Recommendations for Using Causal Diagrams to Study Racial Health Disparities

Trust of social media content and risk of making misinformed decisions: Survey of people affected by cancer and their caregivers

Background

This study explores social media (SM) usage and trust in information among cancer patients and their caregivers. We compare socio-demographic characteristics to identify groups more likely to rely on social media for treatment decisions and those less inclined to validate social media information with their provider.

Methods

A national survey of people diagnosed with cancer and those who were caregivers to people diagnosed with cancer was conducted via online survey in November-December 2021. Socio-demographic factors associated with respondents' use of SM and comfort disclosing SM use were assessed using logistic regression.

Findings

Out of 262 respondents, 65% were likely to use SM to make decisions about lifestyle changes, cancer screening, vaccination, cancer treatment, medical testing, or choosing a provider. SM users were younger (ORadj = 0.11, p < 0.01), identified as Black (ORadj = 10.19, p < 0.01), and had less education (ORadj = 0.86, p = 0.02). Those with less education reported not being comfortable discussing SM with their providers (ORadj = 1.25, padj = 0.01).

Discussion

Results contribute new understanding of the digital divide, highlighting the need for not only improving access to digital information but also the need for a supportive environment that provides patients with dependable methods to verify the authenticity of the information they encounter.

Contributions of neighborhood physical and social environments to racial and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes in California: A mediation analysis

BACKGROUND

Racially minoritized populations experience higher rates of adverse birth outcomes than White populations in the U.S. We estimated the mediating effect of neighborhood social and physical environments on disparities in adverse birth outcomes in California.

METHOD

We used birthing parent's residential address for California live birth records from 2019 to estimate census block group Area Deprivation Index and census tract level measures of ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5), drinking water contamination, tree canopy coverage, as a measure of greenspace, potential heat vulnerability, and noise. We performed mediation analysis to assess whether neighborhood factors explain racial/ethnic disparities in preterm birth (PTB) and term-birth low birth weight (TLBW) comparing Black, Latinx, and Asian with White births after controlling for individual-level factors.

RESULTS

Black, Latinx, and Asian parents had PTB rates that were 67%, 36%, and 11% higher, and TLBW rates that were 150%, 38%, and 81% higher than Whites. Neighborhood deprivation contributed 7% (95% CI: 3%, 11%) to the Black-White and 9% (95% CI: 6%, 12%) to the Latinx-White disparity in PTB, and 8% (95% CI: 3%, 12%) of the Black-White and 9% (95% CI: 5%, 15%) of the Latinx-White disparity in TLBW. Drinking water contamination contributed 2% (95% CI: 1%, 4%) to the Latinx-White disparity in PTB. Lack of greenspace accounted for 7% (95% CI: 2%, 10%) of the Latinx-White PTB disparity and 7% (95% CI: 3%, 12%) of the Asian-White PTB disparity. PM2.5 contributed 11% (95% CI: 5%, 18%), drinking water contamination contributed 3% (95% CI: 1%, 7%), and potential heat vulnerability contributed 2% (95% CI: 1%, 3%) to the Latinx-White TLBW disparity. Lack of green space contributed 3% (95% CI: 1%, 6%) to the Asian-White TLBW disparity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests social environments explain portions of Black/Latinx-White disparities while physical environments explain Latinx/Asian-White disparities in PTB and TLBW.

Differences in opioid prescriptions by race among U.S. older adults with a hip fracture transitioning to community care

BACKGROUND

Appropriate pain management can facilitate rehabilitation after a hip fracture as patients transition back to the community setting. Differences in opioid prescribing by race may exist during this critical transition period.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of older adult U.S. Medicare beneficiaries with a hip fracture to examine whether the receipt and dose of opioids differs between Black and White patients as they transitioned back to the community setting. We stratified beneficiaries by whether they received institutional post-acute care (PAC). Outcomes were (1) receipt of an opioid and (2) opioid doses in the first 90 days in the community in milligram morphine equivalents (MMEs; also presented in mg oxycodone). We estimated relative rates and risk differences of opioid receipt and dose differences using Poisson and linear regression models, respectively, using the parametric g-formula to standardize for age and sex.

RESULTS

We identified 164,170 older adults with hip fracture (mean age = 82.7 years; 75% female; 72% with PAC; 46% with opioid use after fracture). Overall use of opioids in the community was similar between Black and white beneficiaries. Black beneficiaries had lower average doses in their first 90 days in both total cumulative doses (PAC group: 165 [95% CI -264 to -69] fewer MMEs [-248 mg oxycodone]; no PAC: 167 [95% CI -274 to -62] fewer MMEs [-251 mg oxycodone]) and average MME per days' supply of medication (PAC: -3.0 [-4.6 to -1.4] fewer MMEs per day [-4.5 mg oxycodone]; no PAC: -4.7 [-4.6 to -1.4] fewer MMEs per day [-7.1 mg oxycodone]). In secondary analyses, Asian beneficiaries experienced the greatest differences (e.g., 617-653 fewer cumulative mg oxycodone).

CONCLUSION

Racial differences exist in pain management for Medicare beneficiaries after a hip fracture. Future work should examine whether these differences result in disparities in short- and long-term health outcomes.

Ethno-racial inequalities on adverse birth and neonatal outcomes: a nationwide, retrospective cohort study of 21 million Brazilian newborns

Background

Ethno-racial inequalities are critical determinants of health outcomes. We quantified ethnic-racial inequalities on adverse birth outcomes and early neonatal mortality in Brazil.

Methods

We conducted a cohort study in Brazil using administrative linked data between 2012 and 2019. Estimated the attributable fractions for the entire population (PAF) and specific groups (AF), as the proportion of each adverse outcome that would have been avoided if all women had the same baseline conditions as White women, both unadjusted and adjusted for socioeconomics and maternal risk factors. AF was also calculated by comparing women from each maternal race/skin colour group in different groups of mothers' schooling, with White women with 8 or more years of education as the reference group and by year.

Findings

21,261,936 newborns were studied. If all women experienced the same rate as White women, 1.7% of preterm births, 7.2% of low birth weight (LBW), 10.8% of small for gestational age (SGA) and 11.8% of early neonatal deaths would have been prevented. Percentages preventable were higher among Indigenous (22.2% of preterm births, 17.9% of LBW, 20.5% of SGA and 19.6% of early neonatal deaths) and Black women (6% of preterm births, 21.4% of LBW, 22.8% of SGA births and 20.1% of early neonatal deaths). AF was higher in groups with fewer years of education among Indigenous, Black and Parda for all outcomes. AF increased over time, especially among Indigenous populations.

Interpretation

A considerable portion of adverse birth outcomes and neonatal deaths could be avoided if ethnic-racial inequalities were non-existent in Brazil. Acting on the causes of these inequalities must be central in maternal and child health policies.

Funding

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Wellcome Trust.

Impact of Skin Care Products on Phthalates and Phthalate Replacements in Children: the ECHO-FGS

BACKGROUND

Phthalates and their replacements have been implicated as developmental toxicants. Young children may be exposed to phthalates/replacements when using skin care products (SCPs).

OBJECTIVES

Our objective is to assess the associations between use of SCPs and children's urinary phthalate/replacement metabolite concentrations.

METHODS

Children (4-8 years old) from the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes-Fetal Growth Study (ECHO-FGS) cohort provided spot urine samples from 2017 to 2019, and mothers were queried about children's SCP use in the past 24 h (n = 906 ). Concentrations of 16 urinary phthalate/replacement metabolites were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (n = 630 ). We used linear regression to estimate the child's use of different SCPs as individual predictors of urinary phthalate/replacement metabolites, adjusted for urinary specific gravity, age, sex assigned at birth, body mass index, and self-reported race/ethnic identity, as well as maternal education, and season of specimen collection. We created self-organizing maps (SOM) to group children into "exposure profiles" that reflect discovered patterns of use for multiple SCPs.

RESULTS

Children had lotions applied (43.0%) frequently, but "2-in-1" hair-care products (7.5%), sunscreens (5.9%), and oils (4.3%) infrequently. Use of lotions was associated with 1.17-fold [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.00, 1.34] greater mono-benzyl phthalate and oils with 2.86-fold (95% CI: 1.89, 4.31) greater monoethyl phthalate (MEP), 1.43-fold (95% CI: 1.09, 1.90) greater monobutyl phthalate (MBP), and 1.40-fold (95% CI: 1.22, 1.61) greater low-molecular-weight phthalates (LMW). Use of 2-in-1 haircare products was associated with 0.84-fold (95% CI: 0.72, 0.97) and 0.78-fold (95% CI: 0.62, 0.98) lesser mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP) and MBP, respectively. Child's race/ethnic identity modified the associations of lotions with LMW, oils with MEP and LMW, sunscreen with MCPP, ointments with MEP, and hair conditioner with MCPP. SOM identified four distinct SCP-use exposure scenarios (i.e., profiles) within our population that predicted 1.09-fold (95% CI: 1.03, 1.15) greater mono-carboxy isononyl phthalate, 1.31-fold (95% CI: 0.98, 1.77) greater mono-2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl terephthalate, 1.13-fold (95% CI: 0.99, 1.29) greater monoethylhexyl phthalate, and 1.04-fold (95% CI: 1.00, 1.09) greater diethylhexyl phthalate.

DISCUSSION

We found that reported SCP use was associated with urinary phthalate/replacement metabolites in young children. These results may inform policymakers, clinicians, and parents to help limit children's exposure to developmental toxicants. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13937.

Closing the gaps in adolescent vaccinations: Rhode Island's Vaccinate Before You Graduate program as a model for other jurisdictions

Objective

The northeastern state of Rhode Island (RI) has a Vaccinate Before You Graduate (VBYG) program that supplements the traditional primary care infrastructure by providing vaccines to adolescents while they are in school, with no out-of-pocket expenses. We analyzed data from RI's immunization registry to evaluate whether VBYG also reduces disparities in adolescent immunization rates.

Methods

We identified adolescent and catch-up vaccines administered in RI to people who were aged 11-18 at any point during the 5-year study period of 2019-2023, and conducted bivariate and multivariate analyses of vaccine administration data by setting (VBYG clinics, community health centers [CHCs], all other primary care practices [oPCPs], other school-based clinics, and other sites) and adolescent demographics (racial and ethnic identity, insurance status, sex, and age at time of vaccine).

Results

Of over 387,000 routine vaccines administered during the study period, 3.3 % were administered by a VBYG clinic despite significant declines during school closures associated with the early COVID-19 pandemic. VBYG-administered doses went to slightly older youth, and a higher proportion were catch-up doses (25.7 % versus 14.1 % for CHC doses and 6.5 % for oPCP). Youths received an average of 2.71 vaccines in VBYG clinics compared to 1.77 from oPCPs and 2.08 from CHCs. A higher proportion of vaccines administered by VBYG went to adolescents of color and those without private insurance than those administered by oPCPs.

Conclusions

VBYG provides a model to other jurisdictions of a vaccine safety net for adolescents who may not otherwise receive recommended vaccines before exiting the school system.

The Impact of Structural Racism on Continuity of Care at Pediatric Academic Primary Care Clinics

OBJECTIVE

Using a structural racism framework, we assessed racial inequities in continuity of care, using the Usual Provider Continuity Index (UPC - the proportion of visits with the provider the patient saw most frequently out of all visits), in a set of large pediatric academic clinics.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study. Patients 12-24 months seen at three pediatric academic primary care clinics for any visit during October 1-31, 2021 were included. We then reviewed continuity for these patients in the preceding 12 months. Outcomes included each patient's UPC for all visits, and a modified UPC for well child checks only (UPC Well). Covariates included race, ethnicity, insurance, clinic site, age, sex, care management, or seeing a social worker. We evaluated for differences in outcomes using bivariate analyses and multivariable regression models.

RESULTS

Our cohort included 356 patients (74% Black, 5% Hispanic, 85% Medicaid, 52% female, median age 15.8 months). The median UPC was 0.33 and median UPC Well was 0.40. Black patients had significantly lower median values for UPC (0.33 Black vs 0.40 non-Black, P < .01) and UPC Well (0.33 Black vs 0.50 non-Black, P < .01). There were similar inequities in continuity rates by insurance and clinic site. In multivariable models, clinic site was the only variable significantly associated with continuity.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinic sites serving higher percentages of Black patients had lower rates of continuity. The main driver of racial inequities in continuity rates was at the institutional level.

The mediating role of systemic inflammation and moderating role of racialization in disparities in incident dementia

BACKGROUND

Exposure to systemic racism is linked to increased dementia burden. To assess systemic inflammation as a potential pathway linking exposure to racism and dementia disparities, we investigated the mediating role of C-reactive protein (CRP), a systemic inflammation marker, and the moderating role of the racialization process in incident dementia.

METHODS

In the US Health and Retirement Study (n = 6,908), serum CRP was measured at baseline (2006, 2008 waves). Incident dementia was classified by cognitive tests over a six-year follow-up. Self-reported racialized categories were a proxy for exposure to the racialization process. We decomposed racialized disparities in dementia incidence (non-Hispanic Black and/or Hispanic vs. non-Hispanic white) into 1) the mediated effect of CRP, 2) the moderated portion attributable to the interaction between racialized group membership and CRP, and 3) the controlled direct effect (other pathways through which racism operates).

RESULTS

The 6-year cumulative incidence of dementia is 12%. Among minoritized participants (i.e., non-Hispanic Black and/or Hispanic), high CRP levels ( ≥ 75th percentile or 4.73μg/mL) are associated with 1.26 (95%CI: 0.98, 1.62) times greater risk of incident dementia than low CRP ( < 4.73μg/mL). Decomposition analysis comparing minoritized versus non-Hispanic white participants shows that the mediating effect of CRP accounts for 3% (95% CI: 0%, 6%) of the racial disparity, while the interaction effect between minoritized group status and high CRP accounts for 14% (95% CI: 1%, 27%) of the disparity. Findings are robust to potential violations of causal mediation assumptions.

CONCLUSIONS

Minoritized group membership modifies the relationship between systemic inflammation and incident dementia.

Neighborhood Disadvantage and Prostate Tumor RNA Expression of Stress-Related Genes

Importance

African American men experience greater prostate cancer incidence and mortality than White men. Growing literature supports associations of neighborhood disadvantage, which disproportionately affects African American men, with aggressive prostate cancer; chronic stress and downstream biological impacts (eg, increased inflammation) may contribute to these associations.

Objective

To examine whether several neighborhood disadvantage metrics are associated with prostate tumor RNA expression of stress-related genes.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study leveraged prostate tumor transcriptomic data for African American and White men with prostate cancer who received radical prostatectomy at the University of Maryland Medical Center between August 1992 and January 2021. Data were analyzed from May 2023 to April 2024.

Exposures

Using addresses at diagnosis, 2 neighborhood deprivation metrics (Area Deprivation Index [ADI] and validated bayesian Neighborhood Deprivation Index) as well as the Racial Isolation Index (RI) and historical redlining were applied to participants' addresses. Self-reported race was determined using electronic medical records.

Main Outcomes and Measures

A total of 105 stress-related genes were evaluated with each neighborhood metric using linear regression, adjusting for race, age, and year of surgery. Genes in the Conserved Transcriptional Response to Adversity (CTRA) and stress-related signaling genes were included.

Results

A total of 218 men (168 [77%] African American, 50 [23%] White) with a median (IQR) age of 58 (53-63) years were included. African American participants experienced greater neighborhood disadvantage than White participants (median [IQR] ADI, 115 [100-130] vs 92 [83-104]; median [IQR] RI, 0.68 [0.34-0.87] vs 0.11 [0.06-0.14]). ADI was positively associated with expression for 11 genes; HTR6 (serotonin pathway) remained significant after multiple-comparison adjustment (β = 0.003; SE, 0.001; P < .001; Benjamini-Hochberg q value = .01). Several genes, including HTR6, were associated with multiple metrics. We observed higher expression of 5 proinflammatory genes in the CTRA with greater neighborhood disadvantage (eg, CXCL8 and ADI, β = 0.008; SE, 0.003; P = .01; q value = .21).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cross-sectional study, the expression of several stress-related genes in prostate tumors was higher among men residing in disadvantaged neighborhoods. This study is one of the first to suggest associations of neighborhood disadvantage with prostate tumor RNA expression. Additional research is needed in larger studies to replicate findings and further investigate interrelationships of neighborhood factors, tumor biology, and aggressive prostate cancer to inform interventions to reduce disparities.

Risk of Adverse Perinatal Outcomes Among African-born Black Women in California, 2011-2020

BACKGROUND

African-born women have a lower risk of preterm birth and small for gestational age (SGA) birth compared with United States-born Black women, however variation by country of origin is overlooked. Additionally, the extent that nativity disparities in adverse perinatal outcomes to Black women are explained by individual-level factors remains unclear.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based study of nonanomalous singleton live births to United States- and African-born Black women in California from 2011 to 2020 (n = 194,320). We used age-adjusted Poisson regression models to estimate the risk of preterm birth and SGA and reported risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Decomposition using Monte Carlo integration of the g-formula computed the percentage of disparities in adverse outcomes between United States- and African-born women explained by individual-level factors.

RESULTS

Eritrean women (RR = 0.4; 95% CI = 0.3, 0.5) had the largest differences in risk of preterm birth and Cameroonian women (RR = 0.5; 95% CI = 0.3, 0.6) in SGA birth, compared with United States-born Black women. Ghanaian women had smaller differences in risk of preterm birth (RR = 0.8; 95% CI = 0.7, 1.0) and SGA (RR = 0.9; 95% CI = 0.8, 1.1) compared with United States-born women. Overall, we estimate that absolute differences in socio-demographic and clinical factors contributed to 32% of nativity-based disparities in the risk of preterm birth and 26% of disparities in SGA.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed heterogeneity in risk of adverse perinatal outcomes for African- compared with United States-born Black women, suggesting that nativity disparities in adverse perinatal outcomes were not fully explained by differences in individual-level factors.

Time Series Analysis: Associations Between Temperature and Primary Care Utilization in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION

Earth's temperature has risen by an average of 0.11°F per decade since 1850 and experts predict continued global warming. Studies have shown that exposure to extreme temperatures is associated with adverse health outcomes. Missed primary care visits can lead to incomplete preventive health screenings and unmanaged chronic diseases. This study examines the associations between extreme temperature conditions and primary care utilization among adult Philadelphians.

METHODS

A total of 1,048,575 appointments from 91,580 patients age ≥ 18 years enrolled in the study at thirteen university-based outpatient clinics in Philadelphia from January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2019. Statistical analysis was performed from June to December 2023. Data on attended and missed appointments was linked with measures of daily maximum temperature and precipitation, stratified by warm and cold seasons. Sociodemographic variables and associations with chronic disease status were explored.

RESULTS

Rates of missed appointments increased by 0.72% for every 1°F decrease in daily maximum temperatures below 39°F and increased by 0.64% for every 1°F increase above 89°F. Individuals ≥ 65 years and those with chronic conditions had stronger associations with an increased rate of missed appointments.

CONCLUSIONS

Temperature extremes were associated with higher rates of missed primary care appointments. Individuals with chronic diseases were more likely to have missed appointments associated with extreme temperatures. The findings suggest the need for primary care physicians to explore different modes of care delivery to support vulnerable populations, such as making telemedicine during extreme weather events a viable and affordable option.

Ambient Environment and the Epidemiology of Preterm Birth

Preterm birth (PTB) is associated with substantial mortality and morbidity. We describe environmental factors that may influence PTB risks. We focus on exposures associated with an individual's ambient environment, such as air pollutants, water contaminants, extreme heat, and proximities to point sources (oil/gas development or waste sites) and greenspace. These exposures may further vary by other PTB risk factors such as social constructs and stress. Future examinations of risks associated with ambient environment exposures would benefit from consideration toward multiple exposures - the exposome - and factors that modify risk including variations associated with the structural genome, epigenome, social stressors, and diet.

Geographic Variation in Racial Disparities in Receipt of High-Dose Influenza Vaccine Among US Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Racial disparities in receipt of high-dose influenza vaccine (HDV) have been documented nationally, but whether small-area geographic variation in such disparities exists remains unknown. We assessed the distribution of disparities in HDV receipt between Black and White traditional Medicare beneficiaries vaccinated against influenza within states and hospital referral regions (HRRs).

METHODS

We conducted a nationally representative retrospective cohort study of 11,768,724 community-dwelling traditional Medicare beneficiaries vaccinated against influenza during the 2015-2016 influenza season (94.3% White and 5.7% Black). Our comparison was marginalized versus privileged racial group measured as Black versus White race. Vaccination and type of vaccine were obtained from Medicare Carrier and Outpatient files. Differences in the proportions of individuals who received HDV between Black and White beneficiaries within states and HRRs were used to measure age- and sex-standardized disparities in HDV receipt. We restricted to states and HRRs with ≥ 100 beneficiaries per age-sex strata per racial group.

RESULTS

We detected a national disparity in HDV receipt of 12.8 percentage points (pps). At the state level, the median standardized HDV receipt disparity was 10.7 pps (minimum, maximum: 2.9, 25.6; n = 30 states). The median standardized HDV receipt disparity among HRRs was 11.6 pps (minimum, maximum: 0.4, 24.7; n = 54 HRRs).

CONCLUSION

Black beneficiaries were less likely to receive HDV compared to White beneficiaries in almost every state and HRR in our analysis. The magnitudes of disparities varied substantially across states and HRRs. Local interventions and policies are needed to target geographic areas with the largest disparities to address these inequities.

Geospatial Distribution of Racial Disparities in Influenza Vaccination in Nursing Homes

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the distribution of racial disparities in influenza vaccination between White and Black short-stay and long-stay nursing home residents among states and hospital referral regions (HRRs).

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

We included short-stay and long-stay older adults residing in US nursing homes during influenza seasons between 2011 and 2018. Included residents were aged ≥65 years and enrolled in Traditional Medicare. Analyses were conducted using resident-seasons, whereby residents could contribute to one or more influenza seasons if they resided in a nursing home across multiple seasons.

METHODS

Our comparison of interest was marginalized vs privileged racial group membership measured as Black vs White race. We obtained influenza vaccination documentation from resident Minimum Data Set assessments from October 1 through June 30 of a particular influenza season. Nonparametric g-formula was used to estimate age- and sex-standardized disparities in vaccination, measured as the percentage point (pp) difference in the proportions of individuals vaccinated between Black and White nursing home residents within states and HRRs.

RESULTS

The study included 7,807,187 short-stay resident-seasons (89.7% White and 10.3% Black) in 14,889 nursing homes and 7,308,111 long-stay resident-seasons (86.7% White and 13.3% Black) in 14,885 nursing homes. Among states, the median age- and sex-standardized disparity between Black and White residents was 10.1 percentage points (pps) among short-stay residents and 5.3 pps among long-stay residents across seasons. Among HRRs, the median disparity was 8.6 pps among short-stay residents and 5.0 pps among long-stay residents across seasons.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our analysis revealed that the magnitudes of vaccination disparities varied substantially across states and HRRs, from no disparity in vaccination to disparities in excess of 25 pps. Local interventions and policies should be targeted to high-disparity geographic areas to increase vaccine uptake and promote health equity.

Everyday discrimination and satisfaction with nature experiences

Introduction

There is growing interest in creating public green spaces to promote health. Yet, discussions about these efforts often overlook how experiences of chronic discrimination-which may manifest as racism, sexism, or homophobia, and more-could undermine satisfaction with nature experiences.

Methods

Using data from the 2018 wave of the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) General Social Survey (GSS), we quantified associations of frequency of everyday discrimination, operationalized using the Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS, the primary independent variable), with respondents' perceptions of nature experiences and with their reported time spent in nature. Specifically, we quantified associations with the following three variables: (1) dissatisfaction with day-to-day experiences of nature, (2) not spending as much time as they would like in natural environments, and (3) usually spending at least one day per week in nature. We used survey-weighted robust Poisson models to estimate overall associations, and also stratified analyses by racial/ethnic and gender identity categories.

Results

Of 768 GSS respondents, 14% reported dissatisfaction with nature experiences, 36% reported not spending as much time as they would like in nature, and 33% reported that they did not spend at least one day per week in nature. The median non-standardized EDS, coded such that a higher value indicates greater frequency of discrimination, was 11 (interquartile range: 8, 15). Prevalence of reporting dissatisfaction with day-to-day experiences in nature was 7% higher in association with every one unit increase in EDS score above the median (PR: 1.07, 95% CI: 1.02-1.11). The prevalence of reporting not spending as much time as one would like in nature was 2% higher for every unit increase in higher than median everyday discrimination frequency (PR: 1.02, 95% CI: 1.00-1.05). Higher than median frequency in everyday discrimination was not associated with spending less than one day per week in nature. Race/ethnicity and gender identity did not modify associations.

Conclusion

Greater frequency of everyday discrimination is associated with less satisfaction with experiences in nature. This relationship could undermine efforts to promote health equity through green interventions.

Racial and Ethnic Composition of Departments of Health Policy & Management and Health Education & Behavioral Sciences

The diversity of racial/ethnic representation in the health services and policy research (HSPR) workforce plays a crucial role in addressing the health needs of underserved populations. We assessed changes (between 2012 and 2022) in the racial/ethnic composition of students and faculty from departments of Health Policy & Management (HPM) and Health Education & Behavioral Sciences (HEBS) among the Association of Schools and Programs of Public Health member institutions. We analyzed annual data from over 40 institutions that reported student and faculty data in 2012 and 2022 within each department. Racial/ethnic populations included American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN), Asian, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (NH/PI), Black, White, Unknown, and Multiracial. We conducted analyses by department and examined racial/ethnic composition by student status, degree level, faculty rank, and tenure status. We found statistically significant increases in Black assistant professors (HPM and HEBS) and tenured faculty (HPM), Hispanic graduates and tenure-track faculty (HPM), Asian professors (HPM: full and tenured, HEBS: associate and tenured), and Multiracial students and graduates (HPM and HEBS). Statistically significant decreases were observed in White professors (HPM: assistant and full, HEBS: all ranks) and tenure-track faculty (HPM and HEBS), AI/AN associate professors and tenured faculty (HEBS), Hispanic associate professors (HPM), Asian assistant professors (HEBS), and NH/PI students (HPM and HEBS). Our findings highlight the importance of increasing racial/ethnic representation. Strategies to achieve this include facilitating workshops to raise awareness about the structural barriers encountered by Hispanic faculty, providing research support, evaluating promotion processes, establishing more pathway programs, and fostering interdisciplinary academic environments studying AI/AN or NH/PI populations.

Structural gendered racism and preterm birth inequities in the United States

Structural gendered racism - the "totality of interconnectedness between structural racism and sexism" - is conceptualized as a fundamental cause of the persistent preterm birth inequities experienced by Black and Indigenous people in the United States. Our objective was to develop a state-level latent class measure of structural gendered racism and examine its association with preterm birth among all singleton live births in the US in 2019. Using previously-validated inequity indicators between White men and Black women across 9 domains (education, employment, poverty, homeownership, health insurance, segregation, voting, political representation, incarceration), we conducted a latent profile analysis to identify a latent categorical variable with k number of classes that have similar values on the observed continuous input variables. Racialized group-stratified multilevel modified Poisson regression models with robust variance and random effects for state assessed the association between state-level classes and preterm birth. We found four distinct latent classes that were all characterized by higher levels of disadvantage for Black women and advantages for White men, but the magnitude of that difference varied by latent class. We found preterm birth risk among Black birthing people was higher across all state-level latent classes compared to White birthing people, and there was some variation of preterm birth risk across classes among Black but not White birthing people. These findings further emphasize the importance of understanding and interrogating the whole system and the need for multifaceted policy solutions.

Birth outcomes in relation to neighborhood food access and individual food insecurity during pregnancy in the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO)-wide cohort study

BACKGROUND

Limited access to healthy foods, resulting from residence in neighborhoods with low-food access or from household food insecurity, is a public health concern. Contributions of these measures during pregnancy to birth outcomes remain understudied.

OBJECTIVES

We examined associations between neighborhood food access and individual food insecurity during pregnancy with birth outcomes.

METHODS

We used data from 53 cohorts participating in the nationwide Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes-Wide Cohort Study. Participant inclusion required a geocoded residential address or response to a food insecurity question during pregnancy and information on birth outcomes. Exposures include low-income-low-food-access (LILA, where the nearest supermarket is >0.5 miles for urban or >10 miles for rural areas) or low-income-low-vehicle-access (LILV, where few households have a vehicle and >0.5 miles from the nearest supermarket) neighborhoods and individual food insecurity. Mixed-effects models estimated associations with birth outcomes, adjusting for socioeconomic and pregnancy characteristics.

RESULTS

Among 22,206 pregnant participants (mean age 30.4 y) with neighborhood food access data, 24.1% resided in LILA neighborhoods and 13.6% in LILV neighborhoods. Of 1630 pregnant participants with individual-level food insecurity data (mean age 29.7 y), 8.0% experienced food insecurity. Residence in LILA (compared with non-LILA) neighborhoods was associated with lower birth weight [β -44.3 g; 95% confidence interval (CI): -62.9, -25.6], lower birth weight-for-gestational-age z-score (-0.09 SD units; -0.12, -0.05), higher odds of small-for-gestational-age [odds ratio (OR) 1.15; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.33], and lower odds of large-for-gestational-age (0.85; 95% CI: 0.77, 0.94). Similar findings were observed for residence in LILV neighborhoods. No associations of individual food insecurity with birth outcomes were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Residence in LILA or LILV neighborhoods during pregnancy is associated with adverse birth outcomes. These findings highlight the need for future studies examining whether investing in neighborhood resources to improve food access during pregnancy would promote equitable birth outcomes.

Adverse Perinatal and Neonatal Outcomes among Adolescent Pregnancies in the United States

OBJECTIVE

Despite a downward trend in recent years, adolescent pregnancies in the United States remain higher than any other western country. Adolescent pregnancies have been inconsistently associated with adverse perinatal outcomes. The objective of this study is to investigate the association between adolescent pregnancies and adverse perinatal and neonatal outcomes in the United States.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a retrospective cohort study of singleton births in the United States from 2014 to 2020 using national vital statistics data. Perinatal outcomes included gestational diabetes, gestational hypertension, preterm delivery <37 weeks (preterm birth [PTB]), cesarean delivery (CD), chorioamnionitis, small for gestational age (SGA), large for gestational age (LGA), and neonatal composite outcome. Chi-square tests were used to compare outcomes among adolescent (13-19 years) versus adult (20-29 years) pregnancies. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine association of adolescent pregnancies with perinatal outcomes. For each outcome, we utilized three models: unadjusted logistic regression, adjusted for demographics, and adjusted for demographics and medical comorbidities. Similar analyses were used to compare younger (13-17 years) and older (18-19 years) adolescent pregnancies to adults.

RESULTS

In a cohort of 14,014,078 pregnancies, we found that adolescents were at an increased risk of PTB (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.12, 99% confidence interval (CI): 1.12-1.13) and SGA (aOR: 1.02, 99% CI: 1.01-1.03) compared with adult pregnancies. We also found that multiparous adolescents with a prior history of CD were at an increased risk of CD, compared with adults. For all other outcomes, adult pregnancies were at higher risk for adverse outcomes in the adjusted models. When comparing birth outcomes among adolescents, we found that older adolescents are at an increased risk of PTB, whereas younger adolescents are at an increased risk of both PTB and SGA.

CONCLUSION

After adjusting for confounders, our study demonstrates adolescents have an increased risk of PTB and SGA, compared with adults.

KEY POINTS

· Adolescents as a whole subgroup have an increased risk of PTB and SGA compared with adults.. · Younger adolescents have a risk of PTB and SGA, whereas older adolescents have a risk of PTB only.. · Adverse birth outcomes in adults are gestational diabetes, chorioamnionitis, LGA, and worse neonatal composite score..

Associations of U.S. state-level COVID-19 policies intensity with cannabis sharing behaviors in 2020

BACKGROUND

Cannabis use before the COVID-19 pandemic for many involved sharing prepared cannabis for inhalation, practices that were less prevalent during the pandemic. State-level COVID-19 containment policies may have influenced this decrease. This study examined the extent to which the intensity of state-level COVID-19 policies were associated with individual-level cannabis sharing. Findings have the potential to guide harm reduction policies for future respiratory pandemics and seasonal respiratory virus waves.

METHODS

This study used cross-sectional individual-level data from the COVID-19 Cannabis Study, an anonymous U.S.-based web survey on cannabis use disseminated during the early phase of the pandemic (Full sample N = 1,883). We combined individual-level data with state-level policy data from Kaiser Family Foundation's State COVID-19 Data and Policy Actions for three time-points from June to August 2020 that overlapped with the survey period. Cannabis sharing was dichotomized as any versus no sharing. We adapted a previously published coding framework to score the intensity of COVID-19 policies implemented in each U.S. state and averaged the policy score across the time period. We then used Poisson regression models to quantify the associations of the average state-level COVID-19 policy score with cannabis sharing during the pandemic.

RESULTS

Participants (n = 925) reporting using inhalation as a mode for cannabis use were included in this analysis. Most respondents were male (64.1%), non-Hispanic White (54.3%), with a mean age of 33.7 years (SD 8.8). A large proportion (74.9%) reported sharing cannabis during the pandemic. Those who shared cannabis more commonly lived in states with a lower average policy score (16.7, IQR 12.3-21.5) compared to those who did not share (18.6, IQR 15.3-25.3). In adjusted models, the prevalence ratio of any cannabis sharing per every 5-unit increase in the average COVID-19 policy score was 0.97 (95% CI 0.93, 1.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Fewer individuals shared cannabis in states with more intense COVID-19 containment policies compared to those in states with less intense policies. Individuals who use cannabis may be willing to make changes to their behavior and may further benefit from specific and directed public health messaging to avoid sharing during respiratory infection outbreaks.

Incorporating equity, diversity, and inclusion into the epidemiology and biostatistics curriculum: A workshop report and implementation strategies recommendations

There is an obligation among those teaching epidemiology to incorporate principles of equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) into the curriculum. While there is a well-established literature related to teaching epidemiology, this literature rarely addresses critical aspects of EDI. To our knowledge, there is no working group or central point of discussion and learning for incorporating EDI into epidemiology teaching in Canada. To address this gap, we convened a workshop entitled "Incorporating EDI into the epidemiology and biostatistics curriculum and classroom." The workshop discussed nine strategies to incorporate EDI in the epidemiology curriculum: positionality (or reflexivity) statements; opportunities for feedback; land acknowledgements; clarifying the purpose of collecting data on race and ethnicity, sex and gender, Indigeneity; acknowledging that race/ethnicity is a social construct, not a biological variable; describing incidence and prevalence of disease; demonstrating explicit bias using directed acyclic graphs (DAGs); critical appraisal of study population diversity; and admission criteria and considerations. Key take-aways from the workshop were the need to be more intentional when determining the validity of evidence, particularly with respect to historical context and the need to recognize that there is no single solution that will address EDI.

Causal Mediation of Neighborhood-Level Pediatric Hospitalization Inequities

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Population-wide racial inequities in child health outcomes are well documented. Less is known about causal pathways linking inequities and social, economic, and environmental exposures. Here, we sought to estimate the total inequities in population-level hospitalization rates and determine how much is mediated by place-based exposures and community characteristics.

METHODS

We employed a population-wide, neighborhood-level study that included youth <18 years hospitalized between July 1, 2016 and June 30, 2022. We defined a causal directed acyclic graph a priori to estimate the mediating pathways by which marginalized population composition causes census tract-level hospitalization rates. We used negative binomial regression models to estimate hospitalization rate inequities and how much of these inequities were mediated indirectly through place-based social, economic, and environmental exposures.

RESULTS

We analyzed 50 719 hospitalizations experienced by 28 390 patients. We calculated census tract-level hospitalization rates per 1000 children, which ranged from 10.9 to 143.0 (median 45.1; interquartile range 34.5 to 60.1) across included tracts. For every 10% increase in the marginalized population, the tract-level hospitalization rate increased by 6.2% (95% confidence interval: 4.5 to 8.0). After adjustment for tract-level community material deprivation, crime risk, English usage, housing tenure, family composition, hospital access, greenspace, traffic-related air pollution, and housing conditions, no inequity remained (0.2%, 95% confidence interval: -2.2 to 2.7). Results differed when considering subsets of asthma, type 1 diabetes, sickle cell anemia, and psychiatric disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide additional evidence supporting structural racism as a significant root cause of inequities in child health outcomes, including outcomes at the population level.

Associations of Serum Perfluoroalkyl Substances and Placental Human Chorionic Gonadotropin in Early Pregnancy, Measured in the UPSIDE Study in Rochester, New York

BACKGROUND

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely detected in pregnant women and associated with adverse outcomes related to impaired placental function. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a dimeric glycoprotein hormone that can indicate placental toxicity.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to quantify the association of serum PFAS with placental hCG, measured as an intact molecule (hCG), as free alpha-(hCG α ) and beta-subunits (hCG β ), and as a hyperglycosylated form (h-hCG), and evaluate effect measure modification by social determinants and by fetal sex.

METHODS

Data were collected from 326 pregnant women enrolled from 2015 to 2019 in the UPSIDE study in Rochester, New York. hCG forms were normalized for gestational age at the time of blood draw in the first trimester [multiple of the median (MoM)]. Seven PFAS were measured in second-trimester maternal serum. Multivariate imputation by chained equations and inverse probability weighting were used to evaluate robustness of linear associations. PFAS mixture effects were estimated by Bayesian kernel machine regression.

RESULTS

Perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) [hCG β : 0.29 log MoM units per log PFHxS; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.08, 0.51] and perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) (hCG: - 0.09 ; 95% CI: - 0.16 , - 0.02 ) were associated with hCG in the single chemical and mixture analyses. The PFAS mixture was negatively associated with hCG α and positively with hCG β . Subgroup analyses revealed that PFAS associations with hCG differed by maternal race/ethnicity and education. Perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA) was associated with hCG β only in Black participants (- 0.23 ; 95% CI: - 0.37 , - 0.09 ) and in participants with high school education or less (- 0.14 ; 95% CI: - 0.26 , - 0.02 ); conversely, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) was negatively associated with hCG α only in White participants (- 0.15 ; 95% CI: - 0.27 , - 0.03 ) and with hCG β only in participants with a college education or greater (- 0.19 ; 95% CI: - 0.36 , - 0.01 ). These findings were robust to testing for selection bias, confounding bias, and left truncation bias where PFAS detection frequency was < 100 % . Two associations were negative in male (and null in female) pregnancies: Perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) with hCG α , and PFNA with h-hCG.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence was strongest for the association between PFHxS and PFDA with hCG in all participants and for PFPeA and PFNA within subgroups defined by social determinants and fetal sex. PFAS mixture associations with hCG α and hCG β differed, suggesting subunit-specific types of toxicity and/or regulation. Future studies will evaluate the biological, clinical and public health significance of these findings. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12950.

Place-Based Child Opportunity at Birth and Child Development from Infancy to Age 4

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the children's neighborhood quality, as a measure of place-based social determinants of health, is associated with the odds of developmental delay and developmental performance up to the age of 4 years.

STUDY DESIGN

Mothers of 5702 children from the Upstate KIDS Study, a longitudinal population-based cohort of children born from 2008 through 2010, provided questionnaire data and a subset of 573 children participated in a clinic visit. The Child Opportunity Index 2.0 was linked to home census tract at birth. Probable developmental delays were assessed by the Ages and Stages Questionnaire up to 7 times between 4 and 36 months, and developmental performance was assessed via the Battelle Developmental Inventory at the age of 4 years.

RESULTS

In unadjusted models, higher neighborhood opportunity was protective against developmental delays and was associated with slightly higher development scores at age 4. After adjusting for family-level confounding variables, 10-point higher Child Opportunity Index (on a 100-point scale) remained associated with a lower odds of any developmental delay (OR = .966, 95% CI = .940-.992), and specifically delays in the personal-social domain (OR = .921, 95% CI = .886-.958), as well as better development performance in motor (B = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.11-1.48), personal-social (B = 0.64, 95% CI = 0.003-1.28), and adaptive (B = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.04-1.34) domains at age 4.

CONCLUSIONS

Community-level opportunities are associated with some aspects of child development prior to school entry. Pediatric providers may find it helpful to use neighborhood quality as an indicator to inform targeted developmental screening.

Disparities in Cytomegalovirus Infection Rates by Race and Ethnicity among Pediatric Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Recipients at a Single Center

Previous literature has reported cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection rate disparities among racial/ethnic groups of hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) recipients. Because race and ethnicity categorizations are social constructs unlikely to affect biological systems, it is likely there are covariates on the pathway to CMV detection, known as mediators, that can explain the observed disparity. Recent developments in mediation analysis methods enable the analysis of time-to-event outcomes, allowing an investigation of these disparities to also consider the timing of CMV infection detection relative to HCT. This study aimed to explore whether racial and ethnic CMV infection disparities existed within a population of HCT recipients at our center, and whether clinical covariates explained any observed association. The study cohort included all recipients of allogeneic HCT performed at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia between January 2004 and April 2017 who were CMV PCR-negative pretransplantation, had known donor/recipient CMV serology, and were under blood CMV PCR surveillance. Subjects were followed for 100 days post-HCT. Accelerated failure time models using subject's reported race/ethnicity, dichotomized into non-Hispanic White (NHW) and non-NHW, and exposure and time to CMV detection as outcomes examined whether selected clinical factors-donor/recipient CMV serostatus, recipient age, indication for HCT, hematopoietic cell source, match quality-mediated any identified exposure-outcome association. The analysis included 348 HCTs performed in 335 subjects, with 86 episodes (24.7%) in which CMV was detected via PCR analysis. The accelerated failure time model without mediators estimated that non-NHW subjects had fewer CMV-free survival days (time ratio, .21; 95% confidence interval, .10 to .44). Any hypothesized mediator mediated at most 5% of the total association between race/ethnicity and time to CMV detection. Non-NHW HCT recipients had fewer CMV-free survival days than NHW recipients; none of the clinical factors hypothesized to mediate this association accounted for a significant component of total association. Further research should focus on nonclinical factors influenced by systemic racism to better understand their effect on CMV infection among HCT recipients.

Selection Bias in Health Research: Quantifying, Eliminating, or Exacerbating Health Disparities?

Purpose of review

To summarize recent literature on selection bias in disparities research addressing either descriptive or causal questions, with examples from dementia research.

Recent findings

Defining a clear estimand, including the target population, is essential to assess whether generalizability bias or collider-stratification bias are threats to inferences. Selection bias in disparities research can result from sampling strategies, differential inclusion pipelines, loss to follow-up, and competing events. If competing events occur, several potentially relevant estimands can be estimated under different assumptions, with different interpretations. The apparent magnitude of a disparity can differ substantially based on the chosen estimand. Both randomized and observational studies may misrepresent health disparities or heterogeneity in treatment effects if they are not based on a known sampling scheme.

Conclusion

Researchers have recently made substantial progress in conceptualization and methods related to selection bias. This progress will improve the relevance of both descriptive and causal health disparities research.

The Importance of Equity Value Judgments and Estimator-Estimand Alignment in Measuring Disparity and Identifying Targets to Reduce Disparity

The choice of which covariates to adjust for (so-called allowability designation (AD)) in health disparity measurements reflects value judgments about inequitable versus equitable sources of health differences, which is paramount for making inferences about disparity. Yet, many off-the-shelf estimators used in health disparity research are not designed with equity considerations in mind, and they imply different ADs. We demonstrated the practical importance of incorporating equity concerns in disparity measurements through simulations, motivated by the example of reducing racial disparities in hypertension control via interventions on disparities in treatment intensification. Seven causal decomposition estimators, each with a particular AD (with respect to disparities in hypertension control and treatment intensification), were considered to estimate the observed outcome disparity and the reduced/residual disparity under the intervention. We explored the implications for bias of the mismatch between equity concerns and the AD in the estimator under various causal structures (through altering racial differences in covariates or the confounding mechanism). The estimator that correctly reflects equity concerns performed well under all scenarios considered, whereas the other estimators were shown to have the risk of yielding large biases in certain scenarios, depending on the interaction between their ADs and the specific causal structure.

Racial and ethnic disparities in preterm birth: a mediation analysis incorporating mixtures of polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Background

Racial and ethnic disparities persist in preterm birth (PTB) and gestational age (GA) at delivery in the United States. It remains unclear whether exposure to environmental chemicals contributes to these disparities.

Objectives

We applied recent methodologies incorporating environmental mixtures as mediators in causal mediation analysis to examine whether racial and ethnic disparities in GA at delivery and PTB may be partially explained by exposures to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a class of chemicals used as flame retardants in the United States.

Methods

Data from a multiracial/ethnic US cohort of 2008 individuals with low-risk singleton pregnancies were utilized, with plasma PBDE concentrations measured during early pregnancy. We performed mediation analyses incorporating three forms of mediators: (1) reducing all PBDEs to a weighted index, (2) selecting a PBDE congener, or (3) including all congeners simultaneously as multiple mediators, to evaluate whether PBDEs may contribute to the racial and ethnic disparities in PTB and GA at delivery, adjusted for potential confounders.

Results

Among the 2008 participants, 552 self-identified as non-Hispanic White, 504 self-identified as non-Hispanic Black, 568 self-identified as Hispanic, and 384 self-identified as Asian/Pacific Islander. The non-Hispanic Black individuals had the highest mean ∑PBDEs, the shortest mean GA at delivery, and the highest rate of PTB. Overall, the difference in GA at delivery comparing non-Hispanic Black to non-Hispanic White women was -0.30 (95% CI: -0.54, -0.05) weeks. This disparity reduced to -0.23 (95% CI: -0.49, 0.02) and -0.18 (95% CI: -0.46, 0.10) weeks if fixing everyone's weighted index of PBDEs to the median and the 25th percentile levels, respectively. The proportion of disparity mediated by the weighted index of PBDEs was 11.8%. No statistically significant mediation was found for PTB, other forms of mediator(s), or other racial and ethnic groups.

Conclusion

PBDE mixtures may partially mediate the Black vs. White disparity in GA at delivery. While further validations are needed, lowering the PBDEs at the population level might help reduce this disparity.

Structural racism, nativity and risk of adverse perinatal outcomes among Black women

BACKGROUND

Black women in the United States (US) have the highest risk of preterm birth (PTB) and small for gestational age (SGA) births, compared to women of other racial groups. Among Black women, there are disparities by nativity whereby foreign-born women have a lower risk of PTB and SGA compared to US-born women. Differential exposure to racism may confer nativity-based differences in adverse perinatal outcomes between US- and foreign-born Black women. This remains unexplored among US- and African-born women in California.

OBJECTIVES

Evaluate the relationship between structural racism, nativity, PTB and SGA among US- and African-born Black women in California.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based study of singleton births to US- and African-born Black women in California from 2011 to 2017 (n = 131,424). We examined the risk of PTB and SGA by nativity and neighbourhoods with differing levels of structural racism, as measured by the Index of Concentration at the Extremes. We fit crude and age-adjusted Poisson regression models, estimated using generalized estimating equations, with risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) as the effect measure.

RESULTS

The proportions of PTB and SGA were 9.7% and 14.5%, respectively, for US-born women, while 5.6% and 8.3% for African-born women. US-born women (n = 24,782; 20.8%) were more likely to live in neighbourhoods with high structural racism compared to African-born women (n = 1474; 11.6%). Structural racism was associated with an elevated risk of PTB (RR 1.19, 95% CI 1.12, 1.26) and SGA (RR 1.19, 95% CI 1.13, 1.25) for all Black women, however, there was heterogeneity by nativity, with US-born women experiencing a higher magnitude of effect than African-born women.

CONCLUSIONS

Among Black women in California, exposure to structural racism and the impacts of structural racism on the risk of PTB and SGA varied by nativity.

"We adjusted for race": now what? A systematic review of utilization and reporting of race in American Journal of Epidemiology and Epidemiology, 2020-2021

Race is a social construct, commonly used in epidemiologic research to adjust for confounding. However, adjustment of race may mask racial disparities, thereby perpetuating structural racism. We conducted a systematic review of articles published in Epidemiology and American Journal of Epidemiology between 2020 and 2021 to (1) understand how race, ethnicity, and similar social constructs were operationalized, used, and reported; and (2) characterize good and poor practices of utilization and reporting of race data on the basis of the extent to which they reveal or mask systemic racism. Original research articles were considered for full review and data extraction if race data were used in the study analysis. We extracted how race was categorized, used-as a descriptor, confounder, or for effect measure modification (EMM)-and reported if the authors discussed racial disparities and systemic bias-related mechanisms responsible for perpetuating the disparities. Of the 561 articles, 299 had race data available and 192 (34.2%) used race data in analyses. Among the 160 US-based studies, 81 different racial categorizations were used. Race was most often used as a confounder (52%), followed by effect measure modifier (33%), and descriptive variable (12%). Fewer than 1 in 4 articles (22.9%) exhibited good practices (EMM along with discussing disparities and mechanisms), 63.5% of the articles exhibited poor practices (confounding only or not discussing mechanisms), and 13.5% were considered neither poor nor good practices. We discuss implications and provide 13 recommendations for operationalization, utilization, and reporting of race in epidemiologic and public health research.

Distinct moderating pathways for psychosocial risk and resilience in the association of neighborhood disadvantage with incident heart failure among Black persons

Objective

To assess whether psychosocial factors moderate the associations between neighborhood disadvantage and incident heart failure (HF).

Methods

Among 1448 Non-Hispanic (NH) Black persons dually enrolled in two community-based cohorts in Jackson, Mississippi who were free of HF as of January 1, 2000, 336 HF events classified by reviewer panel accrued through December 31, 2017. Multilevel, multivariable Cox regression models were used to examine whether optimism and negative affect moderated the associations of two measures of neighborhood characteristics (the national Area Deprivation Index (ADI) and perceived neighborhood problems) on incident hospitalized HF.

Results

Optimism moderated the association of the ADI with incident HF. Compared to participants reporting the lowest tertile of optimism, those in the highest tertile of optimism had a 29% lower rate of HF associated with increasing ADI in fully adjusted models. We found no evidence for a moderating effect of negative affect.

Conclusions

This study supports optimism as a source of resilience to the detrimental effects of neighborhood disadvantage on HF risk. Population-level strategies to promote sociocultural antecedents to optimism may serve as a viable method of reducing the disproportionate burden of HF among NH Black persons.

Protecting traditional cultural food practices: Trends in diet quality and intake of ultra-processed foods by Indigenous status and race/ethnicity among a nationally representative sample of adults in Canada

Background

The traditional cultural food practices of Indigenous people and adults from racial/ethnic minority groups may be eroded in the current food system where nutrient-poor and ultra-processed foods (UPF) are the most affordable and normative options, and where experiences of racism may promote unhealthy dietary patterns. We quantified absolute and relative gaps in diet quality and UPF intake of a nationally representative sample of adults in Canada by Indigenous status and race/ethnicity, and trends between 2004 and 2015.

Methods

Adults (≥18 years) in the Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition self-reported Indigenous status and race/ethnicity and completed a 24-h dietary recall in 2004 (n = 20,880) or 2015 (n = 13,970) to calculate Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015) scores from 0 to 100 and proportion of energy from UPF. Absolute and relative dietary gaps were quantified for Indigenous people and six racial/ethnic minority groups relative to White adults and trends between 2004 and 2015.

Results

Adults from all six racial/ethnic minority groups had higher mean HEI-2015 scores (58.7-61.9) than White (56.3) and Indigenous adults (51.9), and lower mean UPF intake (31.0%-41.0%) than White (45.9%) and Indigenous adults (51.9%) in 2015. As a result, absolute gaps in diet quality were positive and gaps in UPF intake were negative among racial/ethnic minority groups-indicating more favourable intakes-while the reverse was found among Indigenous adults. Relative dietary gaps were small. Absolute and relative dietary gaps remained largely stable.

Conclusions

Adults from six racial/ethnic minority groups had higher diet quality and lower UPF intake, whereas Indigenous adults had poorer diet quality and higher UPF intake compared to White adults between 2004 and 2015. Absolute and relative dietary gaps remained largely stable. Findings suggest racial/ethnic minority groups may have retained some healthful aspects of their traditional cultural food practices while highlighting persistent dietary inequities that affect Canada's Indigenous people.

Racial disparities between measures of area deprivation and financial toxicity, and uterine volume in myomectomy patients

BACKGROUND

At time of myomectomy, a surgical procedure to remove uterine fibroids, Black women tend to have larger uteri than White women. This makes Black patients less likely to undergo a minimally invasive myomectomy which has been shown to have less postoperative pain, less frequent postoperative fever and shorter length of stay compared to abdominal myomectomies. The associations between individual financial toxicity and community area deprivation and uterine volume at the time of myomectomy have not been investigated.

METHODS

We conducted a secondary data analysis of patients with fibroids scheduled for myomectomy using data from a fibroid treatment registry in [location]. We used validated measures of individual-level Financial Toxicity (higher scores = better financial status) and community-level Area Deprivation (ADI, high scores = worse deprivation). To examine associations with log transformed uterine volume, we used linear regression clustered on race (Black vs. White).

RESULTS

Black participants had worse financial toxicity, greater deprivation and larger uterine volumes compared with White participants. A greater Financial Toxicity score (better financial status) was associated with lower uterine volume. For every 10 unit increase in Financial Toxicity, the mean total uterine volume decreased by 9.95% (Confidence Interval [CI]: -9.95%, -3.99%). ADI was also associated with uterine volume. A single unit increase in ADI (worse deprivation) was associated with a 5.13% (CI: 2.02%, 7.25%) increase in mean uterine volume.

CONCLUSION

Disproportionately worse Financial Toxicity and ADI among Black patients is likely due to structural racism - which now must be considered in gynecologic research and practice.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Not applicable.

Instrumental Variable Analysis of Racial Discrimination and Blood Pressure in a Sample of Young Adults

Racial inequities in blood pressure levels have been extensively documented. Experiences of racial discrimination could explain some of this disparity, although findings from previous studies have been inconsistent. To address limitations of prior literature, including measurement error, we implemented instrumental variable analysis to assess the relationship between racial discrimination in institutional settings and blood pressure. Using data from 3,876 Black and White adults with an average age of 32 years from examination 4 (1992-1993) of the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study, our primary analysis examined the relationship between self-reported experiences of racial discrimination in institutional settings and blood pressure using reflectance meter measurement of skin color as an instrument. Findings suggested that an increase in experiences of racial discrimination was associated with higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure (β = 2.23 mm Hg (95% confidence interval: 1.85, 2.61) and β = 1.31 (95% confidence interval: 1.00, 1.62), respectively). Our instrumental variable estimates suggest that experiences of racial discrimination within institutional settings contribute to racial inequities in elevated blood pressure and cardiovascular disease outcomes in a relatively young cohort of adults and may yield clinically relevant differences in cardiovascular health over the life course.

Cardiovascular Outcomes of α-Blockers vs 5-α Reductase Inhibitors for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

Importance

The most prescribed class of medications for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is α-blockers (ABs). However, the cardiovascular safety profile of these medications among patients with BPH is not well understood.

Objective

To compare the safety of ABs vs 5-α reductase inhibitors (5-ARIs) for risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This active comparator, new-user cohort study was conducted using insurance claims data from a 20% random sample of Medicare beneficiaries from 2007 to 2019 to evaluate the 1-year risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Males aged 66 to 90 years were indexed into the cohort at new use of an AB or 5-ARI. Twelve months of continuous enrollment and at least 1 diagnosis code for BPH within 12 months prior to initiation were required. Data were analyzed from January 2007 through December 2019.

Exposures

Exposure was defined by a qualifying prescription fill for an AB or 5-ARI after at least 12 months without a prescription for these drug classes.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Follow-up began at a qualified refill for the study drug. Primary study outcomes were hospitalization for heart failure (HF), composite major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE; hospitalization for stroke, myocardial infarction, or death), composite MACE or hospitalization for HF, and death. Inverse probability of treatment and censoring-weighted 1-year risks, risk ratios (RRs), and risk differences (RDs) were estimated for each outcome.

Results

Among 189 868 older adult males, there were 163 829 patients initiating ABs (mean [SD] age, 74.6 [6.2] years; 579 American Indian or Alaska Native [0.4%], 5890 Asian or Pacific Islander [3.6%], 9179 Black [5.6%], 10 610 Hispanic [6.5%], and 133 510 non-Hispanic White [81.5%]) and 26 039 patients initiating 5-ARIs (mean [SD] age, 75.3 [6.4] years; 76 American Indian or Alaska Native [0.3%], 827 Asian or Pacific Islander [3.2%], 1339 Black [5.1%], 1656 Hispanic [6.4%], and 21 605 non-Hispanic White [83.0%]). ABs compared with 5-ARIs were associated with an increased 1-year risk of MACE (8.95% [95% CI, 8.81%-9.09%] vs 8.32% [95% CI, 7.92%-8.72%]; RR = 1.08 [95% CI, 1.02-1.13]; RD per 1000 individuals = 6.26 [95% CI, 2.15-10.37]), composite MACE and HF (RR = 1.07; [95% CI, 1.03-1.12]; RD per 1000 individuals = 7.40 [95% CI, 2.88-11.93 ]), and death (RR = 1.07; [95% CI, 1.01-1.14]; RD per 1000 individuals = 3.85 [95% CI, 0.40-7.29]). There was no difference in risk for HF hospitalization alone.

Conclusions and Relevance

These results suggest that ABs may be associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes compared with 5-ARIs. If replicated with more detailed confounder data, these results may have important public health implications given these medications' widespread use.

The Influence of Contested Racial Identity and Perceived Everyday Discrimination Exposure on Body Mass Index in US Adults

Contested racial identity-the discrepancy between one's self-identified race and socially assigned race-is a social determinant of health and may contribute to overweight and obesity. Obesity is associated with a host of short- and long-term health conditions, including cardiovascular disease, a leading cause of death. Individuals racialized as Black, Hispanic, and Latino are at the greatest risk of obesity. Previous research indicates that experiencing interpersonal discrimination is associated with higher body mass index (BMI) in adults, and individuals with a contested racial identity are disproportionately exposed to interpersonal discrimination. However, the association between BMI and contested racial identity is unknown. This cross-sectional study measured the relationship between contested racial identity and perceived everyday discrimination on BMI in a nationally representative sample of US adults. Contested racial identity was measured with a binary variable indicating agreement between participants' self-identified race and socially assigned race. Weighted unadjusted and adjusted multiple linear regression models quantified the associations between BMI and contested racial identity with and without the mean discrimination score. Covariates included nativity status, income, education, racial identity salience, gender, and age. Among 1689 participants, 18.3% had a contested racial identity. Contested identity was associated with significantly higher BMI (β = 1.01, 95% CI = 0.06, 1.92), but the relationship was attenuated when adjusting for interpersonal discrimination, suggesting that individuals with contested identity may face a greater risk of obesity due to their disproportionately high exposure to interpersonal racial discrimination. Further research is needed to elucidate the impact of racism on BMI and obesity risk.

Evaluating Neighborhood-Level Differences in Hair Product Safety by Environmental Working Group Ratings among Retailers in Boston, Massachusetts

BACKGROUND

Personal care products are a notable source of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Racial/ethnic differences in the use of hair products containing EDCs are reported, with women and children of color more commonly using hair products that are hormonally active and contain EDCs than other racial/ethnic groups. There is limited research examining the neighborhood-level social and economic factors that may contribute to these reported disparities.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to examine the safety of hair products across sociodemographically diverse neighborhoods in Boston, Massachusetts.

METHODS

Eight neighborhoods were identified based on indicators of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES). We randomly selected 50 stores and collected data on the hair products for sale and their corresponding Environmental Working Group (EWG) Skin Deep hazard score. The association between neighborhood and EWG hazard category (low, moderate, high) was examined using a multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 14,019 hair products were identified in the eight neighborhoods. When considering products with EWG hazard scores, Roxbury, a lower income community of color, and Mission Hill, a lower income community, were reported to have a higher percentage of high-hazard hair products in comparison with Beacon Hill [12.2% (163/1,332), 11.4% (65/571) vs. 7.9% (30/382), respectively]. Differences between the safety of hair products were observed, with Roxbury and Mission Hill reporting more than a 2-fold higher risk ratio (RR) of finding hair products with high vs. low EWG scores in comparison with that of Beacon Hill [RR for Roxbury: 2.3, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1, 4.6; RR for Mission Hill: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.0, 5.4]. Other neighborhoods were also observed to have an increased RR in comparison with Beacon Hill, however, with 95% CIs that extended beyond the null.

DISCUSSION

Retail stores in neighborhoods with a higher percentage of residents of color and lower SES were found to be more likely to sell products with high hazard scores than stores in a higher SES and predominately non-Hispanic White neighborhood. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10653.

Associations of U.S. state-level COVID-19 policies intensity with cannabis sharing behaviors in 2020

Background

Cannabis use before the COVID-19 pandemic for many involved sharing prepared cannabis for inhalation, practices that were less prevalent during the pandemic. State-level COVID-19 containment policies may have influenced this decrease. This study examined the extent to which the intensity of state-level COVID-19 policies were associated with individual-level cannabis sharing. Findings have the potential to guide harm reduction policies for future respiratory pandemics and seasonal respiratory virus waves.

Methods

This study used cross-sectional individual-level data from the COVID-19 Cannabis Study, an anonymous U.S.-based web survey on cannabis use disseminated during the early phase of the pandemic (Full sample N = 1,883). We combined individual-level data with state-level policy data from Kaiser Family Foundation's State COVID-19 Data and Policy Actions for three time-points from June to August 2020 that overlapped with the survey period. Cannabis sharing was dichotomized as any versus no sharing. We adapted a previously published coding framework to score the intensity of COVID-19 policies implemented in each U.S. state and averaged the policy score across the time period. We then used logistic regression models to quantify the associations of the average state-level COVID-19 policy score with cannabis sharing during the pandemic.

Results

Participants (n = 975) reporting using inhalation as a mode for cannabis use were included in this analysis. Most respondents were male (64.1%), non-Hispanic White (54.3%), with a mean age of 33.7 years (SD 8.8). A large proportion (75.1%) reported sharing cannabis during the pandemic. Those who shared cannabis more commonly lived in states with a lower average policy score (15.3, IQR 11.3-19.0) compared to those who did not share (16.3, IQR 13.7-22.7). In adjusted models, the odds of any cannabis sharing per every 5-unit increase in the average COVID-19 policy score were 0.78 (95% CI 0.58, 1.04).

Conclusions

Fewer individuals shared cannabis in states with more intense COVID-19 containment policies compared to those in states with less intense policies. Individuals who use cannabis may be willing to make changes to their behavior and may further benefit from specific and directed public health messaging to avoid sharing during respiratory infection outbreaks.

Neighborhood Disadvantage, African Genetic Ancestry, Cancer Subtype, and Mortality Among Breast Cancer Survivors

Importance

Racial disparities in breast cancer (BC) survival arise from multilevel causes, which may exert influence at different stages of BC progression. Clarifying the importance of genetic and social factors could help prioritize interventions.

Objective

To jointly examine associations between African genetic ancestry, social environment, and mortality from any cause and BC in Black BC survivors.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This population-based cohort study enrolled self-identified Black women aged 20 to 75 years with histologically confirmed BC from June 2005 to May 2019 and followed them up until death or censoring in September 2021. Participants lived in 10 New Jersey counties. Data were analyzed between December 2022 and April 2023.

Exposures

A neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES) index composed of census tract measures (education, income, wealth, employment status, and occupation) was linked to residential addresses at diagnosis. Percentage African ancestry was estimated using the ADMIXTURE program.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Sequentially adjusted (age adjusted: age and interview year; fully adjusted: age adjusted with individual SES, lifestyle factors, and comorbidities) logistic regression models were fit to estimate associations with tumor subtypes (estrogen receptor-negative [ER-] vs estrogen receptor-positive [ER+]; triple-negative breast cancer [TNBC] vs luminal A), and Cox models were fit for associations with all-cause mortality (ACM) and breast cancer-specific mortality (BCSM). Models for BCSM were fit using Fine-Gray competing risks models, and robust standard errors were used to account for census tract-level clustering.

Results

Among 1575 participants, median (IQR) African ancestry was 85% (76%-90%), and median (IQR) age was 55 (46-63) years. A 10-percentage point increase in African ancestry was associated with higher odds of ER- vs ER+ (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.08; 95% CI, 0.98-1.18) and TNBC vs luminal (aOR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.02-1.31) tumors, but not with ACM or BCSM. A 1-IQR increase in nSES was associated with lower ACM (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 0.76; 95% CI, 0.63-0.93), and the HR for BCSM was less than 1 but not statistically significant (aHR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.62-1.04) in age-adjusted models, but associations attenuated following further adjustment for potential mediators (individual SES, lifestyles, comorbidities).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of Black female BC survivors, higher African ancestry was associated with aggressive tumor subtypes. Compared with genetic ancestry, mediating pathways related to social environments may be more important for survival in these patients.

Because its power remains naturalized: introducing the settler colonial determinants of health

Indigenous people suffer earlier death and more frequent and severe disease than their settler counterparts, a remarkably persistent reality over time, across settler colonized geographies, and despite their ongoing resistance to elimination. Although these health inequities are well-known, they have been impervious to comprehensive and convincing explication, let alone remediation. Settler colonial studies, a fast-growing multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary field, is a promising candidate to rectify this impasse. Settler colonialism's relationship to health inequity is at once obvious and incompletely described, a paradox arising from epistemic coloniality and perceived analytic challenges that we address here in three parts. First, in considering settler colonialism an enduring structure rather than a past event, and by wedding this fundamental insight to the ascendant structural paradigm for understanding health inequities, a picture emerges in which this system of power serves as a foundational and ongoing configuration determining social and political mechanisms that impose on human health. Second, because modern racialization has served to solidify and maintain the hierarchies of colonial relations, settler colonialism adds explanatory power to racism's health impacts and potential amelioration by historicizing this process for differentially racialized groups. Finally, advances in structural racism methodologies and the work of a few visionary scholars have already begun to elucidate the possibilities for a body of literature linking settler colonialism and health, illuminating future research opportunities and pathways toward the decolonization required for health equity.

Disparities in diabetes prevalence and management by race and ethnicity in the USA: defining a path forward

Type 2 diabetes disparities in the USA persist in both the prevalence of disease and diabetes-related complications. We conducted a literature review related to diabetes prevention, management, and complications across racial and ethnic groups in the USA. The objective of this review is to summarise the current understanding of diabetes disparities by examining differences between and within racial and ethnic groups and among young people (aged <18 years). We also examine the pathophysiology of diabetes as it relates to race and ethnic differences. We use a conceptual framework built on the socioecological model to categorise the causes of diabetes disparities across the lifespan looking at factors in five domains of health behaviours and social norms, public awareness, structural racism, economic development, and access to high-quality care. The range of disparities in diabetes prevalence and management in the USA calls for a community-engaged and multidisciplinary approach that must involve community partners, researchers, practitioners, health system administrators, and policy makers. We offer recommendations for each of these groups to help to promote equity in diabetes prevention and care in the USA.

The Mediating Role of Systemic Inflammation and Moderating Role of Race/Ethnicity in Racialized Disparities in Incident Dementia: A Decomposition Analysis

Background

Exposure to systemic racism is linked to increased dementia burden. To assess systemic inflammation as a potential pathway linking exposure to racism and dementia disparities, we investigated the mediating role of C-reactive protein (CRP), a systemic inflammation marker, and the moderating role of race/ethnicity on racialized disparities in incident dementia.

Methods

In the US Health and Retirement Study (n=5,143), serum CRP was measured at baseline (2006, 2008 waves). Incident dementia was classified by cognitive tests over a six-year follow-up. Self-reported racialized categories were a proxy for exposure to the racialization process. We decomposed racialized disparities in dementia incidence (non-Hispanic Black and/or Hispanic vs. non-Hispanic White) into 1) the mediated effect of CRP, 2) the moderated portion attributable to the interaction between racialized group membership and CRP, and 3) the controlled direct effect (other pathways through which racism operates).

Results

The 6-year cumulative incidence of dementia was 15.5%. Among minoritized participants (i.e., non-Hispanic Black and/or Hispanic), high CRP levels (> 75th percentile or 4.57mcg/mL) was associated with 1.27 (95%CI: 1.01,1.59) times greater risk of incident dementia than low CRP (<4.57mcg/mL). Decomposition analysis comparing minoritized versus non-Hispanic White participants showed that the mediating effect of CRP accounted for 2% (95% CI: 0%, 6%) of the racial disparity, while the interaction effect between minoritized group status and high CRP accounted for 12% (95% CI: 2%, 22%) of the disparity. Findings were robust to potential violations of causal mediation assumptions.

Conclusions

Systemic inflammation mediates racialized disparities in incident dementia.

The Mediating Role of Systemic Inflammation and Moderating Role of Race/Ethnicity in Racialized Disparities in Incident Dementia: A Decomposition Analysis

Background

Exposure to systemic racism is linked to increased dementia burden. To assess systemic inflammation as a potential pathway linking exposure to racism and dementia disparities, we investigated the mediating role of C-reactive protein (CRP), a systemic inflammation marker, and the moderating role of race/ethnicity on racialized disparities in incident dementia.

Methods

In the US Health and Retirement Study (n=5,143), serum CRP was measured at baseline (2006, 2008 waves). Incident dementia was classified by cognitive tests over a six-year follow-up. Self-reported racialized categories were a proxy for exposure to the racialization process. We decomposed racialized disparities in dementia incidence (non-Hispanic Black and/or Hispanic vs. non-Hispanic White) into 1) the mediated effect of CRP, 2) the moderated portion attributable to the interaction between racialized group membership and CRP, and 3) the controlled direct effect (other pathways through which racism operates).

Results

The 6-year cumulative incidence of dementia was 15.5%. Among minoritized participants (i.e., non-Hispanic Black and/or Hispanic), high CRP levels (> 75th percentile or 4.57μg/mL) was associated with 1.27 (95%CI: 1.01,1.59) times greater risk of incident dementia than low CRP (≤4.57μg/mL). Decomposition analysis comparing minoritized versus non-Hispanic White participants showed that the mediating effect of CRP accounted for 2% (95% CI: 0%, 6%) of the racial disparity, while the interaction effect between minoritized group status and high CRP accounted for 12% (95% CI: 2%, 22%) of the disparity. Findings were robust to potential violations of causal mediation assumptions.

Conclusions

Systemic inflammation mediates racialized disparities in incident dementia.

Geographic Variation in Influenza Vaccination Disparities Between Hispanic and Non-Hispanic White US Nursing Home Residents

BACKGROUND

Disparities in influenza vaccination exist between Hispanic and non-Hispanic White US nursing home (NH) residents, but the geographic areas with the largest disparities remain unknown. We examined how these racial/ethnic disparities differ across states and hospital referral regions (HRRs).

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included >14 million short-stay and long-stay US NH resident-seasons over 7 influenza seasons from October 1, 2011, to March 31, 2018, where residents could contribute to 1 or more seasons. Residents were aged ≥65 years and enrolled in Medicare fee-for-service. We used the Medicare Beneficiary Summary File to ascertain race/ethnicity and Minimum Data Set assessments for influenza vaccination. We calculated age- and sex-standardized percentage point (pp) differences in the proportions vaccinated between non-Hispanic White and Hispanic (any race) resident-seasons. Positive pp differences were considered disparities, where the proportion of non-Hispanic White residents vaccinated was greater than the proportion of Hispanic residents vaccinated. States and HRRs with ≥100 resident-seasons per age-sex stratum per racial/ethnic group were included in analyses.

RESULTS

Among 7 442 241 short-stay resident-seasons (94.1% non-Hispanic White, 5.9% Hispanic), the median standardized disparities in influenza vaccination were 4.3 pp (minimum, maximum: 0.3, 19.2; n = 22 states) and 2.8 pp (minimum, maximum: -3.6, 10.3; n = 49 HRRs). Among 6 758 616 long-stay resident-seasons (93.7% non-Hispanic White, 6.5% Hispanic), the median standardized differences were -0.1 pp (minimum, maximum: -4.1, 11.4; n = 18 states) and -1.8 pp (minimum, maximum: -6.5, 7.6; n = 34 HRRs).

CONCLUSIONS

Wide geographic variation in influenza vaccination disparities existed across US states and HRRs. Localized interventions targeted toward areas with high disparities may be a more effective strategy to promote health equity than one-size-fits-all national interventions.