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Martinez MX, Alizo Vera V, Ruiz CM, Floresco SB, Mahler SV. Adolescent THC impacts on mPFC dopamine-mediated cognitive processes in male and female rats. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.12.588937. [PMID: 38826339 PMCID: PMC11142049 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.12.588937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Rationale Adolescent cannabis use is linked to later-life changes in cognition, learning, and memory. Rodent experimental studies suggest Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) influences development of circuits underlying these processes, especially in the prefrontal cortex, which matures during adolescence. Objective We determined how 14 daily THC injections (5mg/kg) during adolescence persistently impacts medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) dopamine-dependent cognition. Methods In adult Long Evans rats treated as adolescents with THC (AdoTHC), we quantify performance on two mPFC dopamine-dependent reward-based tasks-strategy set shifting and probabilistic discounting. We also determined how acute dopamine augmentation with amphetamine (0, 0.25, 0.5 mg/kg), or specific chemogenetic stimulation of ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine neurons and their projections to mPFC impacts probabilistic discounting. Results AdoTHC sex-dependently impacts acquisition of cue-guided instrumental reward seeking, but has minimal effects on set-shifting or probabilistic discounting in either sex. When we challenged dopamine circuits acutely with amphetamine during probabilistic discounting, we found reduced discounting of improbable reward options, with AdoTHC rats being more sensitive to these effects than controls. In contrast, neither acute chemogenetic stimulation of VTA dopamine neurons nor pathway-specific chemogenetic stimulation of their projection to mPFC impacted probabilistic discounting in control rats, although stimulation of this cortical dopamine projection slightly disrupted choices in AdoTHC rats. Conclusions These studies confirm a marked specificity in the cognitive processes impacted by AdoTHC exposure. They also suggest that some persistent AdoTHC effects may alter amphetamine-induced cognitive changes in a manner independent of VTA dopamine projections to mPFC, or via alterations of non-VTA dopamine neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maricela X. Martinez
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine. 1203 McGaugh Hall. Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Vanessa Alizo Vera
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine. 1203 McGaugh Hall. Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Christina M Ruiz
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine. 1203 McGaugh Hall. Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Stan B Floresco
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Stephen V Mahler
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine. 1203 McGaugh Hall. Irvine, CA 92697
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English A, Uittenbogaard F, Torrens A, Sarroza D, Slaven AVE, Piomelli D, Bruchas MR, Stella N, Land BB. A preclinical model of THC edibles that produces high-dose cannabimimetic responses. eLife 2024; 12:RP89867. [PMID: 38214701 PMCID: PMC10945583 DOI: 10.7554/elife.89867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024] Open
Abstract
No preclinical experimental approach enables the study of voluntary oral consumption of high-concentration Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its intoxicating effects, mainly owing to the aversive response of rodents to THC that limits intake. Here, we developed a palatable THC formulation and an optimized access paradigm in mice to drive voluntary consumption. THC was formulated in chocolate gelatin (THC-E-gel). Adult male and female mice were allowed ad libitum access for 1 and 2 hr. Cannabimimetic responses (hypolocomotion, analgesia, and hypothermia) were measured following access. Levels of THC and its metabolites were measured in blood and brain tissue. Acute acoustic startle responses were measured to investigate THC-induced psychotomimetic behavior. When allowed access for 2 hr to THC-E-gel on the second day of a 3-day exposure paradigm, adult mice consumed up to ≈30 mg/kg over 2 hr, which resulted in robust cannabimimetic behavioral responses (hypolocomotion, analgesia, and hypothermia). Consumption of the same gelatin decreased on the following third day of exposure. Pharmacokinetic analysis shows that THC-E-gel consumption led to parallel accumulation of THC and its psychoactive metabolite, 11-OH-THC, in the brain, a profile that contrasts with the known rapid decline in brain 11-OH-THC levels following THC intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections. THC-E-gel consumption increased the acoustic startle response in males but not in females, demonstrating a sex-dependent effect of consumption. Thus, while voluntary consumption of THC-E-gel triggered equivalent cannabimimetic responses in male and female mice, it potentiated acoustic startle responses preferentially in males. We built a dose-prediction model that included cannabimimetic behavioral responses elicited by i.p. versus THC-E-gel to test the accuracy and generalizability of this experimental approach and found that it closely predicted the measured acoustic startle results in males and females. In summary, THC-E-gel offers a robust preclinical experimental approach to study cannabimimetic responses triggered by voluntary consumption in mice, including sex-dependent psychotomimetic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony English
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- UW Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- Center for Cannabis Research, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Fleur Uittenbogaard
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- UW Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- Center for Cannabis Research, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Alexa Torrens
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of California IrvineIrvineUnited States
| | - Dennis Sarroza
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Anna Veronica Elizabeth Slaven
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- UW Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Daniele Piomelli
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of California IrvineIrvineUnited States
| | - Michael R Bruchas
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- UW Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- Center for Cannabis Research, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of California IrvineIrvineUnited States
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Nephi Stella
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- UW Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- Center for Cannabis Research, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Benjamin Bruce Land
- Departments of Pharmacology, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- UW Center of Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion (NAPE), University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
- Center for Cannabis Research, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
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3
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Woodcock EA, Greenwald MK, Chen I, Feng D, Cohn JA, Lundahl LH. HIV chronicity as a predictor of hippocampal memory deficits in daily cannabis users living with HIV. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE REPORTS 2023; 9:100189. [PMID: 37736522 PMCID: PMC10509297 DOI: 10.1016/j.dadr.2023.100189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Background Antiretroviral medications have increased the lifespan of persons living with HIV (PLWH) thereby unmasking memory decline that may be attributed to chronological age, HIV symptomatology, HIV disease chronicity, and/or substance use (especially cannabis use which is common among PLWH). To date, few studies have attempted to disentangle these effects. In a sample of daily cannabis-using PLWH, we investigated whether hippocampal memory function, assessed via an object-location associative learning task, was associated with age, HIV chronicity and symptom severity, or substance use. Methods 48 PLWH (12.9 ± 9.6 years since HIV diagnosis), who were 44 years old on average (range: 24-64 years; 58 % male) and reported daily cannabis use (recent use confirmed by urinalysis) completed the study. We assessed each participant's demographics, substance use, medical history, current HIV symptoms, and hippocampal memory function via a well-validated object-location associative learning task. Results Multiple regression analyses found that living more years since HIV+ diagnosis predicted significantly worse associative learning total score (r=-0.40) and learning rate (r=-0.34) whereas chronological age, cannabis-use characteristics, and recent HIV symptom severity were not significantly related to hippocampal memory function. Conclusions In daily cannabis-using PLWH, HIV chronicity was related to worse hippocampal memory function independent from cannabis use, age, and HIV symptomatology. Object-location associative learning performance could serve as an 'early-warning' metric of cognitive decline among PLWH. Future research should examine longitudinal changes in associative learning proficiency and evaluate interventions to prevent hippocampal memory decline among PLWH. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01536899.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A. Woodcock
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI USA
| | - Mark K. Greenwald
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI USA
| | - Irene Chen
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI USA
| | - Danni Feng
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI USA
| | - Jonathan A. Cohn
- Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI USA
| | - Leslie H. Lundahl
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI USA
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Carrica LK, Choi CY, Walter FA, Noonan BL, Shi L, Johnson CT, Bradshaw HB, Liang NC, Gulley JM. Effects of combined use of alcohol and delta-9-tetrahydrocannibinol on working memory in Long Evans rats. Behav Brain Res 2023; 449:114475. [PMID: 37146720 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The increase in social acceptance and legalization of cannabis over the last several years is likely to increase the prevalence of its co-use with alcohol. In spite of this, the potential for effects unique to co-use of these drugs, especially in moderate doses, has been studied relatively infrequently. We addressed this in the current study using a laboratory rat model of voluntary drug intake. Periadolescent male and female Long-Evans rats were allowed to orally self-administer ethanol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannibinol (THC), both drugs, or their vehicle controls from postnatal day (P) 30 to P47. They were subsequently trained and tested on an instrumental behavior task that assesses attention, working memory and behavioral flexibility. Similar to previous work, consumption of THC reduced both ethanol and saccharin intake in both sexes. Blood samples taken 14h following the final self-administration session revealed that females had higher levels of the THC metabolite THC-COOH. There were modest effects of THC on our delayed matching to position (DMTP) task, with females exhibiting reduced performance compared to their control group or male, drug using counterparts. However, there were no significant effects of co-use of ethanol or THC on DMTP performance, and drug effects were also not apparent in the reversal learning phase of the task when non-matching to position was required as the correct response. These findings are consistent with other published studies in rodent models showing that use of these drugs in low to moderate doses does not significantly impact memory or behavioral flexibility following a protracted abstinence period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren K Carrica
- Department of Psychology, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Chan Young Choi
- Department of Psychology, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Francis A Walter
- Neuroscience Program and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Brynn L Noonan
- Department of Psychology, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Linyuan Shi
- Department of Psychology, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Clare T Johnson
- Department of Psychological & Brain Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Heather B Bradshaw
- Department of Psychological & Brain Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Nu-Chu Liang
- Department of Psychology, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Neuroscience Program and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Joshua M Gulley
- Department of Psychology, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Neuroscience Program and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
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Stella N. THC and CBD: Similarities and differences between siblings. Neuron 2023; 111:302-327. [PMID: 36638804 PMCID: PMC9898277 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its sibling, cannabidiol (CBD), are produced by the same Cannabis plant and have similar chemical structures but differ dramatically in their mechanisms of action and effects on brain functions. Both THC and CBD exhibit promising therapeutic properties; however, impairments and increased incidence of mental health diseases are associated with acute and chronic THC use, respectively, and significant side effects are associated with chronic use of high-dose CBD. This review covers recent molecular and preclinical discoveries concerning the distinct mechanisms of action and bioactivities of THC and CBD and their impact on human behavior and diseases. These discoveries provide a foundation for the development of cannabinoid-based therapeutics for multiple devastating diseases and to assure their safe use in the growing legal market of Cannabis-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nephi Stella
- Department of Pharmacology, Department Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Cannabis Research, Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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6
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Kayir H, Ruffolo J, McCunn P, Khokhar JY. The Relationship Between Cannabis, Cognition, and Schizophrenia: It's Complicated. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 63:437-461. [PMID: 36318403 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The consequences of cannabis use, especially in the context of schizophrenia, have gained increased importance with the legalization of cannabis in North America and across the globe. Cannabis use has multifaceted impacts on cognition in schizophrenia patients and healthy subjects. Healthy subjects, particularly those who initiated cannabis use at earlier ages and used high-potency cannabis for longer durations, exhibited poorer cognition mainly in working memory and attention. Cannabis use in schizophrenia has been associated with symptom exacerbation, longer and more frequent psychotic episodes, and poorer treatment outcomes. However, cannabis-using patients have better overall cognitive performance compared to patients who were not cannabis users. Interestingly, these effects were only apparent in lifetime cannabis users, but not in current (or within last 6 months) users. Moreover, higher frequency and earlier age of cannabis use initiation (i.e., before 17 years of age) were associated with better cognitive performance, although they had an earlier illness onset. Three possible hypotheses seem to come forward to explain this paradox. First, some components of cannabis may have antipsychotic or cognitive-enhancing properties. Secondly, chronic cannabis use may alter endocannabinoid signaling in the brain which could be a protective factor for developing psychosis or cognitive impairments. A third explanation could be their representation of a phenotypically distinct patient group with more intact cognitive functioning and less neurodevelopmental pathology. Multiple factors need to be considered to understand the complex relationship between cannabis, cognitive function, and schizophrenia. In short, age at initiation, duration and rate of cannabis use, abstinence duration, co-use of substances and alcohol, prescribed medications, relative cannabinoid composition and potency of cannabis, presence of genetic and environmental vulnerability factors are prominent contributors to the variability in outcomes. Animal studies support the disruptive effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) administration during adolescence on attention and memory performance. They provide insights about interaction of cannabinoid receptors with other neurotransmitter systems, such as GABA and glutamate, and other regulatory molecules, such as PSD95 and synaptophysin. Cannabidiol (CBD), on the other hand, can improve cognitive deficits seen in neurodevelopmental and chemically-induced animal models of schizophrenia. Future studies focusing on bridging the translational gaps between human and animal studies, through the use of translationally relevant methods of exposure (e.g., vaping), consistent behavioral assessments, and congruent circuit interrogations (e.g., imaging) will help to further clarify this complex picture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakan Kayir
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Jessica Ruffolo
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Patrick McCunn
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Jibran Y Khokhar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
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7
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Banks PJ, Bennett PJ, Sekuler AB, Gruber AJ. Cannabis use is associated with sexually dimorphic changes in executive control of visuospatial decision-making. Front Integr Neurosci 2022; 16:884080. [PMID: 36081608 PMCID: PMC9445243 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2022.884080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
When the outcome of a choice is less favorable than expected, humans and animals typically shift to an alternate choice option on subsequent trials. Several lines of evidence indicate that this “lose-shift” responding is an innate sensorimotor response strategy that is normally suppressed by executive function. Therefore, the lose-shift response provides a covert gauge of cognitive control over choice mechanisms. We report here that the spatial position, rather than visual features, of choice targets drives the lose-shift effect. Furthermore, the ability to inhibit lose-shift responding to gain reward is different among male and female habitual cannabis users. Increased self-reported cannabis use was concordant with suppressed response flexibility and an increased tendency to lose-shift in women, which reduced performance in a choice task in which random responding is the optimal strategy. On the other hand, increased cannabis use in men was concordant with reduced reliance on spatial cues during decision-making, and had no impact on the number of correct responses. These data (63,600 trials from 106 participants) provide strong evidence that spatial-motor processing is an important component of economic decision-making, and that its governance by executive systems is different in men and women who use cannabis frequently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parker J. Banks
- Vision and Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Patrick J. Bennett
- Vision and Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Allison B. Sekuler
- Vision and Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care, North York, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Aaron J. Gruber
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
- *Correspondence: Aaron J. Gruber
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8
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Murray CH, Huang Z, Lee R, de Wit H. Adolescents are more sensitive than adults to acute behavioral and cognitive effects of THC. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:1331-1338. [PMID: 35110688 PMCID: PMC9117219 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01281-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Increased cannabis availability has contributed to increased use with concomitant incidence of adverse effects. One risk factor for adverse drug reactions may be age. There is preclinical evidence that acute effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary active constituent of cannabis, are greater during adolescence, but this has not been fully studied in humans. The present study sought to determine whether adolescent men and women are more sensitive than adults to acute THC. Adolescents aged 18-20 (N = 12) and adults aged 30-40 (N = 12), with less than 20 total lifetime uses of THC-containing products, received capsules of THC (7.5, 15 mg) and placebo across three study sessions in randomized order under double blind conditions. During each session, subjective, cardiovascular, behavioral, and EEG measures were obtained. Behavioral measures included Simple Reaction Time, Stop Task, Time Production and N-back and EEG measures included P300 amplitudes during an auditory oddball task and eyes-closed resting state. THC affected subjective state and heart rate similarly in both age groups. However, adolescents were more sensitive to performance impairing effects, exhibiting dose-dependent impairments on reaction time, response accuracy, and time perception. On EEG measures, THC dose-dependently decreased P300 amplitude in adolescents but not adults. Adolescents were more sensitive to behavioral and cognitive effects of THC, but not to cardiovascular effects or subjective measures. Thus, at doses that produce comparable ratings of intoxication, adolescents may exhibit greater cognitive impairment and alterations in brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor H. Murray
- grid.170205.10000 0004 1936 7822Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, 5841 S Maryland Ave, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
| | - Zhengyi Huang
- grid.170205.10000 0004 1936 7822Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, 5841 S Maryland Ave, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
| | - Royce Lee
- grid.170205.10000 0004 1936 7822Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, 5841 S Maryland Ave, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
| | - Harriet de Wit
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, 5841 S Maryland Ave, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA.
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Simone JJ, Green MR, McCormick CM. Endocannabinoid system contributions to sex-specific adolescent neurodevelopment. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2022; 113:110438. [PMID: 34534603 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
With an increasing number of countries and states adopting legislation permitting the use of cannabis for medical purposes, there is a growing interest among health and research professionals into the system through which cannabinoids principally act, the endocannabinoid system (ECS). Much of the seminal research into the ECS dates back only 30 years and, although there has been tremendous development within the field during this time, many questions remain. More recently, investigations have emerged examining the contributions of the ECS to normative development and the effect of altering this system during important critical periods. One such period is adolescence, a unique period during which brain and behaviours are maturing and reorganizing in preparation for adulthood, including shifts in endocannabinoid biology. The purpose of this review is to discuss findings to date regarding the maturation of the ECS during adolescence and the consequences of manipulations of the ECS during this period to normative neurodevelopmental processes, as well as highlight sex differences in ECS function, important technical considerations, and future directions. Because most of what we know is derived from preclinical studies on rodents, we provide relevant background of this model and some commentary on the translational relevance of the research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Simone
- Department of Biological Sciences, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Centre for Neuroscience, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Huxley Health Inc., 8820 Jane St., Concord, ON, L4K 2M9, Canada; eCB Consulting Inc., PO Box 652, 3 Cameron St. W., Cannington, ON L0E 1E0, Canada; Medical Cannabis Canada, 601-3500 Lakeshore Rd. W., Oakville, ON L6L 0B4, Canada.
| | - Matthew R Green
- eCB Consulting Inc., PO Box 652, 3 Cameron St. W., Cannington, ON L0E 1E0, Canada; Medical Cannabis Canada, 601-3500 Lakeshore Rd. W., Oakville, ON L6L 0B4, Canada.
| | - Cheryl M McCormick
- Department of Biological Sciences, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Centre for Neuroscience, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Department of Psychology, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada.
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10
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Fearby N, Penman S, Thanos P. Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannibinol (THC) on Obesity at Different Stages of Life: A Literature Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19063174. [PMID: 35328862 PMCID: PMC8951828 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19063174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The Cannabis sativa plant has historically been used for both recreational and medical purposes. With the recent surge in recreational use of cannabis among adolescents and adults in particular, there is an increased obligation to determine the short- and long-term effects that consuming this plant may have on several aspects of the human psyche and body. The goal of this article was to examine the negative effects of obesity, and how the use of Δ9-tetrahydrocannibinol (THC) or cannabidiol (CBD) can impact rates of this global pandemic at different timepoints of life. Conflicting studies have been reported between adult and adolescents, as there are reports of THC use leading to increased weight due to elevated appetite and consumption of food, while others observed a decrease in overall body weight due to the regulation of omega-6/omega-3 endocannabinoid precursors and a decrease in energy expenditure. Studies supported a positive correlation between prenatal cannabis use and obesity rates in the children as they matured. The data did not indicate a direct connection between prenatal THC levels in cannabis and obesity rates, but that this development may occur due to prenatal THC consumption leading to low birthweight, and subsequent obesity. There are few studies using animal models that directly measure the effects that prenatal THC administration on obesity risks among offspring. Thus, this is a critical area for future studies using a developmental framework to examine potential changes in risk across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Fearby
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
| | - Samantha Penman
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
| | - Panayotis Thanos
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(716)-881-7520
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Kohut SJ, Cao L, Mintzopolous D, Jiang S, Nikas SP, Makriyannis A, Zou CS, Jensen JE, Frederick BB, Bergman J, Kangas BD. Effects of cannabinoid exposure on short-term memory and medial orbitofrontal cortex function and chemistry in adolescent female rhesus macaques. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:998351. [PMID: 36248648 PMCID: PMC9561444 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.998351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim There is increasing concern that cannabinoid exposure during adolescence may disturb brain maturation and produce long-term cognitive deficits. However, studies in human subjects have provided limited evidence for such causality. The present study utilized behavioral and neuroimaging endpoints in female non-human primates to examine the effects of acute and chronic exposure during adolescence to the cannabinoid receptor full agonist, AM2389, on cognitive processing and brain function and chemistry. Materials and methods Adolescent female rhesus macaques were trained on a titrating-delay matching-to-sample (TDMTS) touchscreen task that assays working memory. TDMTS performance was assessed before and during chronic exposure to AM2389, following antagonist (rimonabant) administration, and after discontinuation of the chronic regimen. Resting-state fMRI connectivity and magnetic resonance spectroscopy data were acquired prior to drug treatment, during chronic exposure, and following its discontinuation. Voxels were placed in the medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC), a region involved in memory processing that undergoes maturation during adolescence. Results TDMTS performance was dose-dependently disrupted by acute AM2389; however, chronic treatment resulted in tolerance to these effects. TDMTS performance also was disrupted by discontinuation of the chronic regimen but surprisingly, not by rimonabant administration during chronic AM2389 treatment. mOFC N-acetylaspartate/creatine ratio decreased after acute and chronic administration but returned to baseline values following discontinuation of chronic treatment. Finally, intra-network functional connectivity (mOFC) increased during the chronic regimen and returned to baseline values following its discontinuation. Conclusion Neural effects of a cannabinergic drug may persist during chronic exposure, notwithstanding the development of tolerance to behavioral effects. However, such effects dissipate upon discontinuation, reflecting the restorative capacity of affected brain processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J. Kohut
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Stephen J. Kohut,
| | - Lei Cao
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
| | - Dionyssios Mintzopolous
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
| | - Shan Jiang
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Spyros P. Nikas
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Chun S. Zou
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
| | - J. Eric Jensen
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
| | - Blaise B. Frederick
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
| | - Jack Bergman
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
| | - Brian D. Kangas
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
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12
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Stollenwerk TM, Hillard CJ. Adolescent THC Treatment Does Not Potentiate the Behavioral Effects in Adulthood of Maternal Immune Activation. Cells 2021; 10:3503. [PMID: 34944011 PMCID: PMC8700174 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Both in utero exposure to maternal immune activation and cannabis use during adolescence have been associated with increased risk for the development of schizophrenia; however, whether these exposures exert synergistic effects on brain function is not known. In the present study, mild maternal immune activation (MIA) was elicited in mice with prenatal exposure to polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), and ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was provided throughout adolescence in cereal (3 mg/kg/day for 5 days). Neither THC nor MIA pretreatments altered activity in assays used to characterize hyperdopaminergic states in adulthood: amphetamine hyperlocomotion and prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex. Adolescent THC treatment elicited deficits in spatial memory and enhanced spatial reversal learning in adult female mice in the Morris water maze, while exposure to MIA elicited female-specific deficits in fear extinction learning in adulthood. There were no effects in these assays in adult males, nor were there interactions between THC and MIA in adult females. While doses of poly(I:C) and THC were sufficient to elicit behavioral effects, particularly relating to cognitive performance in females, there was no evidence that adolescent THC exposure synergized with the risk imposed by MIA to worsen behavioral outcomes in adult mice of either sex.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cecilia J. Hillard
- Neuroscience Research Center, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Wauwatosa, WI 53226, USA;
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13
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Chahkandi M, Sepehri G, Komeili G, Hadad MK, Haghparast E, Chahkandi M. The different role of G-protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30) in the interaction effects of marijuana and estradiol on spatial learning and memory at different ages. Brain Res Bull 2021; 178:155-163. [PMID: 34800583 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Some studies suggest that the effect of cannabis on behavior performance depends on the presence of ovarian hormones and the age of use initiation. Estradiol is the main ovarian hormone that can interact with cannabinoids. It has been suggested that cannabinoids exert some of their effects directly through estrogen receptors (ERs). A novel G-protein-coupled receptor (GPR30) was described as mediating estrogen signaling in various cell lines. Since there are few studies on the interaction of cannabis and ovarian hormones on cognitive behaviors, so, this study evaluated the role of GPR30 in the effects of marijuana (M) and estrogen, alone and in combination, on spatial learning and memory of young (non-ovarian(OVX)) and old female rats. Young (5-7 months) and old (22-24 months) female rats received an intraperitoneal injection (i.p) of 17β-estradiol (E2), G1 (GPR30 agonist), and G15 (GPR30 antagonist) every four days, and M (every day), either alone or in combination, for 28 days. One hour after the last injection, the Morris water maze (MWM) test was conducted to evaluate of spatial learning and memory. Moreover, hippocampal BDNF level was assessed by the ELISA method. The results showed a positive effect of M on spatial learning in both young and old rats, however, E2 showed beneficial effects on the memory of young, but not old rats. Our results showed that GPR30 does not have any role in the interaction effects of M and E2 in young rats. Although both E2 and M alone showed positive effects on spatial learning and memory in old rats, however, our results showed a negative interaction between marijuana and E2 combined effects on spatial learning and memory in old female rats which is mediated by GPR30. Our results showed that the effects of GPR30 on spatial learning and memory is age dependent. Furthermore, this study showed that hippocampal BDNF does not have any role in the interaction effects of M and E2 on spatial learning and memory in young and old rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohadeseh Chahkandi
- Physiology Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical School, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Sepehri
- Kerman Neuroscience Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
| | - Gholamreza Komeili
- Department of Physiology, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Khaksari Hadad
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology Sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Elham Haghparast
- Kerman Neuroscience Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Majid Chahkandi
- Department of Statistics, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran
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14
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Stark T, Di Martino S, Drago F, Wotjak CT, Micale V. Phytocannabinoids and schizophrenia: Focus on adolescence as a critical window of enhanced vulnerability and opportunity for treatment. Pharmacol Res 2021; 174:105938. [PMID: 34655773 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The recent shift in socio-political debates and growing liberalization of Cannabis use across the globe has raised concern regarding its impact on vulnerable populations such as adolescents. Concurrent with declining perception of Cannabis harms, more adolescents are using it daily in several countries and consuming marijuana strains with high content of psychotropic delta (9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). These dual, related trends seem to facilitate the development of compromised social and cognitive performance at adulthood, which are described in preclinical and human studies. Cannabis exerts its effects via altering signalling within the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which modulates the stress circuitry during the neurodevelopment. In this context early interventions appear to circumvent the emergence of adult neurodevelopmental deficits. Accordingly, Cannabis sativa second-most abundant compound, cannabidiol (CBD), emerges as a potential therapeutic agent to treat neuropsychiatric disorders. We first focus on human and preclinical studies on the long-term effects induced by adolescent THC exposure as a "critical window" of enhanced neurophysiological vulnerability, which could be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and related primary psychotic disorders. Then, we focus on adolescence as a "window of opportunity" for early pharmacological treatment, as novel risk reduction strategy for neurodevelopmental disorders. Thus, we review current preclinical and clinical evidence regarding the efficacy of CBD in terms of positive, negative and cognitive symptoms treatment, safety profile, and molecular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Stark
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Stress Neurobiology & Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Serena Di Martino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Carsten T Wotjak
- Department of Stress Neurobiology & Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Central Nervous System Diseases Research (CNSDR), Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG, 88397 Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Vincenzo Micale
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
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15
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Mokrysz C, Shaban NDC, Freeman TP, Lawn W, Pope RA, Hindocha C, Freeman A, Wall MB, Bloomfield MAP, Morgan CJA, Nutt DJ, Curran HV. Acute effects of cannabis on speech illusions and psychotic-like symptoms: two studies testing the moderating effects of cannabidiol and adolescence. Psychol Med 2021; 51:2134-2142. [PMID: 32340632 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291720001038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute cannabis administration can produce transient psychotic-like effects in healthy individuals. However, the mechanisms through which this occurs and which factors predict vulnerability remain unclear. We investigate whether cannabis inhalation leads to psychotic-like symptoms and speech illusion; and whether cannabidiol (CBD) blunts such effects (study 1) and adolescence heightens such effects (study 2). METHODS Two double-blind placebo-controlled studies, assessing speech illusion in a white noise task, and psychotic-like symptoms on the Psychotomimetic States Inventory (PSI). Study 1 compared effects of Cann-CBD (cannabis containing Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and negligible levels of CBD) with Cann+CBD (cannabis containing THC and CBD) in 17 adults. Study 2 compared effects of Cann-CBD in 20 adolescents and 20 adults. All participants were healthy individuals who currently used cannabis. RESULTS In study 1, relative to placebo, both Cann-CBD and Cann+CBD increased PSI scores but not speech illusion. No differences between Cann-CBD and Cann+CBD emerged. In study 2, relative to placebo, Cann-CBD increased PSI scores and incidence of speech illusion, with the odds of experiencing speech illusion 3.1 (95% CIs 1.3-7.2) times higher after Cann-CBD. No age group differences were found for speech illusion, but adults showed heightened effects on the PSI. CONCLUSIONS Inhalation of cannabis reliably increases psychotic-like symptoms in healthy cannabis users and may increase the incidence of speech illusion. CBD did not influence psychotic-like effects of cannabis. Adolescents may be less vulnerable to acute psychotic-like effects of cannabis than adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Mokrysz
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Tom P Freeman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Addiction and Mental Health Group (AIM), Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, UK
- National Addiction Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Will Lawn
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Rebecca A Pope
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Chandni Hindocha
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Abigail Freeman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Matthew B Wall
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Invicro, Burlington Danes Building, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London, UK
- Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Michael A P Bloomfield
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, Medical Research Council Clinical Sciences Centre, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK
- Division of Psychiatry, Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, Maple House, London, UK
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, University College Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Celia J A Morgan
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Psychopharmacology and Addiction Research Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - David J Nutt
- Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Experimental Medicine, Imperial College London, Burlington Danes Building, Du Cane Road, London, UK
| | - H Valerie Curran
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
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16
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Chahkandi M, Komeili G, Sepehri G, Khaksari M, Amiresmaili S. Marijuana and β-estradiol interactions on spatial learning and memory in young female rats: Lack of role of the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPR30). Life Sci 2021; 280:119723. [PMID: 34146552 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
It has been shown that 17β-estradiol (E2) hormone is an essential biological factor for increasing the sensitivity of women to drug abuse. Recent studies have shown a potential overlap between the molecular pathways of cannabinoids and ovarian hormones. The current study evaluated the interference between the marijuana and E2 effect on spatial learning and memory and the role of the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPR30) in young female rats. The animals were separated into two main groups: intact-ovary and ovariectomized (OVX) rats. The latter group received intraperitoneal injections of E2, G-1 (GPR30 agonist), G-15 (GPR30 antagonist), marijuana, and different combinations of these substances for 28 days. Spatial learning and memory were evaluated by the Morris water maze (MWM) test. We also assessed the BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) concentration and the hippocampal level of GPR30. The results showed a significant reduction of spatial learning and memory in OVX rats compared to intact-ovary rats, which were restored by E2 replacement. Moreover, treatment with G-1 mimicked E2 effects on spatial learning and memory. Marijuana impaired spatial learning and memory in intact-ovary rats, while improved in OVX rats. We also found that treatment with M + E2 induced significant impairment in spatial learning and memory; however, treatment with M + G1 and M + G15 + E2 showed no significant difference. No significant differences in BDNF expression were observed in experimental groups. These results suggest that marijuana and E2 interact in their effect on spatial learning and memory in young female rats, but GPR30 seems to play no role in this interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohadeseh Chahkandi
- Physiology Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical School, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Komeili
- Department of Physiology, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran.
| | - Gholamreza Sepehri
- Kerman Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Khaksari
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology Sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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17
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Bara A, Ferland JMN, Rompala G, Szutorisz H, Hurd YL. Cannabis and synaptic reprogramming of the developing brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 2021; 22:423-438. [PMID: 34021274 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-021-00465-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have been transformational in regard to the perception of the health risks and benefits of cannabis with increased acceptance of use. This has unintended neurodevelopmental implications given the increased use of cannabis and the potent levels of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol today being consumed by pregnant women, young mothers and teens. In this Review, we provide an overview of the neurobiological effects of cannabinoid exposure during prenatal/perinatal and adolescent periods, in which the endogenous cannabinoid system plays a fundamental role in neurodevelopmental processes. We highlight impaired synaptic plasticity as characteristic of developmental exposure and the important contribution of epigenetic reprogramming that maintains the long-term impact into adulthood and across generations. Such epigenetic influence by its very nature being highly responsive to the environment also provides the potential to diminish neural perturbations associated with developmental cannabis exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anissa Bara
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Addiction Institute of Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Jacqueline-Marie N Ferland
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Addiction Institute of Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Gregory Rompala
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Addiction Institute of Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Henrietta Szutorisz
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Addiction Institute of Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.,Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Yasmin L Hurd
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA. .,Addiction Institute of Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai, NY, USA. .,Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai, NY, USA.
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18
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Stringfield SJ, Torregrossa MM. Disentangling the lasting effects of adolescent cannabinoid exposure. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2021; 104:110067. [PMID: 32791165 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit substance among adolescents, and adolescent cannabis use is associated with various neurocognitive deficits that can extend into adulthood. A growing body of evidence supports the hypothesis that adolescence encompasses a vulnerable period of development where exposure to exogenous cannabinoids can alter the normative trajectory of brain maturation. In this review, we present an overview of studies of human and rodent models that examine lasting effects of adolescent exposure. We include evidence from meta-analyses, longitudinal, or cross-sectional studies in humans that consider age of onset as a factor that contributes to the behavioral dysregulation and altered structural or functional development in cannabis users. We also discuss evidence from preclinical rodent models utilizing well-characterized or innovative routes of exposure, investigating the effects of dose and timing to produce behavioral deficits or alterations on a neuronal and behavioral level. Multiple studies from both humans and animals provide contrasting results regarding the magnitude of residual effects. Combined evidence suggests that exposure to psychoactive cannabinoids during adolescence has the potential to produce subtle, but lasting, alterations in neurobiology and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sierra J Stringfield
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, 4200 Fifth Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Mary M Torregrossa
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, 4200 Fifth Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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19
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Holloway ZR, Hawkey AB, Torres AK, Evans J, Pippen E, White H, Katragadda V, Kenou B, Wells C, Murphy SK, Rezvani AH, Levin ED. Paternal cannabis extract exposure in rats: Preconception timing effects on neurodevelopmental behavior in offspring. Neurotoxicology 2020; 81:180-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2020.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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20
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Gibula-Tarlowska E, Wydra K, Kotlinska JH. Deleterious Effects of Ethanol, Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and Their Combination on the Spatial Memory and Cognitive Flexibility in Adolescent and Adult Male Rats in the Barnes Maze Task. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12070654. [PMID: 32660138 PMCID: PMC7407502 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12070654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Research demonstrates that adolescents differ from adults in their response to drugs of abuse. The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of ethanol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol hydrochloride (THC), and a combination of these drugs given during adolescence on spatial memory in adolescent and adult rats. Thus, adolescent rats (postnatal day (PND) 30) were subjected to the following groups: 0.9% NaCl; 1.5 g/kg ethanol; 1.0 mg/kg THC; 1.5 g/kg ethanol + 1.0 mg/kg THC. Rats received drug injection four times at three-day intervals. One day after the last injection, half of the treated animals were tested in the Barnes maze task, whereas the remaining animals were tested on PND 70. Results show that there was a significant age effect on spatial memory in the Barnes maze task after these drug administrations. Adolescent animals demonstrated more potent deficits in the spatial learning and memory (probe trial) and in cognitive flexibility (reversal learning) than did adults. However, in adult rats that received these drugs in adolescence, memory decline was observed only after ethanol and ethanol + THC administration. Thus, our results are important in understanding the deleterious impact of THC and/or ethanol abuse during adolescence on memory function across the lifespan (adolescent versus adult).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Gibula-Tarlowska
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
- Correspondence:
| | - Karolina Wydra
- Department of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Jolanta H. Kotlinska
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
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21
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A Systematic Review of Human Neuroimaging Evidence of Memory-Related Functional Alterations Associated with Cannabis Use Complemented with Preclinical and Human Evidence of Memory Performance Alterations. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10020102. [PMID: 32069958 PMCID: PMC7071506 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10020102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis has been associated with deficits in memory performance. However, the neural correlates that may underpin impairments remain unclear. We carried out a systematic review of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies investigating brain functional alterations in cannabis users (CU) compared to nonusing controls while performing memory tasks, complemented with focused narrative reviews of relevant preclinical and human studies. Twelve studies employing fMRI were identified finding functional brain activation during memory tasks altered in CU. Memory performance studies showed CU performed worse particularly during verbal memory tasks. Longitudinal studies suggest that cannabis use may have a causal role in memory deficits. Preclinical studies have not provided conclusive evidence of memory deficits following cannabinoid exposure, although they have shown evidence of cannabinoid-induced structural and histological alteration. Memory performance deficits may be related to cannabis use, with lower performance possibly underpinned by altered functional activation. Memory impairments may be associated with the level of cannabis exposure and use of cannabis during developmentally sensitive periods, with possible improvement following cessation of cannabis use.
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22
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Salmanzadeh H, Ahmadi-Soleimani SM, Pachenari N, Azadi M, Halliwell RF, Rubino T, Azizi H. Adolescent drug exposure: A review of evidence for the development of persistent changes in brain function. Brain Res Bull 2020; 156:105-117. [PMID: 31926303 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 12/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, many studies have indicated that adolescence is a critical period of brain development and maturation. The refinement and maturation of the central nervous system over this prolonged period, however, makes the adolescent brain highly susceptible to perturbations from acute and chronic drug exposure. Here we review the preclinical literature addressing the long-term consequences of adolescent exposure to common recreational drugs and drugs-of-abuse. These studies on adolescent exposure to alcohol, nicotine, opioids, cannabinoids and psychostimulant drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamine, reveal a variety of long-lasting behavioral and neurobiological consequences. These agents can affect development of the prefrontal cortex and mesolimbic dopamine pathways and modify the reward systems, socio-emotional processing and cognition. Other consequences include disruption in working memory, anxiety disorders and an increased risk of subsequent drug abuse in adult life. Although preventive and control policies are a valuable approach to reduce the detrimental effects of drugs-of-abuse on the adolescent brain, a more profound understanding of their neurobiological impact can lead to improved strategies for the treatment and attenuation of the detrimental neuropsychiatric sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Salmanzadeh
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; TJ Long School of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA, USA
| | | | - Narges Pachenari
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Azadi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Robert F Halliwell
- TJ Long School of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA, USA
| | - Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy
| | - Hossein Azizi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
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Abstract
Given the aging Baby Boomer generation, changes in cannabis legislation, and the growing acknowledgment of cannabis for its therapeutic potential, it is predicted that cannabis use in the older population will escalate. It is, therefore, important to determine the interaction between the effects of cannabis and aging. The aim of this report is to describe the link between cannabis use and the aging brain. Our review of the literature found few and inconsistent empirical studies that directly address the impact of cannabis use on the aging brain. However, research focused on long-term cannabis use points toward cumulative effects on multimodal systems in the brain that are similarly affected during aging. Specifically, the effects of cannabis and aging converge on overlapping networks in the endocannabinoid, opioid, and dopamine systems that may affect functional decline particularly in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, which are critical areas for memory and executive functioning. To conclude, despite the limited current knowledge on the potential interactive effects between cannabis and aging, evidence from the literature suggests that cannabis and aging effects are concurrently present across several neurotransmitter systems. There is a great need for future research to directly test the interactions between cannabis and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Bin Yoo
- Center for BrainHealth, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Jennifer DiMuzio
- Center for BrainHealth, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Francesca M Filbey
- Center for BrainHealth, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA
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Blest-Hopley G, Colizzi M, Giampietro V, Bhattacharyya S. Is the Adolescent Brain at Greater Vulnerability to the Effects of Cannabis? A Narrative Review of the Evidence. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:859. [PMID: 33005157 PMCID: PMC7479242 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis use during the critical neurodevelopmental period of adolescence, may lead to brain structural, functional, and histological alterations that may underpin some of the longer-term behavioral and psychological harms associated with it. The endocannabinoid system performs a key regulatory and homeostatic role, that undergoes developmental changes during adolescence making it potentially more susceptible to the effects of exposure to cannabis during adolescence. Here, we synthesize evidence from human studies of adolescent cannabis users showing alterations in cognitive performance as well as in brain structure and function with relevant preclinical evidence to summarize the current state of knowledge. We also focus on the limited evidence that speaks to the hypothesis that cannabis use during adolescence, may pose a greater risk than use during adulthood, identify gaps in current evidence and suggest directions for new research. Existing literature is consistent with the association of cannabis use during adolescence and neurological changes. Adolescence cannabis users show altered functional connectivity within known functional circuits, that may underlie inefficient recruitment of brain regions, as largely increased functional activation has been observed compared to controls. This disruption in some cases may contribute to the development of adverse mental health conditions; increasing the chances or accelerating the onset, of their development. Preclinical evidence, further supports disruption from cannabis use being specific to the developmental period. Future studies are required to better investigate adolescent cannabis use with more accuracy using better defined groups or longitudinal studies and examine the permanency of these changes following caseation of use. Furthermore, research is required to identify heritable risk factors to cannabis use. There is a need for caution when considering the therapeutic potential of cannabis for adolescence and particularly in public discourse leading to potential trivialization of possible harm from cannabis use in adolescence. Current evidence indicates that adolescence is a sensitive period during which cannabis use may result in adverse neurocognitive effects that appear to show a level of permanency into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Blest-Hopley
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Colizzi
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, United Kingdom.,Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Italy
| | - Vincent Giampietro
- Department of Neuroimaging, Centre for Neuroimaging Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, United Kingdom
| | - Sagnik Bhattacharyya
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, United Kingdom.,South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
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Chen HT, Mackie K. Adolescent Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure Selectively Impairs Working Memory but Not Several Other mPFC-Mediated Behaviors. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:576214. [PMID: 33262712 PMCID: PMC7688511 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.576214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As the frequency of cannabis use by 14-16-year-olds increases, it becomes increasingly important to understand the effect of cannabis on the developing central nervous system. Using mice as a model system, we treated adolescent (28 day old) C57BL6/J mice of both sexes for 3 weeks with 3 mg/kg tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Starting a week after the last treatment, several cognitive behaviors were analyzed. Mice treated with THC as adolescents acquired proficiency in a working memory task more slowly than vehicle-treated mice. Working memory recall in both sexes of THC-treated mice was also deficient during increasing cognitive load compared to vehicle-treated mice. Our adolescent THC treatment did not strongly affect social preference, anxiety behaviors, or decision-making behaviors on the elevated T maze task. In summary, under the conditions of this study, adolescent THC treatment of mice markedly affected the establishment, and persistence of working memory, while having little effect on decision-making, social preference or anxiety behaviors. This study provides further support that adolescent THC affects specific behavioral domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Ting Chen
- Department of Psychology and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States.,Gill Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Ken Mackie
- Department of Psychology and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States.,Gill Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
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26
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Thorpe HHA, Hamidullah S, Jenkins BW, Khokhar JY. Adolescent neurodevelopment and substance use: Receptor expression and behavioral consequences. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 206:107431. [PMID: 31706976 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.107431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood, during which extensive brain development occurs. Since this period also overlaps with the initiation of drug use, it is important to consider how substance use during this time might produce long-term neurobiological alterations, especially against the backdrop of developmental changes in neurotransmission. Alcohol, cannabis, nicotine, and opioids all produce marked changes in the expression and function of the neurotransmitter and receptor systems with which they interact. These acute and chronic alterations also contribute to behavioral consequences ranging from increased addiction risk to cognitive or neuropsychiatric behavioral dysfunctions. The current review provides an in-depth overview and update of the developmental changes in neurotransmission during adolescence, as well as the impact of drug exposure during this neurodevelopmental window. While most of these factors have been studied in animal models, which are the focus of this review, future longitudinal studies in humans that assess neural function and behavior will help to confirm pre-clinical findings. Furthermore, the neural changes induced by each drug should also be considered in the context of other contributing factors, such as sex. Further understanding of these consequences can help in the identification of novel approaches for preventing and reversing the neurobiological effects of adolescent substance use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley H A Thorpe
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shahnaza Hamidullah
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bryan W Jenkins
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jibran Y Khokhar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
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27
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Nguyen JD, Creehan KM, Kerr TM, Taffe MA. Lasting effects of repeated ∆ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol vapour inhalation during adolescence in male and female rats. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 177:188-203. [PMID: 31478558 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Adolescents are regularly exposed to ∆9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) via smoking and, more recently, vaping cannabis extracts. Growing legalization of cannabis for medical and recreational purposes, combined with decreasing perceptions of harm, makes it increasingly important to determine the consequences of frequent adolescent exposure for motivated behaviour and lasting tolerance in response to THC. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES Male and female rats inhaled THC vapour, or that from the propylene glycol (PG) vehicle, twice daily for 30 min from postnatal day (PND) 35-39 and PND 42-46 using an e-cigarette system. Thermoregulatory responses to vapour inhalation were assessed by radio-telemetry during adolescence and from PND 86-94. Chow intake was assessed in adulthood. Blood samples were obtained from additional adolescent groups following initial THC inhalation and after 4 days of twice daily exposure. Additional groups exposed repeatedly to THC or PG during adolescence were evaluated for intravenous self-administration of oxycodone as adults. KEY RESULTS Female, not male, adolescents developed tolerance to the hypothermic effects of THC inhalation in the first week of repeated exposure despite similar plasma THC levels. Each sex exhibited tolerance to THC hypothermia in adulthood after repeated adolescent THC. However, enhanced potency was found in females. Repeated THC male rats consumed more food than their PG-treated control group, without significant bodyweight differences. Adolescent THC did not alter oxycodone self-administration in either sex but increased fentanyl self-administration in females. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Repeated THC vapour inhalation in adolescent rats has lasting consequences observable in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques D Nguyen
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California.,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, La Jolla, California
| | - Kevin M Creehan
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California.,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, La Jolla, California
| | - Tony M Kerr
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California
| | - Michael A Taffe
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California.,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, La Jolla, California
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28
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Abela AR, Rahbarnia A, Wood S, Lê AD, Fletcher PJ. Adolescent exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol delays acquisition of paired-associates learning in adulthood. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:1875-1886. [PMID: 30694374 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-5171-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES Adolescence is a sensitive period of brain development, during which there may be a heightened vulnerability to the effects of drug use. Despite this, the long-term effects of cannabis use during this developmental period on cognition are poorly understood. METHODS We exposed adolescent rats to escalating doses of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-the primary psychoactive component of cannabis-or vehicle solution during postnatal days (PND) 35-45, a period of development that is analogous to human adolescence (THC doses: PND 35-37, 2.5 mg/kg; PND 38-41, 5 mg/kg; PND 42-45, 10 mg/kg). After a period of abstinence, in adulthood, rats were tested on an automated touchscreen version of a paired-associates learning (PAL) task to assess their ability to learn and recall object-location associations. Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle response was also measured at three time points (5 days, 4 months, and 6 months after exposure) to assess sensorimotor gating, the ability to filter out insignificant sensory information from the environment. RESULTS Compared to rats exposed to vehicle alone, rats exposed to THC during adolescence took longer to learn the PAL task when tested in adulthood, even when trials contained visually identical stimuli that differed only in location. Despite this, no differences were observed later in testing, when trials contained visually distinct stimuli in different locations. Rats exposed to THC also displayed impairments in sensorimotor gating, as measured by prepulse inhibition of the startle response, though this deficit did appear to decrease over time. CONCLUSION Taken together, THC exposure during adolescence produces long-term deficits in associative learning and sensorimotor gating, though the impact of these deficits seems to diminish with time. Thus, adolescence may represent a period of neurocognitive development that is vulnerable to the harms of cannabis use, though the stability of such harms is uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Abela
- Preclinical Research and Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College St., Toronto, Ontario, M5T 1R8, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Department of Neuroscience, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 1R8, Canada.
| | - Arya Rahbarnia
- Preclinical Research and Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College St., Toronto, Ontario, M5T 1R8, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Suzanne Wood
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anh D Lê
- Preclinical Research and Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College St., Toronto, Ontario, M5T 1R8, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Paul J Fletcher
- Preclinical Research and Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College St., Toronto, Ontario, M5T 1R8, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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29
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Combined ∆ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and moderate alcohol administration: effects on ingestive behaviors in adolescent male rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:671-684. [PMID: 30415276 PMCID: PMC6401297 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5093-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Whereas co-use of alcohol and marijuana is prevalent in adolescents, the effects of such drug co-exposure on ingestive and cognitive behaviors remain largely unexplored. We hypothesized that co-exposure to alcohol and ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive constitute of marijuana, alters feeding behavior and cognition differently from either drug alone. METHODS Male rats received daily THC (3-20 mg/kg/day) or oil vehicle through subcutaneous injection or consumption of a cookie with access to saccharin or saccharin-sweetened alcohol during adolescence (P30-45). Barnes maze and sucrose preference tests were applied to assess spatial memory and behavioral flexibility and abstinence-related anhedonia, respectively. RESULTS Subcutaneous THC did not affect alcohol intake but dose-dependently increased acute (3 h) chow intake and reduced weight gain. Moderate alcohol consumption reduced the acute hyperphagic effect of subcutaneous THC. By contrast, oral THC at a dose > 5 mg/kg robustly reduced alcohol intake without affecting 3-h chow intake. At this dose, some rats stopped consuming the THC-laced cookies. Furthermore, oral THC reduced weight gain, and co-exposure to alcohol alleviated this effect. Chronic subcutaneous, but not oral, THC reduced sucrose intake during abstinence. Neither treatment impaired cognitive behaviors in the Barnes maze. CONCLUSION Moderate alcohol and THC consumption can interact to elicit unique outcomes on ingestive behaviors and energy balance. Importantly, this study established a novel model of voluntary alcohol and THC consumption for studying mechanisms underlying the consequences of adolescent onset co-use of the two drugs.
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Gorey C, Kuhns L, Smaragdi E, Kroon E, Cousijn J. Age-related differences in the impact of cannabis use on the brain and cognition: a systematic review. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2019; 269:37-58. [PMID: 30680487 PMCID: PMC6394430 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-019-00981-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The impact of cannabis on the adolescent compared to adult brain is of interest to researchers and society alike. From a theoretical perspective, adolescence represents a period of both risk and resilience to the harms of cannabis use and cannabis use disorders. The aim of this systematic review is to provide a critical examination of the moderating role of age on the relationship between cannabis use and cognition. To this end, we reviewed human and animal studies that formally tested whether age, adolescent or adult, changes the relationship between cannabis exposure and cognitive outcomes. While the results of this review do not offer a conclusive answer on the role of age, the novel review question, along with the inclusion of both human and animal work, has allowed for the formation of new hypotheses to be addressed in future work. First, general executive functioning seems to be more impaired in adolescent frequent cannabis users compared to adult frequent cannabis users. Second, age-effects may be most prominent among very heavy and dependent users. Third, craving and inhibitory control may not decrease as much post-intoxication in adolescents compared to adults. Lastly, adolescents' vulnerability to reduced learning following cannabis use may not persist after sustained abstinence. If these hypotheses prove correct, it could lead to important developments in policy and prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Gorey
- Department of Psychology, Addiction Development and Psychopathology (ADAPT) Research Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. box 15916, 1001 NK, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Dynamics of Externalizing (DEXTER) Lab, Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Lauren Kuhns
- Department of Psychology, Addiction Development and Psychopathology (ADAPT) Research Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. box 15916, 1001 NK, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- The Amsterdam Brain and Cognition Center (ABC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eleni Smaragdi
- Department of Psychology, Addiction Development and Psychopathology (ADAPT) Research Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. box 15916, 1001 NK, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emese Kroon
- Department of Psychology, Addiction Development and Psychopathology (ADAPT) Research Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. box 15916, 1001 NK, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- The Amsterdam Brain and Cognition Center (ABC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Janna Cousijn
- Department of Psychology, Addiction Development and Psychopathology (ADAPT) Research Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. box 15916, 1001 NK, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- The Amsterdam Brain and Cognition Center (ABC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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31
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Bassir Nia A, Mann C, Kaur H, Ranganathan M. Cannabis Use: Neurobiological, Behavioral, and Sex/Gender Considerations. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40473-018-0167-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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32
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Krolick KN, Zhu Q, Shi H. Effects of Estrogens on Central Nervous System Neurotransmission: Implications for Sex Differences in Mental Disorders. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2018; 160:105-171. [PMID: 30470289 PMCID: PMC6737530 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2018.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nearly one of every five US individuals aged 12 years old or older lives with certain types of mental disorders. Men are more likely to use various types of substances, while women tend to be more susceptible to mood disorders, addiction, and eating disorders, all of which are risks associated with suicidal attempts. Fundamental sex differences exist in multiple aspects of the functions and activities of neurotransmitter-mediated neural circuits in the central nervous system (CNS). Dysregulation of these neural circuits leads to various types of mental disorders. The potential mechanisms of sex differences in the CNS neural circuitry regulating mood, reward, and motivation are only beginning to be understood, although they have been largely attributed to the effects of sex hormones on CNS neurotransmission pathways. Understanding this topic is important for developing prevention and treatment of mental disorders that should be tailored differently for men and women. Studies using animal models have provided important insights into pathogenesis, mechanisms, and new therapeutic approaches of human diseases, but some concerns remain to be addressed. The purpose of this chapter is to integrate human and animal studies involving the effects of the sex hormones, estrogens, on CNS neurotransmission, reward processing, and associated mental disorders. We provide an overview of existing evidence for the physiological, behavioral, cellular, and molecular actions of estrogens in the context of controlling neurotransmission in the CNS circuits regulating mood, reward, and motivation and discuss related pathology that leads to mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen N Krolick
- Center for Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, United States
| | - Qi Zhu
- Center for Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, United States
| | - Haifei Shi
- Center for Physiology and Neuroscience, Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, United States; Cellular, Molecular and Structural Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, United States.
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Mooney-Leber SM, Gould TJ. The long-term cognitive consequences of adolescent exposure to recreational drugs of abuse. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 25:481-491. [PMID: 30115770 PMCID: PMC6097759 DOI: 10.1101/lm.046672.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
During adolescence, the brain continues to undergo vital developmental processes. In turn, complex behavioral and cognitive skills emerge. Unfortunately, neurobiological development during adolescence can be influenced by environmental factors such as drug exposure. Engaging in drug use during adolescence has been a long-standing health concern, especially how it predicts or relates to drug using behavior later in life. However, recent findings suggest that other behavioral domains, such as learning and memory, are also vulnerable to adolescent drug use. Moreover, it is becoming increasingly apparent that deficits in learning and memory following adolescent drug use endure into adulthood, well after drug exposure has subsided. Although persistent effects suggest an interaction between drug exposure and ongoing development during adolescence, the exact acute and long-term consequences of adolescent drug exposure on substrates of learning and memory are not fully understood. Thus, this review will summarize human and animal findings on the enduring cognitive deficits due to adolescent drug exposure. Moreover, due to the fact that adolescents are more likely to consume drugs of abuse legally available to adults, this review will focus on alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana. Further, given the critical role of the frontal cortex and hippocampus in various learning and memory domains, the impact adolescent use of the previous listed drugs on the neurobiology within these regions will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M Mooney-Leber
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Thomas J Gould
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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Keeley RJ, Bye C, Trow J, McDonald RJ. Adolescent THC exposure does not sensitize conditioned place preferences to subthreshold d-amphetamine in male and female rats. F1000Res 2018; 7:342. [PMID: 29770212 PMCID: PMC5920568 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.14029.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The acute effects of marijuana consumption on brain physiology and behaviour are well documented, but the long-term effects of its chronic use are less well known. Chronic marijuana use during adolescence is of increased interest, given that the majority of individuals first use marijuana during this developmental stage , and adolescent marijuana use is thought to increase the susceptibility to abusing other drugs when exposed later in life. It is possible that marijuana use during critical periods in adolescence could lead to increased sensitivity to other drugs of abuse later on. To test this, we chronically administered ∆ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to male and female Long-Evans (LER) and Wistar (WR) rats directly after puberty onset. Rats matured to postnatal day 90 before being exposed to a conditioned place preference task (CPP). A subthreshold dose of d-amphetamine, found not to induce place preference in drug naïve rats, was used as the unconditioned stimulus. The effect of d-amphetamine on neural activity was inferred by quantifying cfos expression in the nucleus accumbens and dorsal hippocampus following CPP training. Chronic exposure to THC post-puberty had no potentiating effect on a subthreshold dose of d-amphetamine to induce CPP. No differences in cfos expression were observed. These results show that chronic exposure to THC during puberty did not increase sensitivity to a sub-threshold dose of d-amphetamine in adult LER and WR rats. This supports the concept that THC may not sensitize the response to all drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin J Keeley
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, 251 Bayview blvd, Suite 200, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Cameron Bye
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Jan Trow
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Robert J McDonald
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
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35
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Keeley RJ, Bye C, Trow J, McDonald RJ. Adolescent THC exposure does not sensitize conditioned place preferences to subthreshold d-amphetamine in male and female rats. F1000Res 2018; 7:342. [PMID: 29770212 PMCID: PMC5920568 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.14029.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The acute effects of marijuana consumption on brain physiology and behaviour are well documented, but the long-term effects of its chronic use are less well known. Chronic marijuana use during adolescence is of increased interest, given that the majority of individuals first use marijuana during this developmental stage , and adolescent marijuana use is thought to increase the susceptibility to abusing other drugs when exposed later in life. It is possible that marijuana use during critical periods in adolescence could lead to increased sensitivity to other drugs of abuse later on. To test this, we chronically administered ∆ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to male and female Long-Evans (LER) and Wistar (WR) rats directly after puberty onset. Rats matured to postnatal day 90 before being exposed to a conditioned place preference task (CPP). A subthreshold dose of d-amphetamine, found not to induce place preference in drug naïve rats, was used as the unconditioned stimulus. The effect of d-amphetamine on neural activity was inferred by quantifying cfos expression in the nucleus accumbens and dorsal hippocampus following CPP training. Chronic exposure to THC post-puberty had no potentiating effect on a subthreshold dose of d-amphetamine to induce CPP. No differences in cfos expression were observed. These results show that chronic exposure to THC during puberty did not increase sensitivity to d-amphetamine in adult LER and WR rats. This supports the concept that THC may not sensitize the response to all drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin J Keeley
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, 251 Bayview blvd, Suite 200, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Cameron Bye
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Jan Trow
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Robert J McDonald
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
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Monoacylglycerol lipase inhibition alters social behavior in male and female rats after post-weaning social isolation. Behav Brain Res 2017; 341:146-153. [PMID: 29292159 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Post-weaning social isolation (PSI) has been shown to increase aggressive behavior and alter medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) function in rats. The present study sought to determine whether this phenotype would be normalized by increasing levels of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) using pharmacological inhibition of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL). Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to either 4 weeks of PSI or social rearing (SR) starting on postnatal day 21, then underwent a 15 min trial of social interaction with a novel, same-sex juvenile rat. Rats were administered an acute injection of the MAGL inhibitor MJN110 or vehicle prior to the social interaction. Rats received either 0 mg/kg (vehicle), 1 mg/kg, or 5 mg/kg of MJN110. Both doses of MJN110 decreased aggressive grooming, a measure of agonistic behavior, in both males and females, largely driven by decreased aggressive grooming in PSI rats. There were no effects of MJN110 on overall social behavior or play behavior, while modest effects were observed on locomotor activity in SR rats only. While social interaction increased c-Fos expression in the mPFC of both males and females, MJN110 reduced c-Fos preferentially in females. These results suggest that 2-AG can modulate specific social behaviors during adolescence, and may affect mPFC function differentially in males and females.
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Oliver CF, Kutlu MG, Zeid D, Gould TJ. Sex differences in the effects of nicotine on contextual fear extinction. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 165:25-28. [PMID: 29253499 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety and stress disorders occur at a higher rate in women compared to men as well as in smokers in comparison to non-smoker population. Nicotine is known to impair fear extinction, which is altered in anxiety disorders. However, nicotine differentially affects fear learning in men and women, which may mean that sex and nicotine-product use can interact to also alter fear extinction. For this study, we examined sex differences in the effects of acute and chronic nicotine administration on fear memory extinction in male and female C57BL/6J mice. To study the acute effects of nicotine, animals trained in a background contextual fear conditioning paradigm were administered nicotine (0.09, 0.18 or 0.36mg/kg) prior to extinction sessions. For chronic nicotine, animals continuously receiving nicotine (12.6, 18, or 24mg/kg/day) were trained in a background contextual fear conditioning paradigm followed by fear extinction sessions. Males exhibited contextual fear extinction deficits following acute and chronic nicotine exposure. Females also exhibited extinction deficits, but only at the highest doses of acute nicotine (0.36mg/kg) while chronic nicotine did not result in extinction deficits in female mice. These results suggest that sex mediates sensitivity to nicotine's effects on contextual fear memory extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chicora F Oliver
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, 219 Biobehavioral Health Bldg, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Munir Gunes Kutlu
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, 219 Biobehavioral Health Bldg, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Dana Zeid
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, 219 Biobehavioral Health Bldg, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Thomas J Gould
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, 219 Biobehavioral Health Bldg, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802.
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Chesworth R, Karl T. Molecular Basis of Cannabis-Induced Schizophrenia-Relevant Behaviours: Insights from Animal Models. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s40473-017-0120-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Macúchová E, Nohejlová K, Ševčíková M, Hrebíčková I, Šlamberová R. Sex differences in the strategies of spatial learning in prenatally-exposed rats treated with various drugs in adulthood. Behav Brain Res 2017; 327:83-93. [PMID: 28359886 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Revised: 03/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we investigated the sex differences in the effect of adult long-term drug treatment on cognitive functions of Wistar rats, which were prenatally exposed to MA (5mg/kg) or saline. Cognitive functions were tested as an ability of spatial learning in the Morris Water Maze (MWM), which consisted of three types of tests: "Place Navigation Test"; "Probe Test", and "Memory Recall Test". Adult animals were injected daily, after completion of the last trial, either with saline or cocaine (COC; 5mg/kg), MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine; 5mg/kg), morphine (MOR; 5mg/kg), or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC; 2mg/kg). Results revealed worsened MWM performance in female rats after drug treatment in adulthood. Not only were traditionally investigated parameters affected by drug treatment (latency of platform acquisition, search strategy, distance traveled), but also strategies used by animals (thigmotaxis, scanning). Analyses of search strategies observed in the Place Navigation Test, as well as in the Memory Recall Test, demonstrated variations in the percentage of time spent in thigmotaxis and scanning in females after treatment with COC, MDMA, MOR, and THC. Although we did not see a sensitizing effect of prenatal MA, in some cases the effect of drug treatment in adulthood differed depending on the prenatal drug exposure. The data presented in this study demonstrates that exposure to drugs with various mechanisms of action alters spatial abilities of female rats in the MWM. Alterations in the effect of adult drug treatment with reference to prenatal drug exposure were also found in the present study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Macúchová
- Charles University, Third Faculty of Medicine, Department of Normal, Pathological and Clinical Physiology, Ke Karlovu 4, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Kateryna Nohejlová
- Charles University, Third Faculty of Medicine, Department of Normal, Pathological and Clinical Physiology, Ke Karlovu 4, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Mária Ševčíková
- Charles University, Third Faculty of Medicine, Department of Normal, Pathological and Clinical Physiology, Ke Karlovu 4, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Ivana Hrebíčková
- Charles University, Third Faculty of Medicine, Department of Normal, Pathological and Clinical Physiology, Ke Karlovu 4, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Romana Šlamberová
- Charles University, Third Faculty of Medicine, Department of Normal, Pathological and Clinical Physiology, Ke Karlovu 4, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic.
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Levine A, Clemenza K, Rynn M, Lieberman J. Evidence for the Risks and Consequences of Adolescent Cannabis Exposure. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2017; 56:214-225. [PMID: 28219487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2016.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This review of the scientific literature examines the potential adult sequelae of exposure to cannabis and related synthetic cannabinoids in adolescence. We examine the four neuropsychiatric outcomes that are likely most vulnerable to alteration by early cannabinoid use, as identified within both the clinical and preclinical research: cognition, emotional functioning, risk for psychosis, and addiction. METHOD A literature search was conducted through PubMed, PsychInfo, and Google Scholar with no publication date restrictions. The search terms used were "adolescent" and "adult," and either "cannabis," "marijuana," "delta-9-tetra-hydrocannabinol," or "cannabinoid," which was then crossed with one or more of the following terms: "deficit," "impairment," "alteration," "long-term," "persistent," "development," "maturation," and "pubescent." RESULTS The majority of the clinical and preclinical data point to a strong correlation between adolescent cannabinoid exposure and persistent, adverse neuropsychiatric outcomes in adulthood. Although the literature supports the hypothesis that adolescent cannabis use is connected to impaired cognition and mental health in adults, it does not conclusively demonstrate that cannabis consumption alone is sufficient to cause these deficits in humans. The animal literature, however, clearly indicates that adolescent-onset exposure to cannabinoids can catalyze molecular processes that lead to persistent functional deficits in adulthood, deficits that are not found to follow adult-onset exposure and that model some of the adverse outcomes reported in humans among adult populations of early-onset cannabis users. CONCLUSION Based on the data in the current literature, a strong association is found between early, frequent, and heavy adolescent cannabis exposure and poor cognitive and psychiatric outcomes in adulthood, yet definite conclusions cannot yet be made as to whether cannabis use alone has a negative impact on the human adolescent brain. Future research will require animal models and longitudinal studies to be carefully designed with a focus on integrating assessments of molecular, structural, and behavioral outcomes in order to elucidate the full range of potential adverse and long-term consequences of cannabinoid exposure in adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Levine
- College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY.
| | | | - Moira Rynn
- College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY; New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York
| | - Jeffrey Lieberman
- College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY; New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York
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Mokrysz C, Freeman TP, Korkki S, Griffiths K, Curran HV. Are adolescents more vulnerable to the harmful effects of cannabis than adults? A placebo-controlled study in human males. Transl Psychiatry 2016; 6:e961. [PMID: 27898071 PMCID: PMC5290352 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Preclinical research demonstrates that cannabinoids have differing effects in adolescent and adult animals. Whether these findings translate to humans has not yet been investigated. Here we believe we conducted the first study to compare the acute effects of cannabis in human adolescent (n=20; 16-17 years old) and adult (n=20; 24-28 years old) male cannabis users, in a placebo-controlled, double-blind cross-over design. After inhaling vaporized active or placebo cannabis, participants completed tasks assessing spatial working memory, episodic memory and response inhibition, alongside measures of blood pressure and heart rate, psychotomimetic symptoms and subjective drug effects (for example, 'stoned', 'want to have cannabis'). Results showed that on active cannabis, adolescents felt less stoned and reported fewer psychotomimetic symptoms than adults. Further, adults but not adolescents were more anxious and less alert during the active cannabis session (both pre- and post-drug administration). Following cannabis, cognitive impairment (reaction time on spatial working memory and prose recall following a delay) was greater in adults than adolescents. By contrast, cannabis impaired response inhibition accuracy in adolescents but not in adults. Moreover, following drug administration, the adolescents did not show satiety; instead they wanted more cannabis regardless of whether they had taken active or placebo cannabis, while the opposite was seen for adults. These contrasting profiles of adolescent resilience (blunted subjective, memory, physiological and psychotomimetic effects) and vulnerability (lack of satiety, impaired inhibitory processes) show some degree of translation from preclinical findings, and may contribute to escalated cannabis use by human adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Mokrysz
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Clinical Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - T P Freeman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Clinical Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - S Korkki
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - K Griffiths
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - H V Curran
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Clinical Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
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Plunk AD, Agrawal A, Harrell PT, Tate WF, Will KE, Mellor JM, Grucza RA. The impact of adolescent exposure to medical marijuana laws on high school completion, college enrollment and college degree completion. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 168:320-327. [PMID: 27742490 PMCID: PMC5123757 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is concern that medical marijuana laws (MMLs) could negatively affect adolescents. To better understand these policies, we assess how adolescent exposure to MMLs is related to educational attainment. METHODS Data from the 2000 Census and 2001-2014 American Community Surveys were restricted to individuals who were of high school age (14-18) between 1990 and 2012 (n=5,483,715). MML exposure was coded as: (i) a dichotomous "any MML" indicator, and (ii) number of years of high school age exposure. We used logistic regression to model whether MMLs affected: (a) completing high school by age 19; (b) beginning college, irrespective of completion; and (c) obtaining any degree after beginning college. A similar dataset based on the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) was also constructed for confirmatory analyses assessing marijuana use. RESULTS MMLs were associated with a 0.40 percentage point increase in the probability of not earning a high school diploma or GED after completing the 12th grade (from 3.99% to 4.39%). High school MML exposure was also associated with a 1.84 and 0.85 percentage point increase in the probability of college non-enrollment and degree non-completion, respectively (from 31.12% to 32.96% and 45.30% to 46.15%, respectively). Years of MML exposure exhibited a consistent dose response relationship for all outcomes. MMLs were also associated with 0.85 percentage point increase in daily marijuana use among 12th graders (up from 1.26%). CONCLUSIONS Medical marijuana law exposure between age 14 to 18 likely has a delayed effect on use and education that persists over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D. Plunk
- Department of Pediatrics, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Arpana Agrawal
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Paul T. Harrell
- Department of Pediatrics, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - William F. Tate
- Department of Education, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kelli England Will
- Department of Pediatrics, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Jennifer M. Mellor
- Department of Economics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA, USA
| | - Richard A. Grucza
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Kutlu MG, Gould TJ. Effects of drugs of abuse on hippocampal plasticity and hippocampus-dependent learning and memory: contributions to development and maintenance of addiction. Learn Mem 2016; 23:515-33. [PMID: 27634143 PMCID: PMC5026208 DOI: 10.1101/lm.042192.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
It has long been hypothesized that conditioning mechanisms play major roles in addiction. Specifically, the associations between rewarding properties of drugs of abuse and the drug context can contribute to future use and facilitate the transition from initial drug use into drug dependency. On the other hand, the self-medication hypothesis of drug abuse suggests that negative consequences of drug withdrawal result in relapse to drug use as an attempt to alleviate the negative symptoms. In this review, we explored these hypotheses and the involvement of the hippocampus in the development and maintenance of addiction to widely abused drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, nicotine, alcohol, opiates, and cannabis. Studies suggest that initial exposure to stimulants (i.e., cocaine, nicotine, and amphetamine) and alcohol may enhance hippocampal function and, therefore, the formation of augmented drug-context associations that contribute to the development of addiction. In line with the self-medication hypothesis, withdrawal from stimulants, ethanol, and cannabis results in hippocampus-dependent learning and memory deficits, which suggest that an attempt to alleviate these deficits may contribute to relapse to drug use and maintenance of addiction. Interestingly, opiate withdrawal leads to enhancement of hippocampus-dependent learning and memory. Given that a conditioned aversion to drug context develops during opiate withdrawal, the cognitive enhancement in this case may result in the formation of an augmented association between withdrawal-induced aversion and withdrawal context. Therefore, individuals with opiate addiction may return to opiate use to avoid aversive symptoms triggered by the withdrawal context. Overall, the systematic examination of the role of the hippocampus in drug addiction may help to formulate a better understanding of addiction and underlying neural substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Munir Gunes Kutlu
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Thomas J Gould
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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Zamberletti E, Gabaglio M, Grilli M, Prini P, Catanese A, Pittaluga A, Marchi M, Rubino T, Parolaro D. Long-term hippocampal glutamate synapse and astrocyte dysfunctions underlying the altered phenotype induced by adolescent THC treatment in male rats. Pharmacol Res 2016; 111:459-470. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Renard J, Rushlow WJ, Laviolette SR. What Can Rats Tell Us about Adolescent Cannabis Exposure? Insights from Preclinical Research. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2016; 61:328-34. [PMID: 27254841 PMCID: PMC4872245 DOI: 10.1177/0706743716645288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Marijuana is the most widely used drug of abuse among adolescents. Adolescence is a vulnerable period for brain development, during which time various neurotransmitter systems such as the glutamatergic, GABAergic, dopaminergic, and endocannabinoid systems undergo extensive reorganization to support the maturation of the central nervous system (CNS). ▵-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component of marijuana, acts as a partial agonist of CB1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs). CB1Rs are abundant in the CNS and are central components of the neurodevelopmental changes that occur during adolescence. Thus, overactivation of CB1Rs by cannabinoid exposure during adolescence has the ability to dramatically alter brain maturation, leading to persistent and enduring changes in adult cerebral function. Increasing preclinical evidence lends support to clinical evidence suggesting that chronic adolescent marijuana exposure may be associated with a higher risk for neuropsychiatric diseases, including schizophrenia. In this review, we present a broad overview of current neurobiological evidence regarding the long-term consequences of adolescent cannabinoid exposure on adult neuropsychiatric-like disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Renard
- Addiction Research Group, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario
| | - Walter J Rushlow
- Addiction Research Group, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario Department of Psychiatry, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario
| | - Steven R Laviolette
- Addiction Research Group, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario Department of Psychiatry, The Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario
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Rubino T, Parolaro D. The Impact of Exposure to Cannabinoids in Adolescence: Insights From Animal Models. Biol Psychiatry 2016; 79:578-85. [PMID: 26344755 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The regular use of cannabis during adolescence is of particular concern because use by this age group seems to be associated with an increased likelihood of deleterious consequences, as reported by several epidemiologic studies. However, despite their unquestionable value, epidemiologic data are inconclusive. Modeling the adolescent phase in animals appears to be a useful approach to investigate the impact of cannabis use on the adolescent brain. In these models, adolescent cannabinoid exposure has been reported to cause long-term impairment in specific components of learning and memory and to have differential effects on anxiety, social behavior, and depressive-like signs. These findings suggest that it may represent, per se or in association with other hits, a risk factor for developing psychotic-like symptoms in adulthood. The neurobiological bases of this association include the induction of alterations in the maturational events of the endocannabinoid system occurring in the adolescent brain. Alterations in the endocannabinoid system may profoundly dysregulate developmental processes in some neurotransmitter systems, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate, mainly in the cortex. The resulting picture strongly resembles the one present in schizophrenic patients, highlighting the translational value of this experimental approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizi, Italy..
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizi, Italy
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47
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Wagner EJ. Sex differences in cannabinoid-regulated biology: A focus on energy homeostasis. Front Neuroendocrinol 2016; 40:101-9. [PMID: 26800649 PMCID: PMC4783283 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Considerable strides have been made over the past 20 years in our understanding of the ligands, receptor subtypes, signal transduction mechanisms and biological actions comprising the endocannabinoid system. From the ever-expanding number of studies that have been conducted during this time, it has become increasingly clear that sex differences are the cornerstone of cannabinoid-regulated biology. Available evidence has demonstrated that these sex differences endure in the absence of gonadal steroids, and are modulated by the acute, activational effects of these hormones. This review focuses on select aspects of sexually differentiated, cannabinoid-regulated biology, with a particular emphasis on the control of energy balance. It is anticipated that it will lend impactful insight into the pervasive and diverse disparities in how males and females respond to cannabinoids--from the organismal level down to the molecular level. Additionally, it will furnish a newfound appreciation for the need to recalibrate our thinking in terms of how cannabinoids are used as therapeutic adjuvants for a broad range of clinical disorders and associated comorbidities, including body wasting and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J Wagner
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 E. Second Street, Pomona, CA 91766, United States.
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48
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Wakeford AGP, Flax SM, Pomfrey RL, Riley AL. Adolescent delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure fails to affect THC-induced place and taste conditioning in adult male rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 140:75-81. [PMID: 26577749 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adolescent initiation of drug use has been linked to problematic drug taking later in life and may represent an important variable that changes the balance of the rewarding and/or aversive effects of abused drugs which may contribute to abuse vulnerability. The current study examined the effects of adolescent THC exposure on THC-induced place preference (rewarding effects) and taste avoidance (aversive effects) conditioning in adulthood. METHODS Forty-six male Sprague-Dawley adolescent rats received eight injections of an intermediate dose of THC (3.2mg/kg) or vehicle. After these injections, animals were allowed to mature and then trained in a combined CTA/CPP procedure in adulthood (PND ~90). Animals were given four trials of conditioning with intervening water-recovery days, a final CPP test and then a one-bottle taste avoidance test. RESULTS THC induced dose-dependent taste avoidance but did not produce place conditioning. None of these effects was impacted by adolescent THC exposure. CONCLUSIONS Adolescent exposure to THC had no effect on THC taste and place conditioning in adulthood. The failure to see an effect of adolescent exposure was addressed in the context of other research that has assessed exposure of drugs of abuse during adolescence on drug reactivity in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G P Wakeford
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
| | - Shaun M Flax
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Rebecca L Pomfrey
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
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49
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Winsauer PJ, Filipeanu CM, Weed PF, Sutton JL. Hormonal status and age differentially affect tolerance to the disruptive effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) on learning in female rats. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:133. [PMID: 26191005 PMCID: PMC4488627 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of hormone status and age on the development of tolerance to Δ(9)-THC were assessed in sham-operated (intact) or ovariectomized (OVX) female rats that received either intraperitoneal saline or 5.6 mg/kg of Δ(9)-THC daily from postnatal day (PD) 75-180 (early adulthood onward) or PD 35-140 (adolescence onward). During this time, the four groups for each age (i.e., intact/saline, intact/THC, OVX/saline, and OVX/THC) were trained in a learning and performance procedure and dose-effect curves were established for Δ(9)-THC (0.56-56 mg/kg) and the cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB1R) antagonist rimonabant (0.32-10 mg/kg). Despite the persistence of small rate-decreasing and error-increasing effects in intact and OVX females from both ages during chronic Δ(9)-THC, all of the Δ(9)-THC groups developed tolerance. However, the magnitude of tolerance, as well as the effect of hormone status, varied with the age at which chronic Δ(9)-THC was initiated. There was no evidence of dependence in any of the groups. Hippocampal protein expression of CB1R, AHA1 (a co-chaperone of CB1R) and HSP90β (a molecular chaperone modulated by AHA-1) was affected more by OVX than chronic Δ(9)-THC; striatal protein expression was not consistently affected by either manipulation. Hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression varied with age, hormone status, and chronic treatment. Thus, hormonal status differentially affects the development of tolerance to the disruptive effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) on learning and performance behavior in adolescent, but not adult, female rats. These factors and their interactions also differentially affect cannabinoid signaling proteins in the hippocampus and striatum, and ultimately, neural plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Winsauer
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New OrleansNew Orleans, LA, USA
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New OrleansNew Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Catalin M. Filipeanu
- Department of Pharmacology, Howard University College of MedicineWashington, DC, USA
| | - Peter F. Weed
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New OrleansNew Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Jessie L. Sutton
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New OrleansNew Orleans, LA, USA
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Higuera-Matas A, Ucha M, Ambrosio E. Long-term consequences of perinatal and adolescent cannabinoid exposure on neural and psychological processes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 55:119-46. [PMID: 25960036 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Marihuana is the most widely consumed illicit drug, even among adolescents and pregnant women. Given the critical developmental processes that occur in the adolescent and fetal nervous system, marihuana consumption during these stages may have permanent consequences on several brain functions in later adult life. Here, we review what is currently known about the long-term consequences of perinatal and adolescent cannabinoid exposure. The most consistent findings point to long-term impairments in cognitive function that are associated with structural alterations and disturbed synaptic plasticity. In addition, several neurochemical modifications are also evident after prenatal or adolescent cannabinoid exposure, especially in the endocannabinoid, glutamatergic, dopaminergic and opioidergic systems. Important sexual dimorphisms are also evident in terms of the long-lasting effects of cannabinoid consumption during pregnancy and adolescence, and cannabinoids possibly have a protective effect in adolescents who have suffered traumatic life challenges, such as maternal separation or intense stress. Finally, we suggest some future research directions that may encourage further advances in this exciting field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Higuera-Matas
- Department of Psychobiology, School of Psychology, National University of Distance Learning (UNED), C/ Juan del Rosal 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Marcos Ucha
- Department of Psychobiology, School of Psychology, National University of Distance Learning (UNED), C/ Juan del Rosal 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Ambrosio
- Department of Psychobiology, School of Psychology, National University of Distance Learning (UNED), C/ Juan del Rosal 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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