The contribution of vegetarian diets to health and disease: a paradigm shift?

Nutrient Composition of Four Dietary Patterns in Italy: Results from an Online Survey (the INVITA Study)

Though Italy is a native land of Mediterranean diet, its adherence in the Italian population is low, witnessed by the high rates of overweight in its inhabitants. Vegetarian dietary patterns (i.e., lacto-ovo-vegetarian and vegan) are increasing in western countries, and also in Italy, where 9.5% of the population self-declared as vegetarian in 2023. Though the vegetarian diet has been associated with beneficial health effects, speculation on its alleged nutrient inadequacy exists. For this reason, we assessed the nutrient composition of the diet of 470 participants enrolled in an online survey (the INVITA study), who completed a weighted food questionnaire on three different days. Participants were divided into four dietary groups obtained according to their self-declared dietary intakes: 116 Meat Eaters (MEs), 49 Fish Eaters (FEs), 116 Lacto-Ovo-Vegetarians (LOVs), and 189 VegaNs (VNs). The mean intake of most of the main nutrients was similar among all groups and within the normal range expected for the Italian population, supporting the adequacy of diets within our Italian sample, especially the LOV and VN diet. Since the Mediterranean diet is a plant-based diet, some of its components still persist in the current Italian diet, representing a staple also for people adopting a vegetarian diet.

Diet strategies for promoting healthy aging and longevity: An epidemiological perspective

In recent decades, global life expectancies have risen significantly, accompanied by a marked increase in chronic diseases and population aging. This narrative review aims to summarize recent findings on the dietary factors influencing chronic diseases and longevity, primarily from large cohort studies. First, maintaining a healthy weight throughout life is pivotal for healthy aging and longevity, mirroring the benefits of lifelong, moderate calorie restriction in today's obesogenic food environment. Second, the specific types or food sources of dietary fat, protein, and carbohydrates are more important in influencing chronic disease risk and mortality than their quantity. Third, some traditional diets (e.g., the Mediterranean, Nordic, and Okinawa) and contemporary dietary patterns, such as healthy plant-based diet index, the DASH (dietary approaches to stop hypertension) diet, and alternate healthy eating index, have been associated with lower mortality and healthy longevity. These patterns share many common components (e.g., a predominance of nutrient-rich plant foods; limited red and processed meats; culinary herbs and spices prevalent in global cuisines) while embracing distinct elements from different cultures. Fourth, combining a healthy diet with other lifestyle factors could extend disease-free life expectancies by 8-10 years. While adhering to core principles of healthy diets, it is crucial to adapt dietary recommendations to individual preferences and cultures as well as nutritional needs of aging populations. Public health strategies should aim to create a healthier food environment where nutritious options are readily accessible, especially in public institutions and care facilities for the elderly. Although further mechanistic studies and human trials are needed to better understand molecular effects of diet on aging, there is a pressing need to establish and maintain long-term cohorts studying diet and aging in culturally diverse populations.

Candida Pneumonia in a Young Vegan Man with Diabetic Ketoacidosis

A 39-year-old vegan man was admitted with diabetic ketoacidosis. He had also developed pneumonia that was unresponsive to antibiotics. Based on bronchoscopy findings, the diagnosis of Candida pneumonia was made, and the pulmonary shadow disappeared rapidly after antifungal therapy. Candida pneumonia has been mostly reported in severely immunocompromised patients. This is a rare case of Candida pneumonia that was found in a young vegan man with diabetes mellitus (DM). Although malnutrition caused by DM or an unbalanced diet is often underestimated as a cause of immunodeficiency, these conditions can be risk factors for serious opportunistic infections, including Candida pneumonia.

We Are What We Eat: Assessing the Use of a Documentary Film as an Educational Tool to Change Students’ Nutritional Attitudes and Behaviors

Background: Identifying effective educational strategies to change lifestyle behaviors related to eating habits is imperative for health professionals providing education related to disease management and prevention. The purpose of this study is to investigate the use of mass media as a tool for improving dietary habits. Methods: 151 Undergraduate students participated in a quasi-experimental control group design at a midsize liberal arts university. The treatment group watched the film Forks Over Knives and was assessed on their dietary habits, locus of control, and current stage of change before and after viewing the film. Results: Results showed differences to current stage of change in reducing animal-based food consumption in the treatment group but did not show significant changes in increasing plant-based food. Discussion: This study provides evidence that use of the documentary Forks Over Knives affects students’ intake of animal-based foods but is not an impactful enough tool to increase intake of plant-based foods. Translation to Health Practice: Professionals who utilize the film Forks Over Knives to encourage dietary changes should do so as part of a more structured, long-term behavior change intervention program. Additional research is needed to compare Forks Over Knives with other documentary films that encourage plant-based dietary habits.

Orange Juice Attenuates Circulating miR-150-5p, miR-25-3p, and miR-451a in Healthy Smokers: A Randomized Crossover Study

Introduction: Tobacco smoke is associated with oxidative and inflammatory pathways, increasing the risk of chronic-degenerative diseases. Our goal was to evaluate the effects of acute “Pera” and “Moro” orange juice consumption on inflammatory processes and oxidative stress in microRNA (miRNA) expression in plasma from healthy smokers.

Methods: This was a randomized crossover study that included healthy smokers over 18 years old. Blood samples were collected before and 11 h after beverage ingestion. Participants were instructed to drink 400 mL of Pera orange juice (Citrus sinensis), Moro orange juice (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck), or water. Each subject drank the beverages in a 3-way crossover study design. Inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers and circulating miRNA expression profiles were determined. The subjects maintained their usual tobacco exposure during the experiment.

Results: We included 18 individuals (12 men and 6 women), with 37.0 ± 12.0 years old. All subjects received the 3 interventions. Increased expression of circulating miRNAs (miR-150-5p, miR-25-3p, and miR-451a) was verified after cigarette smoking, which were attenuated after intake of both types of orange juice. There was no difference regarding serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, MMP-9, and C-reactive protein. Despite the increased activity of serum superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase after “Pera” or “Moro” orange juice intake, respectively, no changes in lipid hydroperoxide levels were detected.

Conclusion: Tobaccos smokers showed increased expression of miR-150-5p, miR-25-3p, and miR-451a was noted, and attenuated by orange juice intake. miRNAs were predicted to regulate 244 target genes with roles in oxidative stress, PI3K-Akt, and MAPK signaling, which are pathways frequently involved in smoking-related cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

Inflammatory, oxidative and DNA damage status in vegetarians: is the future of human diet green?

The health benefit of a vegetarian diet is still under debate as it may result in a higher intake of some beneficial micronutrients, while others may be reduced, thus influencing various metabolic pathways and health-related biomarkers. This scoping review discusses inflammatory, oxidative and DNA damage status in vegetarians and vegans compared to omnivores. Most of the reviewed studies indicated favorable effects of a vegetarian diet on oxidative status compared to omnivores but did not clearly associate particular dietary habits to genome damage. The evidence on the effect of vegetarian diet on the inflammatory and immunological biomarkers is poor, which could at least partly be explained by methodological constraints such as small sample size, short duration of vegetarianism and inconsistent definitions of the omnivorous diet. The only inflammatory biomarker that seems to be associated with the vegetarian diet was inflammatory mediator C-reactive protein, which in several studies showed lower values in vegetarians as compared to omnivores. There were very few studies on immunological markers and the results on the difference between vegetarians and omnivores were inconclusive. Although several biomarkers involved in oxidative stress and inflammation showed a beneficial association with the vegetarian diet, further research in well-defined and sufficiently sized cohorts is needed to provide more evidence.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in leafy vegetables consumed in southern Nigeria: concentration, risk assessment and source apportionment

Four commonly consumed leafy vegetables, obtained from four major cities in southern Nigeria, were analysed for their polycyclic hydrocarbon (PAH) content using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The estimated daily intake (EDI), margin of exposure (MOE), hazard index (HI) and total cancer risk (TCR); principal component analysis (PCA) and diagnostic ratios (DRs) were respectively used for risk evaluation and source identification of the detected PAHs. The results showed that the mean concentration (µg kg^-1) of ∑16 PAHs in the vegetables ranged from 532 to 2261. The EDI values ranged from 459 to 4876, 1809 to 8378, 2733 to 13,036 and 4143 to 12,568 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 for benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), PAH2, PAH4, and PAH8 for children exposure respectively, and from 115 to 1219, 452 to 2095, 683 to 3259 and 1036 to 3142 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 for adult exposure respectively. The estimated MOE values were < 10,000, indicating that the vegetables were unsuitable for consumption. The HI values were < 1, suggesting that there were no potential non-carcinogenic risks, but the total cancer risk values (> 1 × 10^-6) designated carcinogenic risk of PAHs with consumption of these vegetables. The DR and PCA result showed that PAHs originated from high-temperature pyrogenic processes and vehicular emissions.

The association between diet and mental health and wellbeing in young adults within a biopsychosocial framework

Objective

Predominantly plant-based diets can co-benefit human physical health and the planet. Young adults appear to be on the forefront of the shift to plant-based diets. However, little is known about the relationship between plant-based diets and mental health in this population even though mental health disorders contribute substantially to the global burden of disease, particularly among this age group.

Design

In this cross-sectional study we utilize a biopsychosocial framework to assess the association between dietary intake and mental health and wellbeing. Mental health was assessed using self-reported measures of anxiety (GAD-7), depression (PHQ-9) and quality of life (single-item). Dietary intake in the prior month was assessed using a dietary screener (DSQ) and participants were asked to self-identify a diet preference (e.g., vegan).

Setting and participants

339 university undergraduate students.

Results

A principal component analysis of dietary intake found three dominant dietary patterns (plant-based, animal-based, and ‘junk foods’); 28.1% (n = 95) of participants self-identified as pescatarian, vegetarian, vegan, other. The association between dietary patterns, diet preference and mental health was assessed through regression analysis. After controlling for covariables, we found a significant positive association between the junk food component and depression (z-score β = .21, p≤.001; adj. R² = .39) and anxiety (z-score β = .14; p≤.001; adj. R² = .32) while no association was found between plant-based, animal-based or self-identified diet preference and the mental health measures.

Conclusions

We did not find a negative association between predominantly plant-based diet patterns and mental health and wellbeing. It is important to consider dietary composition and to conceptualize diet as a health behaviour that is embedded in a biopsychosocial framework.

Analysis of Scientific and Press Articles Related to Cultured Meat for a Better Understanding of Its Perception

Cultured meat is presented by its advocates as a good alternative for consumers who want to be more ethically minded but who do not wish to change their diet. This novel food has become an emerging topic in both the scientific field and the press media. From a bibliometric analysis of scientific publications and on a sociometric analysis of the mainstream press, the aim of this study was to identify potential differences between the scientific view and the public perception. This research analyzed the publications indexed by SCI-EXPANDED in the Web of Science Core Collection database owned by Clarivate Analytics, for scientific literature analysis, and indexed by the Factiva database, for the press media. A total of 327 scientific publications were analyzed according to year of publication and country and institution of origin, also including coauthorships, co-citations, and scientific fields' and journals' networks. A knowledge mapping using VOSviewer was used to study the literature in the field. Based on Factiva, 12,900 press articles dealing with artificial meat, mainly in English, have been found through public databases. The main conclusion is that cultured meat is mainly developing in the USA and the UK, with other countries, such as China, observing the trend for potential future applications. Scientific articles seemed initially to focus mainly on technical aspects of artificial meat and more recently on health value, consumer's acceptance, and sustainability. However, the potential environment-friendly effects of this novel food are more and more studied or described in scientific or press articles.

Glycated proteins in nutrition: Friend or foe?

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are formed in in vivo, and accumulate in tissues and body fluids during ageing. Endogenous AGE-modified proteins show altered structure and function, and may interact with receptor for AGEs (RAGE) resulting in production of reactive oxygen species, inflammatory, atherogenic and diabetogenic responses. AGEs are also formed in thermally processed foods. Studies in rodents document that dietary AGEs are partially absorbed into circulation, and accumulate in different tissues. Knowledge on the health effects of high dietary intake of AGEs is incomplete and contradictory. In this overview we discuss the data from experimental and clinical studies, either those supporting the assumption that restriction of dietary AGEs associated with health benefits, or data suggesting that dietary intake of AGEs associates with positive health outcomes. We polemicize whether the effects of exaggerated intake or restriction of highly thermally processed foods might be straightforward interpreted as the effects of AGEs-rich vs. AGEs-restricted diets. We also underline the lack of studies, and thus a poor knowledge, on the effects of different single chemically defined AGEs administration, concurrent intake of different dietary AGEs, of load with dietary AGEs corresponding to the habitual diet in humans, and on those of dietary AGEs in vulnerable populations, such as infants and particularly elderly.

Motivations and Constraints of Meat Avoidance

Reducing the consumption of meat can make a significant contribution to sustainable development. However, at least in Western societies with their already rather high levels of per-capita meat consumption, only a minority of consumers reduces meat intake by following a vegetarian or plant-based diet. To arrive at a differentiated understanding of the conditions of meat avoidance, we empirically assess the importance of a broad set of specific motivations and constraints previously discussed in the literature, including specific benefits, particular constraints, social norms, and a vegetarian self-identity. The analysis is based on a random sample of students at the university of Zurich (Switzerland)—a social group exhibiting a rather high prevalence of plant-based diets and vegetarianism. Researching this young and educated population sheds light on the motivational underpinnings of consumer segments especially willing to reduce meat intake. Data were collected in November and December 2016. We found that a vegetarian self-identity, both injunctive and descriptive social norms, and convenience are the most important direct determinants of meat avoidance among this young and highly educated consumer segment. Furthermore, the results suggest that a vegetarian self-identity mediates the effects of ethical, health-related, and environmental benefits, taste as a constraint and partially the injunctive norm. Pecuniary costs of a vegetarian diet are not significantly correlated with meat avoidance.

The Global Influence of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church on Diet

The emphasis on health ministry within the Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) movement led to the development of sanitariums in mid-nineteenth century America. These facilities, the most notable being in Battle Creek, Michigan, initiated the development of vegetarian foods, such as breakfast cereals and analogue meats. The SDA Church still operates a handful of food production facilities around the world. The first Battle Creek Sanitarium dietitian was co-founder of the American Dietetics Association which ultimately advocated a vegetarian diet. The SDA Church established hundreds of hospitals, colleges, and secondary schools and tens of thousands of churches around the world, all promoting a vegetarian diet. As part of the ‘health message,’ diet continues to be an important aspect of the church’s evangelistic efforts. In addition to promoting a vegetarian diet and abstinence from alcohol, the SDA church has also invested resources in demonstrating the health benefits of these practices through research. Much of that research has been conducted at Loma Linda University in southern California, where there have been three prospective cohort studies conducted over 50 years. The present study, Adventist Health Study-2, enrolled 96,194 Adventists throughout North America in 2003–2004 with funding from the National Institutes of Health. Adventist Health Studies have demonstrated that a vegetarian diet is associated with longer life and better health.

Human Risk Assessment of Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Vegetables from Kumasi, Ghana

The use of organochlorine pesticides has been banned worldwide due to their toxicities. However, some farmers use them illegally because of their potency. The aim of this study was to assess the level of organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues and the potential health risk associated with vegetables, soil, and groundwater obtained from farms in Ayigya, Nsenie, Gyenyase, and Kentinkrono in Kumasi, Ghana. A total of 15 samples were analyzed using a gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector. The highest mean concentration of 184.10 ± 12.11 µg/kg was recorded for methoxychlor in cabbage from Ayigya. Beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (beta-HCH) recorded the lowest mean concentration of 0.20 ± 0.00 µg/kg in cabbage from Ayigya. The combined risk index showed significant health risk to children than adults. The soil samples mainly contained methoxychlor followed by dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), aldrin, and other OCPs. Concentrations of total HCHs, total DDTs, and total OCPs in the soil samples ranged from <0.01 to 49.00, <0.01 to 165.81, and <0.01 to 174.91 µg/kg, respectively. Among all HCH and DDT isomers, only β-HCH and p,p′-DDT were detected in some of the water samples. Carcinogenic risk values for β-HCH, aldrin, and p,p′ DDT in the groundwater were found to be >10−6, posing a potentially serious cancer risk to consumers. Moreover, the hazard quotients (HQs) of aldrin exceeded the threshold value of one, indicating that daily exposure is a potential concern.

Prognostic impact of nutritional risk assessment in patients with chronic schizophrenia

Protein-energy wasting is associated with poor outcome in various clinical settings. However, the prevalence of malnutrition and the prognostic impact of nutritional status are poorly understood in institutionalized patients with chronic schizophrenia. This study aimed to assess the predictive ability of the Geriatric Nutritional Risk Index and Onodera's Prognostic Nutritional Index for long-term outcomes in patients with chronic schizophrenia. All measurements, including nutritional scores, were performed at baseline after the enrollment of 542 (64.6% men, mean age 53.8±9.7years) patients with chronic schizophrenia. The median follow-up period was 408days. The endpoints were falls and infection-related hospitalizations. At study completion, 34 patients suffered falls and 40 patients were admitted to hospitals due to infection. Both indices showed significant association with infectious complications, whereas only the Onodera's Prognostic Nutritional Index was significantly associated with falls. The adjusted hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) of low Onodera's Prognostic Nutritional Index were 2.38 (1.16-4.86) for falls and 1.99 (1.05-3.76) for infectious complications. The Onodera's Prognostic Nutritional Index is more appropriate than the Geriatric Nutritional Risk Index in identifying patients with chronic schizophrenia who are at risk for malnutrition and nutrition-related morbidity. Further studies are needed to explore whether early detection of patients with schizophrenia who are at risk for malnutrition could lead to the reduction of morbidity and mortality with the aid of appropriate interventions.

Effect of green juice and their bioactive compounds on genotoxicity induced by alkylating agents in mice

Kale juice (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala D.C.) is a reliable source of dietary carotenoids and typically contains the highest concentrations of lutein (LT) and beta-carotene (BC) among green leafy vegetables. As a result of their antioxidant properties, dietary carotenoids are postulated to decrease the risk of disease occurrence, particularly certain cancers. The present study aimed to (1) examine the genotoxic and antigenotoxic activity of natural and commercially available juices derived from Brassica oleracea and (2) assess influence of LT or BC against DNA damage induced by alkylating agents such as methyl methanesulfonate (MS) or cyclophosphamide (CP) in vivo in mice. Male Swiss mice were divided into groups of 6 animals, which were treated with water, natural, or commercial Brassica oleraceae juices (kale), LT, BC, MMS, or CP. After treatment, DNA damage was determined in peripheral blood lymphocytes using the comet assay. Results demonstrated that none of the Brassica oleraceae juices or carotenoids produced genotoxic effects. In all examined cell types, kale juices or carotenoids inhibited DNA damage induced by MMS or CP administered either pre- or posttreatment by 50 and 20%, respectively. Under our experimental conditions, kale leaf juices alone exerted no marked genotoxic or clastogenic effects. However, a significant decrease in DNA damage induced by MMS or CP was noted. This effect was most pronounced in groups that received juices, rather than carotenoids, suggesting that the synergy among constituents present in the food matrix may be more beneficial than the action of single compounds. Data suggest that the antigenotoxic properties of kale juices may be of therapeutic importance.

Bacterial Composition, Genotoxicity, and Cytotoxicity of Fecal Samples from Individuals Consuming Omnivorous or Vegetarian Diets

This study analyzes the composition of viable fecal bacteria and gut toxicology biomarkers of 29 healthy volunteers, who followed omnivorous, lacto-ovo-vegetarian, or vegan diets. In particular, the research was focused on the prevalence of some representative viable bacteria from the four dominant phyla (Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria) commonly present in human feces, in order to evaluate the relationship between microorganisms selected by the habitual dietary patterns and the potential risk due to fecal water (FW) genotoxicity and cytotoxicity, considered as biomarkers for cancer risk and protective food activity. The relative differences of viable bacteria among dietary groups were generally not statistically significant. However, compared to omnivores, lacto-ovo-vegetarians showed low levels of total anaerobes. Otherwise, vegans showed total anaerobes counts similar to those of omnivores, but with lower number of bifidobacteria and the highest levels of bacteria from the Bacteroides–Prevotella genera. FW genotoxicity of lacto-ovo-vegetarians resulted significantly lower either in relation to that of omnivores and vegans. Lacto-ovo-vegetarians also showed the lowest levels of cytotoxicity, while the highest were found for vegans. These results highlighted that lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet was particularly effective in a favorable modulation of microbial activity, thus contributing to a significant reduction of the genotoxic and cytotoxic risk in the gut.

In vitro antioxidant and cholinesterase inhibitory activities of methanolic fruit extract of Phyllanthus acidus

Background

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder clinically characterized by loss of memory and cognition. Cholinergic deficit and oxidative stress have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD. Therefore, inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and oxidation are the two promising strategies in the development of drug for AD. Phyllanthus acidus, belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, is a tree and has been used in traditional medicine to treat several pain, inflammatory and oxidative stress related disorders such as rheumatism, bronchitis, asthma, respiratory disorder, also important to promote intellect and enhance memory, thus supporting its possible anti-Alzheimer’s properties. In this study, P. acidus was evaluated for its cholinesterase inhibitory and antioxidant activities.

Methods

In this study, we evaluated the antioxidant potential and neuroprotective activity of P. acidus by assessing total phenol content (FCR assay), total flavonoid content, total antioxidant capacity, Fe³⁺ reducing power capacity, DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity, lipid peroxidation inhibition activity & metal chelating activity. In addition acetylcholinestrase (AChE) and butyrylcholinestrase (BChE) inhibitory activities were performed using Ellman’s method.

Results

Total phenolic content and total flavonoid content of the extract were 116.98 mg of gallic acid equivalent and 168.24 mg of quercetin equivalent per gm of dried extract. The methanolic extract of P. acidus (MEPA) showed considerable total antioxidant activity and reducing capacity. In DPPH scavenging assay and hydroxyl radical scavenging assay, the MEPA showed 84.33 % and 77.21 % scavenging having IC₅₀ of 15.62 and 59.74 μg/ml respectively. In lipid peroxidation inhibition activity MEPA showed moderate inhibition of peroxidation at all concentrations with IC₅₀ value of 471.63 μg/ml and exhibited metal chelating activity with IC₅₀ value 308.67 μg/ml. The MEPA exhibited inhibition of rat brain acetylcholinesterase and human blood butyrylcholinesterase in a dose dependent manner and the IC₅₀ value was found to be 1009.87 μg/ml and 449.51 μg/ml respectively.

Conclusion

These results of the present study reveal that MEPA has considerable amount of antioxidant activity as well as anti-acetylcholinesterase and anti-butyrylcholinesterase activity which suggest its effectiveness against Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders.

Comparative Study of Serum Leptin and Insulin Resistance Levels Between Korean Postmenopausal Vegetarian and Non-vegetarian Women

The present study was conducted to compare serum leptin and insulin resistance levels between Korean postmenopausal long-term semi-vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Subjects of this study belonged to either a group of postmenopausal vegetarian women (n = 54), who maintained a semi-vegetarian diet for over 20 years or a group of non-vegetarian controls. Anthropometric characteristics, serum leptin, serum glucose, serum insulin, insulin resistance (HOMA-IR; Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance), and nutrient intake were compared between the two groups. The vegetarians showed significantly lower body weight (p < 0.01), body mass index (p < 0.001), percentage (%) of body fat (p < 0.001), and serum levels of leptin (p < 0.05), glucose (p < 0.001), and insulin (p < 0.01), than the non-vegetarians. The HOMA-IR of the vegetarians was significantly lower than that of the non-vegetarians (p < 0.01) after adjustment for the % of body fat. A long-term vegetarian diet might be related to lower insulin resistance independent of the % of body fat in postmenopausal women.

Comparing the water, energy, pesticide and fertilizer usage for the production of foods consumed by different dietary types in California

Objective

To compare the use of water, energy, pesticides and fertilizer to produce commodities for two dietary patterns that vary in the content of plant and animal products.

Design

A unique analysis using ‘real-world’ data was performed, in contrast to previous analyses which applied simulated data. Consumption data from the Adventist Health Study were used to identify two dietary patterns with a markedly different consumption of several plant and animal products. State agricultural data were collected and applied to commodity production statistics. Indices were created to allow a comparison of the resource requirements for each dietary pattern.

Setting

California, USA.

Subjects

None.

Results

The diet containing more animal products required an additional 10 252 litres of water, 9910 kJ of energy, 186 g of fertilizer and 6 g of pesticides per week in comparison to the diet containing less animal products. The greatest contribution to the difference came from the consumption of animal products, particularly beef.

Conclusions

Consuming a more plant-based diet could to an extent alleviate the negative environmental impacts related to food production. As a method to feed ourselves more sustainably, behavioural adjustments appear to be a very important tool.

Public Health Perspectives on Aquaculture

Nearly half of all seafood consumed globally comes from aquaculture, a method of food production that has expanded rapidly in recent years. Increasing seafood consumption has been proposed as part of a strategy to combat the current non-communicable disease (NCD) pandemic, but public health, environmental, social, and production challenges related to certain types of aquaculture production must be addressed. Resolving these complicated human health and ecologic trade-offs requires systems thinking and collaboration across many fields; the One Health concept is an integrative approach that brings veterinary and human health experts together to combat zoonotic disease. We propose applying and expanding the One Health approach to facilitate collaboration among stakeholders focused on increasing consumption of seafood and expanding aquaculture production, using methods that minimize risks to public health, animal health, and ecology. This expanded application of One Health may also have relevance to other complex systems with similar trade-offs.

Climate change mitigation and health effects of varied dietary patterns in real-life settings throughout North America

BACKGROUND

Greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) are a major consequence of our dietary choices. Assessments of plant-based compared with meat-based diets are emerging at the intersection of public health, environment, and nutrition.

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to compare the GHGEs associated with dietary patterns consumed in a large population across North America and to independently assess mortality according to dietary patterns in the same population.

DESIGN

Data from the Adventist Health Study 2 (AHS-2) were used to characterize the differential environmental and health impacts of the following 3 dietary patterns, which varied in the quantity of animal and plant foods: vegetarian, semivegetarian, and nonvegetarian. The GHGE intensities of 210 foods were calculated through life-cycle assessments and by using published data. The all-cause mortality rates and all-cause mortality HRs for the AHS-2 subjects were adjusted for a range of lifestyle and sociodemographic factors and estimated according to dietary pattern.

RESULTS

With the use of the nonvegetarian diet as a reference, the mean reductions in GHGEs for semivegetarian and vegetarian diets were 22% and 29%, respectively. The mortality rates for nonvegetarians, semivegetarians, and vegetarians were 6.66, 5.53, and 5.56 deaths per 1000 person-years, respectively. The differences were significant. Compared with nonvegetarians, mortality HRs were lower for semivegetarians (0.86) and vegetarians (0.91).

CONCLUSIONS

Moderate differences in the caloric intake of meat products provided nontrivial reductions in GHGEs and improved health outcomes, as shown through the mortality analyses. However, this does not mean that diets lower in GHGEs are healthy.

Sustainability of plant-based diets: back to the future

Plant-based diets in comparison to diets rich in animal products are more sustainable because they use many fewer natural resources and are less taxing on the environment. Given the global population explosion and increase in wealth, there is an increased demand for foods of animal origin. Environmental data are rapidly accumulating on the unsustainability of current worldwide food consumption practices that are high in meat and dairy products. Natural nonrenewable resources are becoming scarce, and environmental degradation is rapidly increasing. At the current trends of food consumption and environmental changes, food security and food sustainability are on a collision course. Changing course (to avoid the collision) will require extreme downward shifts in meat and dairy consumption by large segments of the world's population. Other approaches such as food waste reduction and precision agriculture and/or other technological advances have to be simultaneously pursued; however, they are insufficient to make the global food system sustainable. For millennia, meatless diets have been advocated on the basis of values, and large segments of the world population have thrived on plant-based diets. "Going back" to plant-based diets worldwide seems to be a reasonable alternative for a sustainable future. Policies in favor of the global adoption of plant-based diets will simultaneously optimize the food supply, health, environmental, and social justice outcomes for the world's population. Implementing such nutrition policy is perhaps one of the most rational and moral paths for a sustainable future of the human race and other living creatures of the biosphere that we share.

Vegetarian nutrition: past, present, future

Early human food cultures were plant-based. Major religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism have recommended a vegetarian way of life since their conception. The recorded history of vegetarian nutrition started in the sixth century bc by followers of the Orphic mysteries. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras is considered the father of ethical vegetarianism. The Pythagorean way of life was followed by a number of important personalities and influenced vegetarian nutrition until the 19th century. In Europe, vegetarian nutrition more or less disappeared during the Middle Ages. In the Renaissance era and in the Age of Enlightenment, various personalities practiced vegetarianism. The first vegetarian society was started in England in 1847. The International Vegetarian Society was founded in 1908 and the first vegan society began in 1944. Prominent vegetarians during this time included Sylvester Graham, John Harvey Kellogg, and Maximilian Bircher-Benner. A paradigm shift occurred at the turn of the 21st century. The former prejudices that vegetarianism leads to malnutrition were replaced by scientific evidence showing that vegetarian nutrition reduces the risk of most contemporary diseases. Today, vegetarian nutrition has a growing international following and is increasingly accepted. The main reasons for this trend are health concerns and ethical, ecologic, and social issues. The future of vegetarian nutrition is promising because sustainable nutrition is crucial for the well-being of humankind. An increasing number of people do not want animals to suffer nor do they want climate change; they want to avoid preventable diseases and to secure a livable future for generations to come.

Nutrition and health - the association between eating behavior and various health parameters: a matched sample study

Population-based studies have consistently shown that our diet has an influence on health. Therefore, the aim of our study was to analyze differences between different dietary habit groups in terms of health-related variables. The sample used for this cross-sectional study was taken from the Austrian Health Interview Survey AT-HIS 2006/07. In a first step, subjects were matched according to their age, sex, and socioeconomic status (SES). After matching, the total number of subjects included in the analysis was 1320 (N = 330 for each form of diet - vegetarian, carnivorous diet rich in fruits and vegetables, carnivorous diet less rich in meat, and carnivorous diet rich in meat). Analyses of variance were conducted controlling for lifestyle factors in the following domains: health (self-assessed health, impairment, number of chronic conditions, vascular risk), health care (medical treatment, vaccinations, preventive check-ups), and quality of life. In addition, differences concerning the presence of 18 chronic conditions were analyzed by means of Chi-square tests. Overall, 76.4% of all subjects were female. 40.0% of the individuals were younger than 30 years, 35.4% between 30 and 49 years, and 24.0% older than 50 years. 30.3% of the subjects had a low SES, 48.8% a middle one, and 20.9% had a high SES. Our results revealed that a vegetarian diet is related to a lower BMI and less frequent alcohol consumption. Moreover, our results showed that a vegetarian diet is associated with poorer health (higher incidences of cancer, allergies, and mental health disorders), a higher need for health care, and poorer quality of life. Therefore, public health programs are needed in order to reduce the health risk due to nutritional factors.

Nutrition and health: different forms of diet and their relationship with various health parameters among Austrian adults

Population-based studies report a beneficial health effect and a lower mortality rate for diets rich in fruits and vegetables. Therefore, the aim of our study was to analyze differences between various forms of diet and health-related variables. The sample for this study was taken from the Austrian Health Interview Survey 2006/07 (N = 15,474). Multivariate analyses of variance adjusted by sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) were conducted to examine health-related behavior, health, and quality of life depending on different forms of diet. Additionally, differences in the SES and body mass index (BMI) were analyzed. Our results show that a vegetarian diet is associated with a better health-related behavior, a lower BMI, and a higher SES. Subjects eating a carnivorous diet less rich in meat self-report poorer health, a higher number of chronic conditions, an enhanced vascular risk, as well as lower quality of life. In conclusion, our results have shown that consuming a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is associated with better health and health-related behavior. Therefore, public health programs are needed for reducing the health risks associated with a carnivorous diet.

The impact of the lacto-ovo vegetarian diet on the erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity: a study in the Romanian population

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Recent studies have shown that vitamin B12 scavenges superoxide anion as effectively as superoxide dismutase (SOD), and has a key role in the defense against oxidative stress. The status of vitamin B12 is suboptimal in a substantial number of vegans and even vegetarians. We therefore evaluated in lacto-ovo vegetarians (LOVs) who did not take vitamin B12 supplements the impact of the duration of this diet on the vitamin B12 status, the erythrocyte SOD activity and the serum malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

The study group included 38 non-vegetarians and 48 LOVs divided, according to the duration of this diet, into two subgroups: LOV1 (2-10 years) and LOV2 (11-29 years). The erythrocyte SOD activity and the serum concentrations of vitamin B12 and MDA were assayed.

RESULTS

In LOVs, the mean serum vitamin B12 concentration, the erythrocyte SOD activity and the mean serum MDA concentration were statistically significantly lower that in non-vegetarians. No significant association between the serum vitamin B12 and MDA concentrations and the duration of the LOV diet were observed. A significant inverse linear correlation between SOD activity and the duration of adherence to LOV diet was observed in LOVs.

CONCLUSIONS

The duration of LOV diet has impact only on SOD activity. Further researches, both in vitro and in vivo, are necessary to understand the underlying molecular mechanism.

Reducing the environmental impact of dietary choice: perspectives from a behavioural and social change approach

Climate change is recognised as a significant public health issue that will impact on food security. One of the major contributors to global warming is the livestock industry, and, relative to plant-based agriculture, meat production has a much higher environmental impact in relation to freshwater use, amount of land required, and waste products generated. Promoting increased consumption of plant-based foods is a recommended strategy to reduce human impact on the environment and is also now recognised as a potential strategy to reduce the high rates of some chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and certain cancers. Currently there is a scant evidence base for policies and programs aiming to increase consumption of plant-based diets and little research on the necessary conditions for that change to occur and the processes involved in such a change. This paper reviews some of the environmental and health consequences of current dietary practices, reviews literature on the determinants of consuming a plant-based diet, and provides recommendations for further research in this area.

"My parents died of myocardial infarction: is that my destiny?"

This article presents an overview of clinical and molecular genetics of myocardial infarction (MI). Discussion includes the partial overlapping of risk factors for myocardial infarction and atherosclerosis, the impact of a positive family history on the risk of MI, the "familial" nongenetic, environmental factors, the inherited risk associated with the low-dose input of many genes, and a simple approach to stratify the individual risk in genetic counseling.

Clinical practice: vegetarian infant and child nutrition

The aim of this review is to give insight on the benefits and risks of vegetarianism, with special emphasis on vegetarian child nutrition. This eating pattern excluding meat and fish is being adopted by a growing number of people. A vegetarian diet has been shown to be associated with lower mortality of ischaemic heart disease and lower prevalence of obesity. Growth in children on a vegetarian diet including dairy has been shown to be similar to omnivorous peers. Although vegetarianism in adolescents is associated with eating disorders, there is no proof of a causal relation, as the eating disorder generally precedes the exclusion of meat from the diet. A well-balanced lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet, including dairy products, can satisfy all nutritional needs of the growing child. In contrast, a vegan diet, excluding all animal food sources, has at least to be supplemented with vitamin B(12), with special attention to adequate intakes of calcium and zinc and energy-dense foods containing enough high-quality protein for young children. The more restricted the diet and the younger the child, the greater the risk for deficiencies.

Health Implications of a Vegetarian Diet

There is now a significant amount of research that demonstrates the health benefits of vegetarian and plant-based diets, which have been associated with a reduced risk of obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and some types of cancer as well as increased longevity. Vegetarian diets are typically lower in fat, particularly saturated fat, and higher in dietary fiber. They are also likely to include more whole grains, legumes, nuts, and soy protein, and together with the absence of red meat, this type of eating plan may provide many benefits for the prevention and treatment of obesity and chronic health problems, including diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Although a well-planned vegetarian or vegan diet can meet all the nutritional needs of an individual, it may be necessary to pay particular attention to some nutrients to ensure an adequate intake, particularly if the person is on a vegan diet. This article will review the evidence for the health benefits of a vegetarian diet and also discuss strategies for meeting the nutritional needs of those following a vegetarian or plant-based eating pattern.

Health benefits of nut consumption

Nuts (tree nuts and peanuts) are nutrient dense foods with complex matrices rich in unsaturated fatty and other bioactive compounds: high-quality vegetable protein, fiber, minerals, tocopherols, phytosterols, and phenolic compounds. By virtue of their unique composition, nuts are likely to beneficially impact health outcomes. Epidemiologic studies have associated nut consumption with a reduced incidence of coronary heart disease and gallstones in both genders and diabetes in women. Limited evidence also suggests beneficial effects on hypertension, cancer, and inflammation. Interventional studies consistently show that nut intake has a cholesterol-lowering effect, even in the context of healthy diets, and there is emerging evidence of beneficial effects on oxidative stress, inflammation, and vascular reactivity. Blood pressure, visceral adiposity and the metabolic syndrome also appear to be positively influenced by nut consumption. Thus it is clear that nuts have a beneficial impact on many cardiovascular risk factors. Contrary to expectations, epidemiologic studies and clinical trials suggest that regular nut consumption is unlikely to contribute to obesity and may even help in weight loss. Safety concerns are limited to the infrequent occurrence of nut allergy in children. In conclusion, nuts are nutrient rich foods with wide-ranging cardiovascular and metabolic benefits, which can be readily incorporated into healthy diets.

Health benefits of nut consumption

We investigated the effect of a mixture of long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides and acidic oligosaccharides on the number and consistency of stools and on immune system biomarkers in 104 supplemented and non-supplemented subjects (aged 9-24 months) with acute diarrhea. Interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α and sIL-2R cytokine levels were determined. The significant decrease in number of stools and increase in stool consistency in the supplemented group was of little clinical relevance. The only significant change in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines was decreased TNF-α levels in the supplemented group. Prebiotic supplementation during acute diarrhea episodes did not influence the clinical course.

Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of Moringa oleifera leaves in two stages of maturity

Antioxidants play an important role in inhibiting and scavenging free radicals, thus providing protection to human against infections and degenerative diseases. Current research is now directed towards natural antioxidants originated from plants due to safe therapeutics. Moringa oleifera is used in Indian traditional medicine for a wide range of various ailments. To understand the mechanism of pharmacological actions, antioxidant properties of the Moringa oleifera leaf extracts were tested in two stages of maturity using standard in vitro models. The successive aqueous extract of Moringa oleifera exhibited strong scavenging effect on 2, 2-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical, superoxide, nitric oxide radical and inhibition of lipid per oxidation. The free radical scavenging effect of Moringa oleifera leaf extract was comparable with that of the reference antioxidants. The data obtained in the present study suggests that the extracts of Moringa oleifera both mature and tender leaves have potent antioxidant activity against free radicals, prevent oxidative damage to major biomolecules and afford significant protection against oxidative damage.

Mecanismos de ação de compostos bioativos dos alimentos no contexto de processos inflamatórios relacionados à obesidade

É indiscutível o papel da dieta e dos alimentos na manutenção da saúde e na redução do risco de DCNT. Estudos epidemiológicos mostram que o aumento do consumo de alimentos de origem vegetal influencia positivamente a saúde, enquanto estudos in vitro e in vivo em modelo animal elucidam os mecanismos pelos quais compostos bioativos não nutrientes, presentes nos alimentos, atuam na manutenção da saúde e na redução do risco de doenças. A modulação da expressão de genes que codificam proteínas envolvidas em vias de sinalização celular ativadas em DCNT é um dos mecanismos de ação dos compostos bioativos, sugerindo que estes possam ser essenciais à manutenção da saúde. A biodisponibilidade dos compostos bioativos de alimentos, as suas rotas metabólicas e o modo de ação de seus metabólitos são importantes fatores no seu efeito nas DCNT. Todos esses aspectos são temas de investigações recentes, cujos resultados contribuem para a compreensão da ocorrência e desenvolvimento das DCNT e da sua relação com a dieta. Essa revisão visou discutir alguns dos mecanismos envolvidos na resposta inflamatória induzida pela obesidade, apresentar os compostos bioativos de alimentos que modulam essa resposta inflamatória e sua relação com o metabolismo desses compostos.

Vitamin B-12 and homocysteine status among vegetarians: a global perspective

Evidence exists that well-planned vegetarian diets provide numerous health benefits and are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle. It is also known that animal foods provide micronutrients that are nonexistent or available only in limited amounts in plant foods. Restriction or exclusion of all animal foods may therefore result in low intake of certain micronutrients such as vitamin B-12, thereby affecting vitamin B-12 status and elevating plasma homocysteine concentrations. Overall, the studies we reviewed showed reduced mean vitamin B-12 status and elevated mean homocysteine concentrations in vegetarians, particularly among vegans. Low vitamin B-12 intake may lead to decreased bioavailability and functional deficiency of cobalamin. Although early noticeable symptoms of vitamin B-12 deficiency are nonspecific (unusual fatigue, digestion problems, frequent upper respiratory infections), the best-known clinical manifestations of cobalamin malabsorption are hematologic (pernicious anemia) and neurologic symptoms. Hyperhomocysteinemia is associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Given these health concerns, vegetarians, particularly vegans, must be advised to carefully plan their diets, to monitor their plasma vitamin B-12 on a regular basis to facilitate early detection of low cobalamin status, and to use vitamin B-12-fortified foods or take vitamin B-12 supplements if necessary.

Dyslipidemia and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: Role of Lifestyle Approaches for Its Management

Multiple risk factors have a causative relationship to the etiology of coronary heart disease (CHD). However, it is clear that dyslipidemia plays a central role. The chain of evidence is strongest for elevated levels of total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). An inverse association has also been demonstrated between levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and its principal apolipoprotein, A-1, and risk of CHD. Elevated levels of fasting triglyceride (TG) also are a predictor of CHD, but the independent contribution of TG is difficult to prove because of its usual association with reduced levels of HDL-C; elevated levels of small, dense, highly-atherogenic LDL particles; and the metabolic syndrome. Elevated fasting levels of non—HDL-C (TC — LDL-C) and apolipoprotein B also are strongly predictive of the risk of CHD. Therapeutic lifestyle changes are important adjuncts to pharmacologic management of dyslipidemia. The purpose of this article is to review these contributions with an emphasis on dietary habits (particularly lipid intake), weight management, and aerobic exercise.

The role of tree nuts and peanuts in the prevention of coronary heart disease: multiple potential mechanisms

Epidemiologic and clinical trial evidence has demonstrated consistent benefits of nut and peanut consumption on coronary heart disease (CHD) risk and associated risk factors. The epidemiologic studies have reported various endpoints, including fatal CHD, total CHD death, total CHD, and nonfatal myocardial infarct. A pooled analysis of 4 U.S. epidemiologic studies showed that subjects in the highest intake group for nut consumption had an approximately 35% reduced risk of CHD incidence. The reduction in total CHD death was due primarily to a decrease in sudden cardiac death. Clinical studies have evaluated the effects of many different nuts and peanuts on lipids, lipoproteins, and various CHD risk factors, including oxidation, inflammation, and vascular reactivity. Evidence from these studies consistently shows a beneficial effect on these CHD risk factors. The LDL cholesterol-lowering response of nut and peanut studies is greater than expected on the basis of blood cholesterol-lowering equations that are derived from changes in the fatty acid profile of the diet. Thus, in addition to a favorable fatty acid profile, nuts and peanuts contain other bioactive compounds that explain their multiple cardiovascular benefits. Other macronutrients include plant protein and fiber; micronutrients including potassium, calcium, magnesium, and tocopherols; and phytochemicals such as phytosterols, phenolic compounds, resveratrol, and arginine. Nuts and peanuts are food sources that are a composite of numerous cardioprotective nutrients and if routinely incorporated in a healthy diet, population risk of CHD would therefore be expected to decrease markedly.

Diet and healthy ageing 2100: will we globalise local knowledge systems?

Diet and health clearly are linked intrinsically. Today, more than ever food is functionalized and tailor made for specific groups (e.g. athletes, the elderly, and people with specific conditions). Increased life expectancy has resulted in an increase in the quest for diets which allow for a healthy ageing. In looking back 100 years, we try to assess how of our diets will evolve in the next 100 years and how this may be linked to a 'healthier ageing'. Our argument centres around a series of dichotomies which we used to explain the main changes in dietary habits and how this impacts on health--the continuous move from dietary traditions which are local, low in technological input and based on empiricism, to diets which are global, require high technological input and are science-based. The innovations our societies have achieved over the last century have allowed us to improve our diet based on a better scientific understanding of the health benefits of such diets, but this is often not achieved due to commercial considerations. This will require that all sectors of the food industry work towards healthy and economically affordable diets. In addition, there will be a continuous demand by the consumers to ascertain that 'our' foods are not only healthy but also convenient and easy to prepare. Healthy ageing will require us to look at a multitude of aspects of foods, to integrate this knowledge and to apply it in all sectors of food production.

Overall Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of Vegan Diets in Relation to Plasma Lipoproteins and Triacylglycerols

BACKGROUND

To investigate the overall glycemic index (GI), glycemic load (GL), and intake of dietary fiber, and to examine the associations between these factors and plasma lipoproteins and triacylglycerols in adult vegans in the German Vegan Study (GVS).

METHODS

Cross-sectional study, Germany. Healthy men (n = 67) and women (n = 87), who fulfilled the study criteria (vegan diet for >or=1 year prior to study start; minimum age of 18 years; no pregnancy/childbirth during the last 12 months) and who participated in all study segments.

RESULTS

The average dietary GL of the GVS population was 144, and the average GI was 51.4. The adjusted geometric mean total, HDL, and LDL cholesterol concentrations decreased across the increasing quartiles of GL, carbohydrate and dietary fiber intake. The associations between total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and GL density and GI were inconsistent. Also, associations between GI, GL, the intake of carbohydrates, and triacylglycerol concentration were not observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Fiber-rich vegan diets are characterized by a low GI and a low to moderate GL. The data do not support the hypothesis that a carbohydrate-rich diet per se is associated with unfavorable effects on triaclyglycerols that would be predicted to increase the risk of coronary heart disease.

[Vegetarian nutrition: Preventive potential and possible risks. Part 1: Plant foods]

Today vegetarian nutrition is more accepted and widespread in Europe than in former years. For a long time scientific research on vegetarian diets has focused mostly on malnutrition, whereas nowadays research centers increasingly on the preventive potential of plant-based diets. We followed a nutritive and a metabolic-epidemiological approach to obtain dietary recommendations. A MEDLINE research was performed for all plant food groups relevant for a vegetarian diet (key words: all relevant food groups, "vegetarian diet", "chronic disease", "cancer", "cardiovascular disease", "diabetes mellitus", "osteoporosis"). All relevant food groups were characterized regarding their nutrient content and rated with respect to the available metabolic-epidemiological evidence. Based on the evidence criteria of the WHO/FAO, cancer risk reduction by a high intake of vegetables and fruits is assessed as probable or possible, while a lowered risk of cardiovascular disease is convincing and a lowered risk of osteoporosis is probable. The evidence of a risk reducing effect of whole grain relating to colorectal cancer is assessed as possible, whereas it is probable relating to cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus type 2. There is an insufficient risk-reducing effect of legumes like soja relating to epithelial tumours and cardiovascular disease. The evidence of a risk-reducing effect of nuts to cardiovascular disease is assessed as probable, and in relation to cholelithiasis and diabetes mellitus type 2 as possible and insufficient, respectively. In conclusion, high consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and nuts can lower the risk for several chronic diseases.

Dietas vegetarianas e desempenho esportivo

As evidências atuais apontam benefícios da dieta vegetariana para a saúde humana. Contudo, a partir da adoção de práticas vegetarianas mais restritivas, confirmam-se os riscos à saúde. As dietas vegetarianas são caracterizadas pelo elevado consumo de carboidratos, fibras, magnésio, potássio, folato e antioxidantes, podendo apresentar deficiências em aminoácidos e ácidos graxos essenciais, cálcio, zinco, ferro e cobalamina. Pesquisas experimentais em humanos indicam que vegetarianos e não-vegetarianos apresentam capacidade aeróbica semelhante. Em relação ao desempenho em atividades de força e potência muscular, as pesquisas são escassas, mas as existentes não apontam diferenças significativas. Situações de risco cardiovascular têm sido confirmadas, devido ao provável quadro de hiperhomocisteinemia, em decorrência da baixa ingestão de cobalamina. As dietas vegetarianas são isentas de creatina, o que resulta em estoques musculares mais baixos nessa população. Possivelmente ocorrem alterações hormonais e metabólicas em resposta às dietas vegetarianas, como baixos níveis de testosterona e androstenediona. A função imune parece não ser prejudicada. Dessa forma, a prática de dietas vegetarianas apresenta-se compatível com a prática esportiva cotidiana, desde que bem planejada para evitar deficiências nutricionais.