The glucose-sensing transcription factor MLX promotes myogenesis via myokine signaling

Systemic Deletion of ARRDC4 Improves Cardiac Reserve and Exercise Capacity in Diabetes

BACKGROUND

Exercise intolerance is an independent predictor of poor prognosis in diabetes. The underlying mechanism of the association between hyperglycemia and exercise intolerance remains undefined. We recently demonstrated that the interaction between ARRDC4 (arrestin domain-containing protein 4) and GLUT1 (glucose transporter 1) regulates cardiac metabolism.

METHODS

To determine whether this mechanism broadly impacts diabetic complications, we investigated the role of ARRDC4 in the pathogenesis of diabetic cardiac/skeletal myopathy using cellular and animal models.

RESULTS

High glucose promoted translocation of MondoA into the nucleus, which upregulated Arrdc4 transcriptional expression, increased lysosomal GLUT1 trafficking, and blocked glucose transport in cardiomyocytes, forming a feedback mechanism. This role of ARRDC4 was confirmed in human muscular cells from type 2 diabetic patients. Prolonged hyperglycemia upregulated myocardial Arrdc4 expression in multiple types of mouse models of diabetes. We analyzed hyperglycemia-induced cardiac and skeletal muscle abnormalities in insulin-deficient mice. Hyperglycemia increased advanced glycation end-products and elicited oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress leading to apoptosis in the heart and peripheral muscle. Deletion of Arrdc4 augmented tissue glucose transport and mitochondrial respiration, protecting the heart and muscle from tissue damage. Stress hemodynamic analysis and treadmill exhaustion test uncovered that Arrdc4-knockout mice had greater cardiac inotropic/chronotropic reserve with higher exercise endurance than wild-type animals under diabetes. While multiple organs were involved in the mechanism, cardiac-specific overexpression using an adenoassociated virus suggests that high levels of myocardial ARRDC4 have the potential to contribute to exercise intolerance by interfering with cardiac metabolism through its interaction with GLUT1 in diabetes. Importantly, the ARRDC4 mutation mouse line exhibited greater exercise tolerance, showing the potential therapeutic impact on diabetic cardiomyopathy by disrupting the interaction between ARRDC4 and GLUT1.

CONCLUSIONS

ARRDC4 regulates hyperglycemia-induced toxicities toward cardiac and skeletal muscle, revealing a new molecular framework that connects hyperglycemia to cardiac/skeletal myopathy to exercise intolerance.

Quantitative proteomics reveals the dynamic proteome landscape of zebrafish embryos during the maternal-to-zygotic transition

Maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT) is central to early embryogenesis. However, its underlying molecular mechanisms are still not well described. Here, we revealed the expression dynamics of 5,000 proteins across four stages of zebrafish embryos during MZT, representing one of the most systematic surveys of proteome landscape of the zebrafish embryos during MZT. Nearly 700 proteins were differentially expressed and were divided into six clusters according to their expression patterns. The proteome expression profiles accurately reflect the main events that happen during the MZT, i.e., zygotic genome activation (ZGA), clearance of maternal mRNAs, and initiation of cellular differentiation and organogenesis. MZT is modulated by many proteins at multiple levels in a collaborative fashion, i.e., transcription factors, histones, histone-modifying enzymes, RNA helicases, and P-body proteins. Significant discrepancies were discovered between zebrafish proteome and transcriptome profiles during the MZT. The proteome dynamics database will be a valuable resource for bettering our understanding of MZT.

The ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UBE2D/eff maintains a youthful proteome and ensures protein quality control during aging

Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2s) are key for regulating protein function and turnover via ubiquitination but it remains undetermined which E2s maintain proteostasis during aging. Here, we find that E2s have diverse roles in handling a model aggregation-prone protein (huntingtin-polyQ) in the Drosophila retina: while some E2s mediate aggregate assembly, UBE2D/effete (eff) and other E2s are required for huntingtin-polyQ degradation. UBE2D/eff is key for proteostasis also in skeletal muscle: eff protein levels decline with aging, and muscle-specific eff knockdown causes an accelerated buildup in insoluble poly-ubiquitinated proteins (which progressively accumulate with aging) and shortens lifespan. Transgenic expression of human UBE2D2, homologous to eff, partially rescues the lifespan and proteostasis deficits caused by muscle-specific effRNAi by re-establishing the physiological levels of effRNAi-regulated proteins, which include several regulators of proteostasis. Interestingly, UBE2D/eff knockdown in young age reproduces part of the proteomic changes that normally occur in old muscles, suggesting that the decrease in UBE2D/eff protein levels that occurs with aging contributes to reshaping the composition of the muscle proteome. Altogether, these findings indicate that UBE2D/eff is a key E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme that ensures protein quality control and helps maintain a youthful proteome composition during aging.

Single-cell spatial multi-omics and deep learning dissect enhancer-driven gene regulatory networks in liver zonation

In the mammalian liver, hepatocytes exhibit diverse metabolic and functional profiles based on their location within the liver lobule. However, it is unclear whether this spatial variation, called zonation, is governed by a well-defined gene regulatory code. Here, using a combination of single-cell multiomics, spatial omics, massively parallel reporter assays and deep learning, we mapped enhancer-gene regulatory networks across mouse liver cell types. We found that zonation affects gene expression and chromatin accessibility in hepatocytes, among other cell types. These states are driven by the repressors TCF7L1 and TBX3, alongside other core hepatocyte transcription factors, such as HNF4A, CEBPA, FOXA1 and ONECUT1. To examine the architecture of the enhancers driving these cell states, we trained a hierarchical deep learning model called DeepLiver. Our study provides a multimodal understanding of the regulatory code underlying hepatocyte identity and their zonation state that can be used to engineer enhancers with specific activity levels and zonation patterns.

Signaling roles of platelets in skeletal muscle regeneration

Platelets have important hemostatic functions in repairing blood vessels upon tissue injury. Cytokines, growth factors, and metabolites stored in platelet α-granules and dense granules are released upon platelet activation and clotting. Emerging evidence indicates that such platelet-derived signaling factors are instrumental in guiding tissue regeneration. Here, we discuss the important roles of platelet-secreted signaling factors in skeletal muscle regeneration. Chemokines secreted by platelets in the early phase after injury are needed to recruit neutrophils to injured muscles, and impeding this early step of muscle regeneration exacerbates inflammation at later stages, compromises neo-angiogenesis and the growth of newly formed myofibers, and reduces post-injury muscle force production. Platelets also contribute to the recruitment of pro-regenerative stromal cells from the adipose tissue, and the platelet releasate may also regulate the metabolism and proliferation of muscle satellite cells, which sustain myogenesis. Therefore, harnessing the signaling functions of platelets and the platelet secretome may provide new avenues for promoting skeletal muscle regeneration in health and disease.

An adaptive stress response that confers cellular resilience to decreased ubiquitination

Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification initiated by the E1 enzyme UBA1, which transfers ubiquitin to ~35 E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes. While UBA1 loss is cell lethal, it remains unknown how partial reduction in UBA1 activity is endured. Here, we utilize deep-coverage mass spectrometry to define the E1-E2 interactome and to determine the proteins that are modulated by knockdown of UBA1 and of each E2 in human cells. These analyses define the UBA1/E2-sensitive proteome and the E2 specificity in protein modulation. Interestingly, profound adaptations in peroxisomes and other organelles are triggered by decreased ubiquitination. While the cargo receptor PEX5 depends on its mono-ubiquitination for binding to peroxisomal proteins and importing them into peroxisomes, we find that UBA1/E2 knockdown induces the compensatory upregulation of other PEX proteins necessary for PEX5 docking to the peroxisomal membrane. Altogether, this study defines a homeostatic mechanism that sustains peroxisomal protein import in cells with decreased ubiquitination capacity.

Glucose-induced and ChREBP: MLX-mediated lipogenic program promotes hepatocellular carcinoma development

The Carbohydrate Response Element (ChoRE) Binding Protein (ChREBP) and its binding partner Max-like protein X (MLX) mediate transcription of lipogenic genes under glucose-rich conditions. Dysregulation of glucose and lipid metabolism frequently occurs in cancers, including Hepatocellular Carcinomas (HCCs). However, it is currently unclear whether the glucose-induced lipogenic program plays a role in the development of HCCs. Here, we show that MLX expression is elevated in HCC specimens and downregulation of MLX expression inhibits proliferation of HCC cells. In mice, liver-specific knockout of Mlx results in dramatic decrease in the expression of lipogenic genes and lipid levels in circulation. Interestingly, in the absence of Mlx, the development of tumors in multiple HCC models, such as diethylnitrosamine (DEN) treatment and hydrodynamic injection of oncogenes (AKT/RAS or CTNNB1/RAS), is robustly blocked. However, a high-fat diet can partially restore tumorigenesis in Mlx-deficient livers, indicating a critical role of lipid synthesis in HCC development. In addition, liver-specific expression of a dominant negative MLX (dnMLX) via adeno-associated virus effectively blocks tumorigenesis in mice. Thus, the glucose-induced lipogenic program is required in the development of HCC, and the ChREBP: MLX transcription factors serve as a potential target for cancer therapies.

AAV1.NT-3 gene therapy in the SOD1KO mouse model of accelerated sarcopenia

BACKGROUND

Sarcopenia, an age-related loss of muscle mass, is a critical factor that affects the health of the older adults. The SOD1KO mouse is deficient of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, used as an accelerated aging model. We previously showed that NT-3 improves muscle fibre size by activating the mTOR pathway, suggesting a potential for attenuating age-related muscle loss. This study assessed the therapeutic efficacy of AAV1.NT-3 in this accelerated aging model.

METHODS

Twelve 6 months old SOD1KO mice were injected intramuscularly with a 1 × 1011 vg dose of AAV1.tMCK.NT-3, and 13 age-matched SOD1KO mice were used as controls. The treatment effect was evaluated using treadmill, rotarod and gait analyses as well as histological studies assessing changes in muscle fibre, and fibre type switch, in tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, and triceps muscles, and myelin thickness by calculating G ratio in sciatic and tibial nerves. Molecular studies involved qPCR experiments to analyse the expression levels of mitochondrial and glycolysis markers and western blot experiments to assess the activity of mTORC1 pathway.

RESULTS

Treatment resulted in a 36% (154.9 vs. 114.1; P < 0.0001) and 76% increase (154.3 vs. 87.6; P < 0.0001) in meters ran, with treadmill test at 3 and 6 months post gene delivery. In addition, the treated cohort stayed on rotarod 30% (52.7 s vs. 40.4 s; P = 0.0095) and 54% (50.4 s vs. 32.7 s; P = 0.0007) longer, compared with untreated counterparts at 3 and 6 months post injection. Gait analysis, performed at endpoint, showed that stride width was normalized to wild type levels (29.3 mm) by an 11% decrease, compared with untreated cohort (28.6 mm vs. 32.1 mm; P = 0.0014). Compared with wild-type, SOD1KO mice showed 9.4% and 11.4% fibre size decrease in tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscles, respectively, which were normalized to wild type levels with treatment. Fibre diameter increase was observed prominently in FTG fibre type. G ratio analysis revealed hypomyelination in the tibial (0.721) and sciatic (0.676) nerves of SOD1KO model, which was reversed in the NT-3 cohort (0.646 and 0.634, respectively). Fibre size increase correlated with the increase in the p-S6 and p-4E-BP1 levels, and in the glycolysis markers in tibialis anterior. Alterations observed in the mitochondrial markers were not rescued with treatment. Overall, response to NT-3 was subdued in gastrocnemius muscle.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that AAV1.NT-3 gene therapy protected SOD1KO mouse from accelerated aging effects functionally and histologically. We further confirmed that NT-3 has potential to activate the mTOR and glycolytic pathways in muscle.

Platelet-derived chemokines promote skeletal muscle regeneration by guiding neutrophil recruitment to injured muscles

Skeletal muscle regeneration involves coordinated interactions between different cell types. Injection of platelet-rich plasma is circumstantially considered an aid to muscle repair but whether platelets promote regeneration beyond their role in hemostasis remains unexplored. Here, we find that signaling via platelet-released chemokines is an early event necessary for muscle repair in mice. Platelet depletion reduces the levels of the platelet-secreted neutrophil chemoattractants CXCL5 and CXCL7/PPBP. Consequently, early-phase neutrophil infiltration to injured muscles is impaired whereas later inflammation is exacerbated. Consistent with this model, neutrophil infiltration to injured muscles is compromised in male mice with Cxcl7-knockout platelets. Moreover, neo-angiogenesis and the re-establishment of myofiber size and muscle strength occurs optimally in control mice post-injury but not in Cxcl7ko mice and in neutrophil-depleted mice. Altogether, these findings indicate that platelet-secreted CXCL7 promotes regeneration by recruiting neutrophils to injured muscles, and that this signaling axis could be utilized therapeutically to boost muscle regeneration.

Progressive development of melanoma-induced cachexia differentially impacts organ systems in mice

Cachexia is a systemic wasting syndrome that increases cancer-associated mortality. How cachexia progressively and differentially impacts distinct tissues is largely unknown. Here, we find that the heart and skeletal muscle undergo wasting at early stages and are the tissues transcriptionally most impacted by cachexia. We also identify general and organ-specific transcriptional changes that indicate functional derangement by cachexia even in tissues that do not undergo wasting, such as the brain. Secreted factors constitute a top category of cancer-regulated genes in host tissues, and these changes include upregulation of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). ACE inhibition with the drug lisinopril improves muscle force and partially impedes cachexia-induced transcriptional changes, although wasting is not prevented, suggesting that cancer-induced host-secreted factors can regulate tissue function during cachexia. Altogether, by defining prevalent and temporal and tissue-specific responses to cachexia, this resource highlights biomarkers and possible targets for general and tissue-tailored anti-cachexia therapies.

Modulation of protease expression by the transcription factor Ptx1/PITX regulates protein quality control during aging

Protein quality control is important for healthy aging and is dysregulated in age-related diseases. The autophagy-lysosome and ubiquitin-proteasome are key for proteostasis, but it remains largely unknown whether other proteolytic systems also contribute to maintain proteostasis during aging. Here, we find that expression of proteolytic enzymes (proteases/peptidases) distinct from the autophagy-lysosome and ubiquitin-proteasome systems declines during skeletal muscle aging in Drosophila. Age-dependent protease downregulation undermines proteostasis, as demonstrated by the increase in detergent-insoluble poly-ubiquitinated proteins and pathogenic huntingtin-polyQ levels in response to protease knockdown. Computational analyses identify the transcription factor Ptx1 (homologous to human PITX1/2/3) as a regulator of protease expression. Consistent with this model, Ptx1 protein levels increase with aging, and Ptx1 RNAi counteracts the age-associated downregulation of protease expression. Moreover, Ptx1 RNAi improves muscle protein quality control in a protease-dependent manner and extends lifespan. These findings indicate that proteases and their transcriptional modulator Ptx1 ensure proteostasis during aging.

Muscle-to-Brain Signaling Via Myokines and Myometabolites

Skeletal muscle health and function are important determinants of systemic metabolic homeostasis and organism-wide responses, including disease outcome. While it is well known that exercise protects the central nervous system (CNS) from aging and disease, only recently this has been found to depend on the endocrine capacity of skeletal muscle. Here, we review muscle-secreted growth factors and cytokines (myokines), metabolites (myometabolites), and other unconventional signals (e.g. bioactive lipid species, enzymes, and exosomes) that mediate muscle-brain and muscle-retina communication and neuroprotection in response to exercise and associated processes, such as the muscle unfolded protein response and metabolic stress. In addition to impacting proteostasis, neurogenesis, and cognitive functions, muscle-brain signaling influences complex brain-dependent behaviors, such as depression, sleeping patterns, and biosynthesis of neurotransmitters. Moreover, myokine signaling adapts feeding behavior to meet the energy demands of skeletal muscle. Contrary to protective myokines induced by exercise and associated signaling pathways, inactivity and muscle wasting may derange myokine expression and secretion and in turn compromise CNS function. We propose that tailoring muscle-to-CNS signaling by modulating myokines and myometabolites may combat age-related neurodegeneration and brain diseases that are influenced by systemic signals.

Electroporation of Small Interfering RNAs into Tibialis Anterior Muscles of Mice

Aging and wasting of skeletal muscle reduce organismal fitness. Regrettably, only limited interventions are currently available to address this unmet medical need. Many methods have been developed to study this condition, including the intramuscular electroporation of DNA plasmids. However, this technique requires surgery and high electrical fields, which cause tissue damage. Here, we report an optimized protocol for the electroporation of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) into the tibialis anterior muscle of mice. This protocol does not require surgery and, because of the small siRNA size, mild electroporation conditions are utilized. By inducing target mRNA knockdown, this method can be used to interrogate gene function in muscles of mice from different strains, genotypes, and ages. Moreover, a complementary method for siRNA transfection into differentiated myotubes can be used for testing siRNA efficacy before in vivo use. Altogether, this streamlined protocol is instrumental for basic science and translational studies in muscles of mice and other animal models.

The myokine Fibcd1 is an endogenous determinant of myofiber size and mitigates cancer-induced myofiber atrophy

Decline in skeletal muscle cell size (myofiber atrophy) is a key feature of cancer-induced wasting (cachexia). In particular, atrophy of the diaphragm, the major muscle responsible for breathing, is an important determinant of cancer-associated mortality. However, therapeutic options are limited. Here, we have used Drosophila transgenic screening to identify muscle-secreted factors (myokines) that act as paracrine regulators of myofiber growth. Subsequent testing in mouse myotubes revealed that mouse Fibcd1 is an evolutionary-conserved myokine that preserves myofiber size via ERK signaling. Local administration of recombinant Fibcd1 (rFibcd1) ameliorates cachexia-induced myofiber atrophy in the diaphragm of mice bearing patient-derived melanoma xenografts and LLC carcinomas. Moreover, rFibcd1 impedes cachexia-associated transcriptional changes in the diaphragm. Fibcd1-induced signaling appears to be muscle selective because rFibcd1 increases ERK activity in myotubes but not in several cancer cell lines tested. We propose that rFibcd1 may help reinstate myofiber size in the diaphragm of patients with cancer cachexia.

Dynamic nucleosome organization after fertilization reveals regulatory factors for mouse zygotic genome activation

Chromatin remodeling is essential for epigenome reprogramming after fertilization. However, the underlying mechanisms of chromatin remodeling remain to be explored. Here, we investigated the dynamic changes in nucleosome occupancy and positioning in pronucleus-stage zygotes using ultra low-input MNase-seq. We observed distinct features of inheritance and reconstruction of nucleosome positioning in both paternal and maternal genomes. Genome-wide de novo nucleosome occupancy in the paternal genome was observed as early as 1 h after the injection of sperm into ooplasm. The nucleosome positioning pattern was continually rebuilt to form nucleosome-depleted regions (NDRs) at promoters and transcription factor (TF) binding sites with differential dynamics in paternal and maternal genomes. NDRs formed more quickly on the promoters of genes involved in zygotic genome activation (ZGA), and this formation is closely linked to histone acetylation, but not transcription elongation or DNA replication. Importantly, we found that NDR establishment on the binding motifs of specific TFs might be associated with their potential pioneer functions in ZGA. Further investigations suggested that the predicted factors MLX and RFX1 played important roles in regulating minor and major ZGA, respectively. Our data not only elucidate the nucleosome positioning dynamics in both male and female pronuclei following fertilization, but also provide an efficient method for identifying key transcription regulators during development.

Blood Transcriptome Profiling Links Immunity to Disease Severity in Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 (DM1)

The blood transcriptome was examined in relation to disease severity in type I myotonic dystrophy (DM1) patients who participated in the Observational Prolonged Trial In DM1 to Improve QoL- Standards (OPTIMISTIC) study. This sought to (a) ascertain if transcriptome changes were associated with increasing disease severity, as measured by the muscle impairment rating scale (MIRS), and (b) establish if these changes in mRNA expression and associated biological pathways were also observed in the Dystrophia Myotonica Biomarker Discovery Initiative (DMBDI) microarray dataset in blood (with equivalent MIRS/DMPK repeat length). The changes in gene expression were compared using a number of complementary pathways, gene ontology and upstream regulator analyses, which suggested that symptom severity in DM1 was linked to transcriptomic alterations in innate and adaptive immunity associated with muscle-wasting. Future studies should explore the role of immunity in DM1 in more detail to assess its relevance to DM1.

Normal and Neoplastic Growth Suppression by the Extended Myc Network

Among the first discovered and most prominent cellular oncogenes is MYC, which encodes a bHLH-ZIP transcription factor (Myc) that both activates and suppresses numerous genes involved in proliferation, energy production, metabolism and translation. Myc belongs to a small group of bHLH-ZIP transcriptional regulators (the Myc Network) that includes its obligate heterodimerization partner Max and six "Mxd proteins" (Mxd1-4, Mnt and Mga), each of which heterodimerizes with Max and largely opposes Myc's functions. More recently, a second group of bHLH-ZIP proteins (the Mlx Network) has emerged that bears many parallels with the Myc Network. It is comprised of the Myc-like factors ChREBP and MondoA, which, in association with the Max-like member Mlx, regulate smaller and more functionally restricted repertoires of target genes, some of which are shared with Myc. Opposing ChREBP and MondoA are heterodimers comprised of Mlx and Mxd1, Mxd4 and Mnt, which also structurally and operationally link the two Networks. We discuss here the functions of these "Extended Myc Network" members, with particular emphasis on their roles in suppressing normal and neoplastic growth. These roles are complex due to the temporal- and tissue-restricted expression of Extended Myc Network proteins in normal cells, their regulation of both common and unique target genes and, in some cases, their functional redundancy.

A large-scale transgenic RNAi screen identifies transcription factors that modulate myofiber size in Drosophila

Myofiber atrophy occurs with aging and in many diseases but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Here, we have used >1,100 muscle-targeted RNAi interventions to comprehensively assess the function of 447 transcription factors in the developmental growth of body wall skeletal muscles in Drosophila. This screen identifies new regulators of myofiber atrophy and hypertrophy, including the transcription factor Deaf1. Deaf1 RNAi increases myofiber size whereas Deaf1 overexpression induces atrophy. Consistent with its annotation as a Gsk3 phosphorylation substrate, Deaf1 and Gsk3 induce largely overlapping transcriptional changes that are opposed by Deaf1 RNAi. The top category of Deaf1-regulated genes consists of glycolytic enzymes, which are suppressed by Deaf1 and Gsk3 but are upregulated by Deaf1 RNAi. Similar to Deaf1 and Gsk3 overexpression, RNAi for glycolytic enzymes reduces myofiber growth. Altogether, this study defines the repertoire of transcription factors that regulate developmental myofiber growth and the role of Gsk3/Deaf1/glycolysis in this process.

Integrated genomic and proteomic analyses identify stimulus-dependent molecular changes associated with distinct modes of skeletal muscle atrophy

Skeletal muscle atrophy is a debilitating condition that occurs with aging and disease, but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Previous work determined that common transcriptional changes occur in muscle during atrophy induced by different stimuli. However, whether this holds true at the proteome level remains largely unexplored. Here, we find that, contrary to this earlier model, distinct atrophic stimuli (corticosteroids, cancer cachexia, and aging) induce largely different mRNA and protein changes during muscle atrophy in mice. Moreover, there is widespread transcriptome-proteome disconnect. Consequently, atrophy markers (atrogenes) identified in earlier microarray-based studies do not emerge from proteomics as generally induced by atrophy. Rather, we identify proteins that are distinctly modulated by different types of atrophy (herein defined as “atroproteins”) such as the myokine CCN1/Cyr61, which regulates myofiber type switching during sarcopenia. Altogether, these integrated analyses indicate that different catabolic stimuli induce muscle atrophy via largely distinct mechanisms.

Skeletal muscle wasting is caused by many catabolic stimuli, which were thought to act via shared mechanisms. Hunt et al. now show that distinct catabolic stimuli induce muscle wasting via largely different molecular changes. The authors identify atrophy-associated proteins (“atroproteins”) that may represent diagnostic biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets.

The glucose-sensing transcription factor MLX balances metabolism and stress to suppress apoptosis and maintain spermatogenesis

Male germ cell (GC) production is a metabolically driven and apoptosis-prone process. Here, we show that the glucose-sensing transcription factor (TF) MAX-Like protein X (MLX) and its binding partner MondoA are both required for male fertility in the mouse, as well as survival of human tumor cells derived from the male germ line. Loss of Mlx results in altered metabolism as well as activation of multiple stress pathways and GC apoptosis in the testes. This is concomitant with dysregulation of the expression of male-specific GC transcripts and proteins. Our genomic and functional analyses identify loci directly bound by MLX involved in these processes, including metabolic targets, obligate components of male-specific GC development, and apoptotic effectors. These in vivo and in vitro studies implicate MLX and other members of the proximal MYC network, such as MNT, in regulation of metabolism and differentiation, as well as in suppression of intrinsic and extrinsic death signaling pathways in both spermatogenesis and male germ cell tumors (MGCTs).

Analysis of proteostasis during aging with western blot of detergent-soluble and insoluble protein fractions

Defects in protein quality control are the underlying cause of age-related diseases. The western blot analysis of detergent-soluble and insoluble protein fractions has proven useful in identifying interventions that regulate proteostasis. Here, we describe the protocol for such analyses in Drosophila tissues, mouse skeletal muscle, human organoids, and HEK293 cells. We describe key adaptations of this protocol and provide key information that will help modify this protocol for future studies in other tissues and disease models. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Rai et al. (2021) and Hunt el al. (2021).

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Reveals the Migration of Osteoclasts in Giant Cell Tumor of Bone

Giant cell tumor of bone (GCTB) is benign tumor that can cause significant osteolysis and bone destruction at the epiphysis of long bones. Osteoclasts are thought to be highly associated with osteolysis in GCTB. However, the migration of osteoclasts in GCTB remains unclear. A deeper understanding of the complex tumor microenvironment is required in order to delineate the migration of osteoclasts in GCTB. In this study, samples were isolated from one patient diagnosed with GCTB. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) was used to detect the heterogeneity of GCTB. Multiplex immunofluorescence staining was used to evaluate the cell subtypes identified by scRNA-seq. A total of 8,033 cells were obtained from one patient diagnosed with GCTB, which were divided into eight major cell types as depicted by a single-cell transcriptional map. The osteoclasts were divided into three subsets, and their differentiation trajectory and migration status were further analyzed. Osteoclast migration may be regulated via a series of genes associated with cell migration. Furthermore, four signaling pathways (RANKL, PARs, CD137 and SMEA3 signaling pathway) were found to be highly associated with osteoclast migration. This comprehensive single-cell transcriptome analysis of GCTB identified a series of genes associated with cell migration as well as four major signaling pathways that were highly related to the migration of osteoclasts in GCTB. Our findings broaden the understanding of GCTB bionetworks and provides a theoretical basis for anti-osteolysis therapy against GCTB in the future.

Age-Related Increase in Lactate Dehydrogenase Activity in Skeletal Muscle Reduces Lifespan in Drosophila

Metabolic adaptations occur with aging but the significance and causal roles of such changes are only partially known. In Drosophila, we find that skeletal muscle aging is paradoxically characterized by increased readouts of glycolysis (lactate, NADH/NAD+) but reduced expression of most glycolytic enzymes. This conundrum is explained by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), an enzyme necessary for anaerobic glycolysis and whose expression increases with aging. Experimental Ldh overexpression in skeletal muscle of young flies increases glycolysis and shortens lifespan, suggesting that age-related increases in muscle LDH contribute to mortality. Similar results are also found with overexpression of other glycolytic enzymes (Pfrx/PFKFB, Pgi/GPI). Conversely, hypomorphic mutations in Ldh extend lifespan whereas reduction in PFK, Pglym78/PGAM, Pgi/GPI, and Ald/ALDO levels shorten lifespan to various degrees, indicating that glycolysis needs to be tightly controlled for optimal aging. Altogether, these findings indicate a role for muscle LDH and glycolysis in aging.

Electrical Stimulation of Cultured Myotubes in vitro as a Model of Skeletal Muscle Activity: Current State and Future Prospects

Skeletal muscles comprise more than a third of human body mass and critically contribute to regulation of body metabolism. Chronic inactivity reduces metabolic activity and functional capacity of muscles, leading to metabolic and other disorders, reduced life quality and duration. Cellular models based on progenitor cells isolated from human muscle biopsies and then differentiated into mature fibers in vitro can be used to solve a wide range of experimental tasks. The review discusses the aspects of myogenesis dynamics and regulation, which might be important in the development of an adequate cell model. The main function of skeletal muscle is contraction; therefore, electrical stimulation is important for both successful completion of myogenesis and in vitro modeling of major processes induced in the skeletal muscle by acute or regular physical exercise. The review analyzes the drawbacks of such cellular model and possibilities for its optimization, as well as the prospects for its further application to address fundamental aspects of muscle physiology and biochemistry and explore cellular and molecular mechanisms of metabolic diseases.

Proteasome stress in skeletal muscle mounts a long-range protective response that delays retinal and brain aging

Neurodegeneration in the central nervous system (CNS) is a defining feature of organismal aging that is influenced by peripheral tissues. Clinical observations indicate that skeletal muscle influences CNS aging, but the underlying muscle-to-brain signaling remains unexplored. In Drosophila, we find that moderate perturbation of the proteasome in skeletal muscle induces compensatory preservation of CNS proteostasis during aging. Such long-range stress signaling depends on muscle-secreted Amyrel amylase. Mimicking stress-induced Amyrel upregulation in muscle reduces age-related accumulation of poly-ubiquitinated proteins in the brain and retina via chaperones. Preservation of proteostasis stems from the disaccharide maltose, which is produced via Amyrel amylase activity. Correspondingly, RNAi for SLC45 maltose transporters reduces expression of Amyrel-induced chaperones and worsens brain proteostasis during aging. Moreover, maltose preserves proteostasis and neuronal activity in human brain organoids challenged by thermal stress. Thus, proteasome stress in skeletal muscle hinders retinal and brain aging by mounting an adaptive response via amylase/maltose.

Antagonistic control of myofiber size and muscle protein quality control by the ubiquitin ligase UBR4 during aging

Sarcopenia is a degenerative condition that consists in age-induced atrophy and functional decline of skeletal muscle cells (myofibers). A common hypothesis is that inducing myofiber hypertrophy should also reinstate myofiber contractile function but such model has not been extensively tested. Here, we find that the levels of the ubiquitin ligase UBR4 increase in skeletal muscle with aging, and that UBR4 increases the proteolytic activity of the proteasome. Importantly, muscle-specific UBR4 loss rescues age-associated myofiber atrophy in mice. However, UBR4 loss reduces the muscle specific force and accelerates the decline in muscle protein quality that occurs with aging in mice. Similarly, hypertrophic signaling induced via muscle-specific loss of UBR4/poe and of ESCRT members (HGS/Hrs, STAM, USP8) that degrade ubiquitinated membrane proteins compromises muscle function and shortens lifespan in Drosophila by reducing protein quality control. Altogether, these findings indicate that these ubiquitin ligases antithetically regulate myofiber size and muscle protein quality control.

MondoA regulates gene expression in cholesterol biosynthesis-associated pathways required for zebrafish epiboly

The glucose-sensing Mondo pathway regulates expression of metabolic genes in mammals. Here, we characterized its function in the zebrafish and revealed an unexpected role of this pathway in vertebrate embryonic development. We showed that knockdown of mondoa impaired the early morphogenetic movement of epiboly in zebrafish embryos and caused microtubule defects. Expression of genes in the terpenoid backbone and sterol biosynthesis pathways upstream of pregnenolone synthesis was coordinately downregulated in these embryos, including the most downregulated gene nsdhl. Loss of Nsdhl function likewise impaired epiboly, similar to MondoA loss of function. Both epiboly and microtubule defects were partially restored by pregnenolone treatment. Maternal-zygotic mutants of mondoa showed perturbed epiboly with low penetrance and compensatory changes in the expression of terpenoid/sterol/steroid metabolism genes. Collectively, our results show a novel role for MondoA in the regulation of early vertebrate development, connecting glucose, cholesterol and steroid hormone metabolism with early embryonic cell movements.

Deletion of the Williams Beuren syndrome critical region unmasks facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy

Among 1339 unrelated cases accrued by the Italian National Registry for facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD), we found three unrelated cases who presented signs of Williams-Beuren Syndrome (WBS) in early childhood and later developed FSHD. All three cases carry the molecular defects associated with the two disorders. The rarity of WBS and FSHD, 1 in 7500 and 1 in 20,000 respectively, makes a random association of the two diseases unlikely. These cases open novel and unexpected interpretation of genetic findings. The nonrandom association of both FSHD and WBS points at a gene co-expression network providing hints for the identification of modules and functionally enriched pathways in the two conditions.

SMaRT lncRNA controls translation of a G-quadruplex-containing mRNA antagonizing the DHX36 helicase

Guanine‐quadruplexes (G4) included in RNA molecules exert several functions in controlling gene expression at post‐transcriptional level; however, the molecular mechanisms of G4‐mediated regulation are still poorly understood. Here, we describe a regulatory circuitry operating in the early phases of murine muscle differentiation in which a long non‐coding RNA (SMaRT) base pairs with a G4‐containing mRNA (Mlx‐γ) and represses its translation by counteracting the activity of the DHX36 RNA helicase. The time‐restricted, specific effect of lnc‐SMaRT on the translation of Mlx‐γ isoform modulates the general subcellular localization of total MLX proteins, impacting on their transcriptional output and promoting proper myogenesis and mature myotube formation. Therefore, the circuitry made of lnc‐SMaRT, Mlx‐γ, and DHX36 not only plays an important role in the control of myogenesis but also unravels a molecular mechanism where G4 structures and G4 unwinding activities are regulated in living cells.

Glucose-Sensing Transcription Factor MondoA/ChREBP as Targets for Type 2 Diabetes: Opportunities and Challenges

The worldwide increase in type 2 diabetes (T2D) is becoming a major health concern, thus searching for novel preventive and therapeutic strategies has become urgent. In last decade, the paralogous transcription factors MondoA and carbohydrate response element-binding protein (ChREBP) have been revealed to be central mediators of glucose sensing in multiple metabolic organs. Under normal nutrient conditions, MondoA/ChREBP plays vital roles in maintaining glucose homeostasis. However, under chronic nutrient overload, the dysregulation of MondoA/ChREBP contributes to metabolic disorders, such as insulin resistance (IR) and T2D. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of recent advances in the understanding of MondoA/ChREBP and its roles in T2D development. Specifically, we will briefly summarize the functional similarities and differences between MondoA and ChREBP. Then, we will update the roles of MondoA/ChREBP in four T2D-associated metabolic organs (i.e., the skeletal muscle, liver, adipose tissue, and pancreas) in physiological and pathological conditions. Finally, we will discuss the opportunities and challenges of MondoA/ChREBP as drug targets for anti-diabetes. By doing so, we highlight the potential use of therapies targeting MondoA/ChREBP to counteract T2D and its complications.

A Key Role for the Ubiquitin Ligase UBR4 in Myofiber Hypertrophy in Drosophila and Mice

Skeletal muscle cell (myofiber) atrophy is a detrimental component of aging and cancer that primarily results from muscle protein degradation via the proteasome and ubiquitin ligases. Transcriptional upregulation of some ubiquitin ligases contributes to myofiber atrophy, but little is known about the role that most other ubiquitin ligases play in this process. To address this question, we have used RNAi screening in Drosophila to identify the function of > 320 evolutionarily conserved ubiquitin ligases in myofiber size regulation in vivo. We find that whereas RNAi for some ubiquitin ligases induces myofiber atrophy, loss of others (including the N-end rule ubiquitin ligase UBR4) promotes hypertrophy. In Drosophila and mouse myofibers, loss of UBR4 induces hypertrophy via decreased ubiquitination and degradation of a core set of target proteins, including the HAT1/RBBP4/RBBP7 histone-binding complex. Together, this study defines the repertoire of ubiquitin ligases that regulate myofiber size and the role of UBR4 in myofiber hypertrophy.

Circadian gene variants and the skeletal muscle circadian clock contribute to the evolutionary divergence in longevity across Drosophila populations

Organisms use endogenous clocks to adapt to the rhythmicity of the environment and to synchronize social activities. Although the circadian cycle is implicated in aging, it is unknown whether natural variation in its function contributes to differences in lifespan between populations and whether the circadian clock of specific tissues is key for longevity. We have sequenced the genomes of Drosophila melanogaster strains with exceptional longevity that were obtained via multiple rounds of selection from a parental strain. Comparison of genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data revealed that changes in gene expression due to intergenic polymorphisms are associated with longevity and preservation of skeletal muscle function with aging in these strains. Analysis of transcription factors differentially modulated in long-lived versus parental strains indicates a possible role of circadian clock core components. Specifically, there is higher period and timeless and lower cycle expression in the muscle of strains with delayed aging compared to the parental strain. These changes in the levels of circadian clock transcription factors lead to changes in the muscle circadian transcriptome, which includes genes involved in metabolism, proteolysis, and xenobiotic detoxification. Moreover, a skeletal muscle-specific increase in timeless expression extends lifespan and recapitulates some of the transcriptional and circadian changes that differentiate the long-lived from the parental strains. Altogether, these findings indicate that the muscle circadian clock is important for longevity and that circadian gene variants contribute to the evolutionary divergence in longevity across populations.

Presence of meniscus tear alters gene expression profile of anterior cruciate ligament tears

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears occur in isolation or in tandem with other intra-articular injuries such as meniscus tears. The impact of injury pattern on the molecular biology of the injured ACL is unknown. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the biological response of the ACL to injury varies based on the presence or absence of concomitant meniscus tear. We performed RNA-seq on 28 ACL tears remnants (12 isolated, 16 combined). In total, 16,654 transcripts were differentially expressed between isolated and combined injury groups at false discovery rate of 0.05. Due to the large number of differentially expressed transcripts, we undertook an Ensembl approach to discover features that acted as hub genes that did not necessarily have large fold changes or high statistical significance, but instead had high biological significance. Our data revealed a negatively correlated module containing 5,960 transcripts (down-regulated in combined injury) and a positively correlated module containing 2,260 transcripts (up-regulated in combined injury). TNS1, MEF2D, NOTCH3, SOGA1, and MLXIP were highly-connected hub genes in the negatively correlated module and SCN2A, CSMD3, LRC44, USH2A, and LRP1B were critical hub genes in the positively correlated module. Transcripts in the negatively correlated module were associated with biological adhesion, actin-filament organization, cell junction assembly, and cell matrix adhesion. The positively correlated module transcripts were enriched for neuron migration and exocytosis regulation. These findings indicate genes and pathways reflective of healing deficiency and gain of neurogenic signaling in combined ACL and meniscus tears, suggesting their diminished repair potential. The biological response of ACL to injury could have implications for healing potential of the ligament and the long term health of the knee. © 2018 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 36:2612-2621, 2018.

The MYC transcription factor network: balancing metabolism, proliferation and oncogenesis

Transcription factor networks have evolved in order to control, coordinate, and separate, the functions of distinct network modules spatially and temporally. In this review we focus on the MYC network (also known as the MAX-MLX Network), a highly conserved super-family of related basic-helix-loop-helix-zipper (bHLHZ) proteins that functions to integrate extracellular and intracellular signals and modulate global gene expression. Importantly the MYC network has been shown to be deeply involved in a broad spectrum of human and other animal cancers. Here we summarize molecular and biological properties of the network modules with emphasis on functional interactions among network members. We suggest that these network interactions serve to modulate growth and metabolism at the transcriptional level in order to balance nutrient demand with supply, to maintain growth homeostasis, and to influence cell fate. Moreover, oncogenic activation of MYC and/or loss of a MYC antagonist, results in an imbalance in the activity of the network as a whole, leading to tumor initiation, progression and maintenance.

Placental phenotype and the insulin-like growth factors: resource allocation to fetal growth

The placenta is the main determinant of fetal growth and development in utero. It supplies all the nutrients and oxygen required for fetal growth and secretes hormones that facilitate maternal allocation of nutrients to the fetus. Furthermore, the placenta responds to nutritional and metabolic signals in the mother by altering its structural and functional phenotype, which can lead to changes in maternal resource allocation to the fetus. The molecular mechanisms by which the placenta senses and responds to environmental cues are poorly understood. This review discusses the role of the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) in controlling placental resource allocation to fetal growth, particularly in response to adverse gestational environments. In particular, it assesses the impact of the IGFs and their signalling machinery on placental morphogenesis, substrate transport and hormone secretion, primarily in the laboratory species, although it draws on data from human and other species where relevant. It also considers the role of the IGFs as environmental signals in linking resource availability to fetal growth through changes in the morphological and functional phenotype of the placenta. As altered fetal growth is associated with increased perinatal morbidity and mortality and a greater risk of developing adult-onset diseases in later life, understanding the role of IGFs during pregnancy in regulating placental resource allocation to fetal growth is important for identifying the mechanisms underlying the developmental programming of offspring phenotype by suboptimal intrauterine growth.

MondoA/ChREBP: The usual suspects of transcriptional glucose sensing; Implication in pathophysiology

Identification of the Mondo glucose-responsive transcription factors family, including the MondoA and MondoB/ChREBP paralogs, has shed light on the mechanism whereby glucose affects gene transcription. They have clearly emerged, in recent years, as key mediators of glucose sensing by multiple cell types. MondoA and ChREBP have overlapping yet distinct expression profiles, which underlie their downstream targets and separate roles in regulating genes involved in glucose metabolism. MondoA can restrict glucose uptake and influences energy utilization in skeletal muscle, while ChREBP signals energy storage through de novo lipogenesis in liver and white adipose tissue. Because Mondo proteins mediate metabolic adaptations to changing glucose levels, a better understanding of cellular glucose sensing through Mondo proteins will likely uncover new therapeutic opportunities in the context of the imbalanced glucose homeostasis that accompanies metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cancer. Here, we provide an overview of structural homologies, transcriptional partners as well as the nutrient and hormonal mechanisms underlying Mondo proteins regulation. We next summarize their relative contribution to energy metabolism changes in physiological states and the evolutionary conservation of these pathways. Finally, we discuss their possible targeting in human pathologies.