard, commercially available chow diets (pellet versus powder). The powdered chow diet was relatively deficient in micronutrients and enriched for carbohydrates and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to the pelleted chow. RNA was extracted from embryonic day 15.5 forebrains and hybridized to whole genome expression microarrays (N = 5/maternal diet group). Functional analyses of significantly differentially expressed fetal brain genes were performed using Ingenuity Pathways Analysis and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis. Neonatal behavior was assessed using a validated scale (N = 62 pellet-exposed and 31 powder-exposed). Hippocampal learning, locomotor behavior, and motor coordination were assessed in a subset of adults using fear conditioning, open field testing, and Rotarod tests (N = 16 pellet-exposed, 14 powder-exposed).

RESULTS

Comparing powdered to pelleted chow diets, neither maternal weight trajectory in pregnancy nor embryo size differed. Maternal powdered chow diet was associated with 1647 differentially expressed fetal brain genes. Functional analyses identified significant upregulation of canonical pathways and upstream regulators involved in cell cycle regulation, synaptic plasticity, and sensory nervous system development in the fetal brain, and significant downregulation of pathways related to cell and embryo death. Pathways related to DNA damage response, brain immune response, amino acid and fatty acid transport, and dopaminergic signaling were significantly dysregulated. Powdered chow-exposed neonates were significantly longer but not heavier than pelleted chow-exposed counterparts. On neonatal behavioral testing, powdered chow-exposed neonates achieved coordination- and strength-related milestones significantly earlier, but sensory maturation reflexes significantly later. On adult behavioral testing, powdered chow-exposed offspring exhibited hyperactivity and hippocampal learning deficits.

CONCLUSION

In wild-type offspring, two diets that differed primarily with respect to micronutrient composition had significant effects on the fetal brain transcriptome, neonatal and adult behavior. These effects did not appear to be mediated by alterations in gross maternal nutritional status nor fetal/neonatal weight. Maternal dietary content is an important variable to consider for investigators evaluating fetal brain development and offspring behavior.

Brain Development and Stochastic Processes During Prenatal and Early Life: You Can't Lose It if You've Never Had It; But It's Better to Have It and Lose It, Than Never to Have Had It at All

Brain development, although largely driven by genetic processes, also is influenced by environmental factors. However, there has been little discussion in the psychiatric literature on the role of stochastic, or chance, events that take place during neurodevelopment. Studies suggest that the brain capitalizes on and regulates the extent of stochastic processes during development. Furthermore, because neurodevelopment is influenced by environmental factors, there is emerging evidence that fostering those positive environmental factors during prenatal and early life could optimize neurodevelopment and provide greater resilience, including those potentially resulting from stochastic processes. Evidence for the role of environmental factors in optimizing early brain development is supported by work in large population-based studies of child development, randomized control trials in high-risk populations, and early-life adoption studies. The public health message is that creating an environment that fosters optimal brain development during prenatal and early life could prevent psychopathology and provide the developing brain the best chance against negative stochastic processes and potential stressors that are inevitable later in life.

Region-specific changes in Mus musculus brain size and cell composition under chronic nutrient restriction

Nutrition is one of the most influential environmental factors affecting the development of different tissues and organs. It is suggested that under nutrient restriction the growth of the brain is spared as a result of the differential allocation of resources from other organs. However, it is not clear whether this sparing occurs brain-wide. Here, we analyzed morphological changes and cell composition in different regions of the offspring mouse brain after maternal exposure to nutrient restriction during pregnancy and lactation. Using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging, we found that brain regions were differentially sensitive to maternal protein restriction and exhibited particular patterns of volume reduction. The cerebellum was reduced in absolute and relative volume, while cortex volume was relatively preserved. Alterations in cell composition (examined by the isotropic fractionator method) and organization of white matter (measured by diffusor tensor images) were also region specific. These changes were not related to the metabolic rate of the regions and were only partially explained by their specific growth trajectories. This study is a first step towards understanding the mechanisms of regional brain sparing at microstructural and macrostructural levels resulting from undernutrition.

Effects of microbiota-directed foods in gnotobiotic animals and undernourished children

To examine the contributions of impaired gut microbial community development to childhood undernutrition, we combined metabolomic and proteomic analyses of plasma samples with metagenomic analyses of fecal samples to characterize the biological state of Bangladeshi children with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) as they transitioned, after standard treatment, to moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) with persistent microbiota immaturity. Host and microbial effects of microbiota-directed complementary food (MDCF) prototypes targeting weaning-phase bacterial taxa underrepresented in SAM and MAM microbiota were characterized in gnotobiotic mice and gnotobiotic piglets colonized with age- and growth-discriminatory bacteria. A randomized, double-blind controlled feeding study identified a lead MDCF that changes the abundances of targeted bacteria and increases plasma biomarkers and mediators of growth, bone formation, neurodevelopment, and immune function in children with MAM.

Ontogeny and programming of the fetal temporal cortical endocannabinoid system by moderate maternal nutrient reduction in baboons (Papio spp.)

Poor nutrition during pregnancy is a worldwide public health problem. Maternal nutrient reduction (MNR) is associated with maternal and fetal stress and a sex-dependent decrease in nonhuman primate (NHP) cognitive performance. Early life stress potentiates epileptogenesis in a sex-specific manner, and temporal lobe (TL) epilepsy is associated with neurocognitive disorders. The endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) demonstrates remarkable developmental changes and plays a key role in aging-related diseases (e.g., dementia). Baboons have been studied as a natural model of epilepsy and express all ECS system components. We therefore evaluated baboon fetal temporal cortex ECS ontogenic and MNR-dependent changes. At 120 days gestational age (dGA) (term 185 days), maternal, fetal, and placental morphometry were similar between control and MNR pregnancies. MNR maternal weight gain was decreased compared with controls at 165 dGA independent of fetal sex. In male fetuses, expression of ECS synthesizing and degrading enzymes was gestational age-dependent, with the exception of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). MNR had a sex-specific effect on the protein expression of CB1R during development: CB1R protein expression was decreased in fetal temporal cortex of male fetuses at 120 and 140 dGA. Our data reveal that the MNR has sex-specific effects on temporal cortical expression of the ECS in baboon offspring and shows vulnerability of ECS in male fetuses during gestation.

Natural variation in fetal cortisol exposure is associated with neonatal body mass in captive vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops)

Poor maternal condition during gestation is commonly associated with impaired fetal growth in humans and other animals. Although elevated maternal glucocorticoids (GCs) are often implicated as the mechanism of intrauterine growth stunting, the direct contribution of maternal GCs remains unclear because enzymatic conversion of GCs at the placenta may limit the ability of maternal hormones to reach the fetus. Further, because previous studies on gestational stress have often employed synthetic GCs, which cross the placenta unobstructed, it remains unknown whether naturalistic endogenous GC elevations will have similar effects. Here, we use an unmanipulated colony of captive vervet monkeys (N = 18 mother-offspring dyads) to examine how maternal condition predicts maternal gestational hormones, and how these in turn predict neonatal body mass, especially in comparison with total prenatal hormone exposure as measured from neonatal hair. We focused on GCs and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS), an additional steroid suspected to influence growth. We found that measures of poor maternal condition (low body mass and low parity) were not associated with elevations in maternal GCs or DHEAS. Furthermore, only fetal GC exposure predicted neonatal body mass, while neither maternal GCs, nor maternal or fetal DHEAS, had any effect. Surprisingly, neonates exposed to higher gestational GCs were larger, rather than smaller at birth. Taken together, these results suggest that GC concentrations within a more naturalistic range may be positively rather than negatively associated with neonatal body mass. Further, the effect of maternal gestational GCs on neonatal mass may be modulated by placental control of GC exposure.

Maternal nutrient restriction in baboon programs later-life cellular growth and respiration of cultured skin fibroblasts: a potential model for the study of aging-programming interactions

Compelling data exist for programming of chronic later-life diseases and longevity by perinatal developmental programming challenges. Understanding mechanisms by which life course health trajectory and longevity are set is fundamental to understanding aging. Appropriate approaches are needed to determine programming effects on cellular function. We have developed a baboon model in which control mothers eat ad libitum while a second group eat 70% of the global diet fed controls, leading to male and female offspring intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). We have shown that IUGR suffer from acceleration of several age-related physiological declines. Here, we report on a skin-derived fibroblast model with potential relevance for mechanistic studies on how IUGR impacts aging. Fibroblasts were cultured from the skin biopsies taken from adult baboons from control and IUGR cohorts. IUGR-derived fibroblasts grew in culture less well than controls and those derived from male, but not female, IUGR baboons had a significant reduction in maximum respiration rate compared to control-derived fibroblasts. We also show that relative levels of several mitochondrial protein subunits, including NDUFB8 and cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV, were reduced in IUGR-derived fibroblasts even after serial passaging in culture. The lower levels of electron transport system components provide potential mechanisms for accelerated life course aging in the setting of programmed IUGR. This observation fits with the greater sensitivity of males compared with females to many, but not all, outcomes in response to programming challenges. These approaches will be powerful in the determination of programming-aging interactions.

Maternal activity, anxiety, and protectiveness during moderate nutrient restriction in captive baboons (Papio sp.)

BACKGROUND

We hypothesized that maternal nutrient restriction (NR) would increase activity and behavioral indicators of anxiety (self-directed behaviors, SDBs) in captive baboons (Papio sp.) and result in more protective maternal styles.

METHODS

Our study included 19 adult female baboons. Seven females ate ad libitum (control group), and eight females ate 30% less (NR group) and were observed through pregnancy and lactation.

RESULTS

Control females engage in higher rates of SDB than NR females overall (P ≤ .018) and during the prenatal period (P ≤ .001) and engage in more aggressive behavior (P ≤ .033). Control females retrieved infants more than NR females during weeks 5-8 postpartum (P ≤ .019).

CONCLUSIONS

Lower SDB rates among prenatal NR females reduce energy expenditure and increase available resources for fetal development when nutritionally restricted. Higher infant retrieval rates by controls may indicate more infant independence rather than maternal style differences.

Suckling in litters with different sizes, and early and late swimming exercise differentially modulates anxiety-like behavior, memory and electrocorticogram potentiation after spreading depression in rats

OBJECTIVE

Analyze the hypothesis that swimming exercise, in rats suckled under distinct litter sizes, alters behavioral parameters suggestive of anxiety and recognition memory, and the electrocorticogram potentiation that occurs after the excitability-related phenomenon that is known as cortical spreading depression (CSD).

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were suckled in litters with six or 12 pups (L₆ and L₁₂ groups). Animals swam at postnatal days (P) 8-23, or P60-P75 (early-exercised or late-exercised groups, respectively), or remained no-exercised. Behavioral tests (open field - OF and object recognition - OR) were conducted between P77 and P80. Between P90 and P120, ECoG was recorded for 2 hours. After this 'baseline' recording, CSD was elicited every 30 minutes over the course of 2 hours.

RESULTS

Early swimming enhanced the number of entries and the percentage of time in the OF-center (P < 0.05). In animals that swam later, this effect occurred in the L6 group only. Compared to the corresponding sedentary groups, OR-test showed a better memory in the L6 early exercised rats, and a worse memory in all other groups (P < 0.05). In comparison to baseline values, ECoG amplitudes after CSD increased 14-43% for all groups (P < 0.05). In the L₆ condition, early swimming and late swimming, respectively, reduced and enhanced the magnitude of the post-CSD ECoG potentiation in comparison with the corresponding L₆ no-exercised groups (P < 0.05).

DISCUSSION

Our data suggest a differential effect of early- and late-exercise on the behavioral and electrophysiological parameters, suggesting an interaction between the age of exercise and the nutritional status during lactation.

Premature brain aging in humans exposed to maternal nutrient restriction during early gestation

BACKGROUND

Prenatal exposure to undernutrition is widespread in both developing and industrialized countries, causing irreversible damage to the developing brain, resulting in altered brain structure and decreased cognitive function during adulthood. The Dutch famine in 1944/45 was a humanitarian disaster, now enabling studies of the effects of prenatal undernutrition during gestation on brain aging in late adulthood.

METHODS

We hypothesized that study participants prenatally exposed to maternal nutrient restriction (MNR) would demonstrate altered brain structure resembling premature brain aging in late adulthood, expecting the effect being stronger in men. Utilizing the Dutch famine birth cohort (n = 118; mean age: 67.5 ± 0.9 years), this study implements an innovative biomarker for individual brain aging, using structural neuroimaging. BrainAGE was calculated using state-of-the-art pattern recognition methods, trained on an independent healthy reference sample, then applied to the Dutch famine MRI sample, to evaluate the effects of prenatal undernutrition during early gestation on individual brain aging in late adulthood.

RESULTS

Exposure to famine in early gestation was associated with BrainAGE scores indicative of an older-appearing brain in the male sample (mean difference to subjects born before famine: 4.3 years, p < 0.05). Furthermore, in explaining the observed variance in individual BrainAGE scores in the male sample, maternal age at birth, head circumference at birth, medical treatment of hypertension, history of cerebral incidences, actual heart rate, and current alcohol intake emerged to be the most influential variables (adjusted R² = 0.63, p < 0.01).

INTERPRETATION

The findings of our study on exposure to prenatal undernutrition being associated with a status of premature brain aging during late adulthood, as well as individual brain structure being shaped by birth- and late-life health characteristics, are strongly supporting the critical importance of sufficient nutrient supply during pregnancy. Interestingly, the status of premature brain aging in participants exposed to the Dutch famine during early gestation occurred in the absence of fetal growth restriction at birth as well as vascular pathology in late-life. Additionally, the neuroimaging brain aging biomarker presented in this study will further enable tracking effects of environmental influences or (preventive) treatments on individual brain maturation and aging in epidemiological and clinical studies.

Transgenerational effects of early environmental insults on aging and disease incidence

Adverse early life experiences are major influences on developmental trajectories with potentially life-long consequences. Prenatal or early postnatal exposure to stress, undernutrition or environmental toxicants may reprogram brain development and increase risk of behavioural and neurological disorders later in life. Not only experience within a single lifetime, but also ancestral experience affects health trajectories and chances of successful aging. The central mechanism in transgenerational programming of a disease may be the formation of epigenetic memory. This review explores transgenerational effects of early adverse experience on health and disease incidence in older age. First, we address mechanisms of developmental and transgenerational programming of disease and inheritance. Second, we discuss experimental and clinical findings linking early environmental determinants to adverse aging trajectories in association with possible parental contributions and sex-specific effects. Third, we outline the main mechanisms of age-related functional decline and suggest potential interventions to reverse negative effects of transgenerational programming. Thus, strategies that support healthy development and successful aging should take into account the potential influences of transgenerational inheritance.

Effect of moderate, 30 percent global maternal nutrient reduction on fetal and postnatal baboon phenotype

BACKGROUND

Most developmental programming studies on maternal nutrient reduction (MNR) are in altricial rodents whose maternal nutritional burden and offspring developmental trajectory differ from precocial non-human primates and humans.

METHODS

Control (CTR) baboon mothers ate ad libitum; MNR mothers ate 70% global control diet in pregnancy and lactation.

RESULTS

We present offspring morphometry, blood cortisol, and adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) during second half of gestation (G) and first three postnatal years. Moderate MNR produced intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). IUGR males (n=43) and females (n=28) were smaller than CTR males (n=50) and females (n=47) in many measurements at many ages. In CTR, fetal ACTH increased 228% and cortisol 48% between 0.65G and 0.9G. IUGR ACTH was elevated at 0.65G and cortisol at 0.9G. 0.9G maternal gestational weight gain, fetal weight, and placenta weight were correlated.

CONCLUSIONS

Moderate IUGR decreased body weight and morphometric measurements at key time points and altered hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal function.

Sexual dimorphism in the fetal cardiac response to maternal nutrient restriction

Poor maternal nutrition causes intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR); however, its effects on fetal cardiac development are unclear. We have developed a baboon model of moderate maternal undernutrition, leading to IUGR. We hypothesized that the IUGR affects fetal cardiac structure and metabolism. Six control pregnant baboons ate ad-libitum (CTRL)) or 70% CTRL from 0.16 of gestation (G). Fetuses were euthanized at C-section at 0.9G under general anesthesia. Male but not female IUGR fetuses showed left ventricular fibrosis inversely correlated with birth weight. Expression of extracellular matrix protein TSP-1 was increased (p<0.05) in male IUGR. Expression of cardiac fibrotic markers TGFβ, SMAD3 and ALK-1 were downregulated in male IUGRs with no difference in females. Autophagy was present in male IUGR evidenced by upregulation of ATG7 expression and lipidation LC3B. Global miRNA expression profiling revealed 56 annotated and novel cardiac miRNAs exclusively dysregulated in female IUGR, and 38 cardiac miRNAs were exclusively dysregulated in males (p<0.05). Fifteen (CTRL) and 23 (IUGR) miRNAs, were differentially expressed between males and females (p<0.05) suggesting sexual dimorphism, which can be at least partially explained by differential expression of upstream transcription factors (e.g. HNF4α, and NFκB p50). Lipidomics analysis of fetal cardiac tissue exhibited a net increase in diacylglycerol and plasmalogens and a decrease in triglycerides and phosphatidylcholines. In summary, IUGR resulting from decreased maternal nutrition is associated with sex-dependent dysregulations in cardiac structure, miRNA expression, and lipid metabolism. If these changes persist postnatally, they may program offspring for higher later life cardiac risk.

Development of somatosensory-evoked potentials in foetal sheep: effects of betamethasone

AIM

Antenatal glucocorticoids are used to accelerate foetal lung maturation in babies threatened with premature labour. We examined the influence of glucocorticoids on functional and structural maturation of the central somatosensory pathway in foetal sheep. Somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEP) reflect processing of somatosensory stimuli. SEP latencies are determined by afferent stimuli transmission while SEP amplitudes reveal cerebral processing.

METHODS

After chronic instrumentation of foetal sheep, mothers received saline (n = 9) or three courses of betamethasone (human equivalent dose of 2 × 110 μg kg^-1 betamethasone i.m. 24 h apart, n = 12) at 0.7, 0.75 and 0.8 of gestational age. Trigeminal SEP were evoked prior to, 4 and 24 h after each injection and at 0.8 of gestational age before brains were histologically processed.

RESULTS

Somatosensory-evoked potentials were already detectable at 0.7 of gestation age. The early and late responses N20 and N200 were the only reproducible peaks over the entire study period. With advancing gestational age, SEP latencies decreased but amplitudes remained unchanged. Acutely, betamethasone did not affect SEP latencies and amplitudes 4 and 24 h following administration. Chronically, betamethasone delayed developmental decrease in the N200 but not N20 latency by 2 weeks without affecting amplitudes. In parallel, betamethasone decreased subcortical white matter myelination but did not affect network formation and synaptic density in the somatosensory cortex.

CONCLUSION

Somatosensory stimuli are already processed by the foetal cerebral cortex at the beginning of the third trimester. Subsequent developmental decrease in SEP latencies suggests ongoing maturation of afferent sensory transmission. Antenatal glucocorticoids affect structural and functional development of the somatosensory system with specific effects at subcortical level.

Premature Brain Aging in Baboons Resulting from Moderate Fetal Undernutrition

Contrary to the known benefits from a moderate dietary reduction during adulthood on life span and health, maternal nutrient reduction during pregnancy is supposed to affect the developing brain, probably resulting in impaired brain structure and function throughout life. Decreased fetal nutrition delivery is widespread in both developing and developed countries, caused by poverty and natural disasters, but also due to maternal dieting, teenage pregnancy, pregnancy in women over 35 years of age, placental insufficiency, or multiples. Compromised development of fetal cerebral structures was already shown in our baboon model of moderate maternal nutrient reduction. The present study was designed to follow-up and evaluate the effects of moderate maternal nutrient reduction on individual brain aging in the baboon during young adulthood (4–7 years; human equivalent 14–24 years), applying a novel, non-invasive neuroimaging aging biomarker. The study reveals premature brain aging of +2.7 years (p < 0.01) in the female baboon exposed to fetal undernutrition. The effects of moderate maternal nutrient reduction on individual brain aging occurred in the absence of fetal growth restriction or marked maternal weight reduction at birth, which stresses the significance of early nutritional conditions in life-long developmental programming. This non-invasive MRI biomarker allows further longitudinal in vivo tracking of individual brain aging trajectories to assess the life-long effects of developmental and environmental influences in programming paradigms, aiding preventive and curative treatments on cerebral atrophy in experimental animal models and humans.

Early-Life Nutritional Programming of Cognition-The Fundamental Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms in Mediating the Relation between Early-Life Environment and Learning and Memory Process

The perinatal period is a window of heightened plasticity that lays the groundwork for future anatomic, physiologic, and behavioral outcomes. During this time, maternal diet plays a pivotal role in the maturation of vital organs and the establishment of neuronal connections. However, when perinatal nutrition is either lacking in specific micro- and macronutrients or overloaded with excess calories, the consequences can be devastating and long lasting. The brain is particularly sensitive to perinatal insults, with several neurologic and psychiatric disorders having been linked to a poor in utero environment. Diseases characterized by learning and memory impairments, such as autism, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer disease, are hypothesized to be attributed in part to environmental factors, and evidence suggests that the etiology of these conditions may date back to very early life. In this review, we discuss the role of the early-life diet in shaping cognitive outcomes in offspring. We explore the endocrine and immune mechanisms responsible for these phenotypes and discuss how these systemic factors converge to change the brain's epigenetic landscape and regulate learning and memory across the lifespan. Through understanding the maternal programming of cognition, critical steps may be taken toward preventing and treating diseases that compromise learning and memory.

Competition for Materno-Fetal Resource Partitioning in a Rabbit Model of Undernourished Pregnancy

The major goal of animal production is to obtain abundant and healthy meat for consumers. Maternal food restriction (MFR) is often applied in farms to reduce production costs. However, the suitability of MFR in livestock animals is questionable, as this management may compromise maternal fitness due to a severe negative energetic balance and can induce Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) and prenatal programming in the offspring. Here, we sought to determine, using pregnant rabbits, the consequences of MFR on maternal endocrine and metabolic status and conceptus development. Pregnant dams were distributed into three groups: CONTROL (ad libitum feeding throughout the entire pregnancy; mean pregnancy length being around 31 days), UNDERFED (50% MFR during the entire pregnancy) and EARLY-UNDERFED (50% MFR only during the preimplantation period, Days 0–7). Maternal leptin concentrations and glycemic and lipid profiles were determined throughout pregnancy, whilst conceptus development was assessed ex-vivo at Day 28. Placental parameters were determined by macroscopic and histological evaluations and apoptotic assessments (TUNEL and Caspase-3). The main results of the study showed that, despite MFR altered maternal plasma lipid concentration (P<0.05), there were no effects on maternal bodyweight, plasma leptin concentration or glycemic profile. Fetal crown-rump lengths were reduced in both undernourished groups (P<0.001), but a significant reduction in fetal weight was only observed in the UNDERFED group (P<0.001). Growth in both undernourished groups was asymmetrical, with reduced liver weight (P<0.001) and significantly increased brain: fetal weight-ratio (P<0.001) and brain: liver weight-ratio (P<0.001) when compared to the CONTROL group. A significant reduction in placental weight was only observed in the UNDERFED group (P<0.001), despite both undernourished groups showing higher apoptotic rates at decidua and labyrinth zone (P<0.05) than the CONTROL group. Thus, these groups evidenced signs of placental degeneration, necrosis and stromal collapse. In summary, MFR may encourage the mother to make strategic decisions to safeguard her metabolic status and fitness at the expense of growth reduction in the litter, resulting in enhanced apoptotic and pathological processes at placental level and IUGR.

Gestational weight gain, prepregnancy body mass index and offspring attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and behaviour at age 10

OBJECTIVE

To assess offspring attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and emotional/behavioural impairments at age 10 years in relation to maternal gestational weight gain (GWG) and prepregnancy body mass index (BMI).

DESIGN AND SETTING

Longitudinal birth cohort from Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (enrolled 1983-86).

POPULATION

Mother-infant dyads (n = 511) were followed through pregnancy to 10 years.

METHODS

Self-reported total GWG was converted to gestational-age-standardised z-scores. Multivariable linear and negative binomial regressions were used to estimate effects of GWG and BMI on outcomes.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Child ADHD symptoms were assessed with the Conners' Continuous Performance Test. Child behaviour was assessed by parent and teacher ratings on the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) and Teacher Report Form, respectively.

RESULTS

The mean (SD) total GWG (kg) was 14.5 (5.9), and 10% of women had a pregravid BMI ≥30 kg/m2 . Prepregnancy obesity (BMI of 30 kg/m2 ) was associated with increased offspring problem behaviours including internalising behaviours (adjusted β 3.3 points, 95% CI 1.7-4.9), externalising behaviours (adjusted β 2.9 points, 95% CI 1.4-4.6), and attention problems (adjusted β 2.3 points, 95% CI 1.1-3.4) on the CBCL, compared with normal weight mothers (BMI of 22 kg/m2 ). There were nonsignificant trends towards increased offspring impulsivity with low GWG among lean mothers (adjusted incidence rate ratio 1.2, 95% CI 0.9-1.5) and high GWG among overweight mothers (adjusted incidence rate ratio 1.7, 95% CI 0.9-2.8), but additional outcomes did not differ by GWG z-score. Results were not meaningfully different after excluding high-substance users.

CONCLUSIONS

In a low-income and high-risk sample, we observed a small increase in child behaviour problems among children of obese mothers, which could have an impact on child behaviour in the population.

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT

Maternal obesity is associated with a small increase in child behaviour problems.

Oxytocin, a main breastfeeding hormone, prevents hypertension acquired in utero: A therapeutics preview

Hypertension is a major risk factor for ischemic heart disease and stroke, leading causes of morbidity and death worldwide. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), caused by an excess of glucocorticoid exposure to the fetus, produces an imbalance in oxidative stress altering many biochemical and epigenetic gene transcription processes exposing the fetus and neonate to the 'thrifty' phenotype and pervasive polymorphisms appearance damaging health, cognitive, and behavioral processes in later life. OT is a major regulator of oxidative stress radicals that plays a major role in neonatal maturation of the central nervous system and many peripheral tissues expressing oxytocin/oxytocin-receptor (OT/OTR) system in the early postnatal period. OT and OTR are damaged by IUGR and early stress. This review highlights the fact that hypertension is likely to be a legacy of preterm birth due to IUGR and failure to meet nutritional needs in early infancy when fed formula instead of breastfeeding or human milk.

Association between maternal nutritional status in pregnancy and offspring cognitive function during childhood and adolescence; a systematic review

Background

The mother is the only source of nutrition for fetal growth including brain development. Maternal nutritional status (anthropometry, macro- and micro-nutrients) before and/or during pregnancy is therefore a potential predictor of offspring cognitive function. The relationship of maternal nutrition to offspring cognitive function is unclear. This review aims to assess existing evidence linking maternal nutritional status with offspring cognitive function.

Methods

Exposures considered were maternal BMI, height and weight, micronutrient status (vitamins D, B12, folate and iron) and macronutrient intakes (carbohydrate, protein and fat). The outcome was any measure of cognitive function in children aged <18 years. We considered observational studies and trials with allocation groups that differed by single nutrients. We searched Medline/PubMed and the Cochrane Library databases and reference lists of retrieved literature. Two reviewers independently extracted data from relevant articles. We used methods recommended by the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement.

Results

Of 16,143 articles identified, 38 met inclusion criteria. Most studies were observational, and from high-income settings. There were few randomized controlled trials. There was consistent evidence linking maternal obesity with lower cognitive function in children; low maternal BMI has been inadequately studied. Among three studies of maternal vitamin D status, two showed lower cognitive function in children of deficient mothers. One trial of folic acid supplementation showed no effects on the children’s cognitive function and evidence from 13 observational studies was mixed. Among seven studies of maternal vitamin B12 status, most showed no association, though two studies in highly deficient populations suggested a possible effect. Four out of six observational studies and two trials (including one in an Iron deficient population) found no association of maternal iron status with offspring cognitive function. One trial of maternal carbohydrate/protein supplementation showed no effects on offspring cognitive function.

Conclusions

Current evidence that maternal nutritional status during pregnancy as defined by BMI, single micronutrient studies, or macronutrient intakes influences offspring cognitive function is inconclusive. There is a need for more trials especially in populations with high rates of maternal undernutrition.

Systematic review registration

Registered in PROSPERO CRD42013005702.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12884-016-1011-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Eating disorder symptoms pre- and postpartum

The study aimed to investigate symptoms of disordered eating pre- and postpartum using a standardised and widely used measure of eating disorder (ED) psychopathology. A consecutive series of women attending either prenatal (N = 426) or postnatal (N = 345) clinics in metropolitan Stockholm were assessed using the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q). Assessments were conducted at either the first visit to prenatal clinics (10-12 weeks of pregnancy) or 6 to 8 months postpartum. An optimised shortened version of the EDE-Q was best suited for studying eating disorders pre- and postpartum. Using the optimised version of the instrument with 14 items and a cut-off score of ≥2.8, it was estimated that 5.3 % of prepartum and 12.8 % of postpartum mothers were suffering from clinical eating disorders. Seriously disordered eating behaviour during, and especially after, pregnancy may be more common than previously thought. It is imperative that health services focus increased attention on these problems by raising awareness, developing and extending specialist services, as well as through implementing educational programmes and training directed toward frontline healthcare services.