Role of NF-kappaB in immune and inflammatory responses in the gut

Mannose coated selenium nanoparticles normalize intestinal homeostasis in mice and mitigate colitis by inhibiting NF-κB activation and enhancing glutathione peroxidase expression

Impaired intestinal homeostasis is a major pathological feature of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Mannose and selenium (Se) both demonstrate potential anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. However, most lectin receptors bind free monosaccharide ligands with relatively low affinity and most Se species induce side effects beyond a very narrow range of dosage. This has contributed to a poorly explored therapies for IBD that combine mannose and Se to target intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) for normalization gut homeostasis. Herein, a facile and safe strategy for ulcerative colitis (UC) treatment was developed using optimized, mannose-functionalized Se nanoparticles (M-SeNPs) encapsulated within a colon-targeted hydrogel delivery system containing alginate (SA) and chitosan (CS). This biocompatible nanosystem was efficiently taken up by IECs and led to increased expression of Se-dependent glutathione peroxidases (GPXs), thereby modulating IECs' immune response. Using a mouse model of DSS-induced colitis, (CS/SA)-embedding M-SeNPs (C/S-MSe) were found to mitigate oxidative stress and inflammation through the inhibition of the NF-kB pathway in the colon. This stabilized mucosal homeostasis of IECs and ameliorated colitis-related symptoms, thereby providing a potential new approach for treatment of IBD.

Sex-Specific Effects of Environmental Exposure to the Antimicrobial Agents Benzalkonium Chloride and Triclosan on the Gut Microbiota and Health of Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The use of disinfectants containing benzalkonium chloride (BAC) has become increasingly widespread in response to triclosan (TCS) restrictions and the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to the increasing presence of BAC in aquatic ecosystems. However, the potential environmental health impacts of BAC on fish remain poorly explored. In this study, we show that BAC and TCS can induce the gut dysbiosis in zebrafish (Danio rerio), with substantial effects on health. Breeding pairs of adult zebrafish were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of BAC and TCS (0.4-40 μg/L) for 42 days. Both BAC and TCS exposure perturbed the gut microbiota, triggering the classical NF-κB signaling pathway and resulting in downstream pathological toxicity associated with inflammatory responses, histological damage, inhibited ingestion, and decreased survival. These effects were dose-dependent and sex-specific, as female zebrafish were more susceptible than male zebrafish. Furthermore, we found that BAC induced toxicity to a greater extent than the restricted TCS at environmentally relevant concentrations, which is particularly concerning. Our results suggest that environmental exposure to antimicrobial chemicals can have ecological consequences by perturbing the gut microbiota, a previously underappreciated target of such chemicals. Rigorous ecological analysis should be conducted before widely introducing replacement antimicrobial compounds into disinfecting products.

Lactobacillus acidophilus inhibits the TNF-α-induced increase in intestinal epithelial tight junction permeability via a TLR-2 and PI3K-dependent inhibition of NF-κB activation

Background

Defective intestinal epithelial tight junction (TJ), characterized by an increase in intestinal TJ permeability, has been shown to play a critical role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is a key pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in the immunopathology of IBD and has been shown to cause an increase in intestinal epithelial TJ permeability. Although TNF-α antibodies and other biologics have been advanced for use in IBD treatment, these therapies are associated with severe side effects and have limited efficacy, and there is an urgent need for therapies with benign profiles and high therapeutic efficacy. Probiotic bacteria have beneficial effects and are generally safe and represent an important class of potential therapeutic agents in IBD. Lactobacillus acidophilus (LA) is one of the most used probiotics for wide-ranging health benefits, including in gastrointestinal, metabolic, and inflammatory disorders. A specific strain of LA, LA1, was recently demonstrated to have protective and therapeutic effects on the intestinal epithelial TJ barrier. However, the mechanisms of actions of LA1 remain largely unknown.

Methods

The primary aim of this study was to investigate microbial-epithelial interactions and novel signaling pathways that regulate the effect of LA1 on TNF-α-induced increase in intestinal epithelial TJ permeability, using cell culture and animal model systems.

Results and Conclusion

Pre-treatment of filter-grown Caco-2 monolayers with LA1 prevented the TNF-α-induced increase in intestinal epithelial TJ permeability by inhibiting TNF-α-induced activation of NF-κB p50/p65 and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) gene and kinase activity in a TLR-2-dependent manner. LA1 produced a TLR-2- and MyD88-dependent activation of NF-κB p50/p65 in immune cells; however, LA1, in intestinal cells, inhibited the NF-κB p50/p65 activation in a TLR-2-dependent but MyD88-independent manner. In addition, LA1 inhibition of NF-κB p50/p65 and MLCK gene was mediated by TLR-2 pathway activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and IKK-α phosphorylation. Our results demonstrated novel intracellular signaling pathways by which LA1/TLR-2 suppresses the TNF-α pathway activation of NF-κB p50/p65 in intestinal epithelial cells and protects against the TNF-α-induced increase in intestinal epithelial TJ permeability.

Anti-Inflammatory and Cancer-Preventive Potential of Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.): A Comprehensive In Silico and In Vitro Study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Chamomile tea, renowned for its exquisite taste, has been appreciated for centuries not only for its flavor but also for its myriad health benefits. In this study, we investigated the preventive potential of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) towards cancer by focusing on its anti-inflammatory activity.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A virtual drug screening of 212 phytochemicals from chamomile revealed β-amyrin, β-eudesmol, β-sitosterol, apigenin, daucosterol, and myricetin as potent NF-κB inhibitors. The in silico results were verified through microscale thermophoresis, reporter cell line experiments, and flow cytometric determination of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial membrane potential. An oncobiogram generated through comparison of 91 anticancer agents with known modes of action using the NCI tumor cell line panel revealed significant relationships of cytotoxic chamomile compounds, lupeol, and quercetin to microtubule inhibitors. This hypothesis was verified by confocal microscopy using α-tubulin-GFP-transfected U2OS cells and molecular docking of lupeol and quercetin to tubulins. Both compounds induced G2/M cell cycle arrest and necrosis rather than apoptosis. Interestingly, lupeol and quercetin were not involved in major mechanisms of resistance to established anticancer drugs (ABC transporters, TP53, or EGFR). Performing hierarchical cluster analyses of proteomic expression data of the NCI cell line panel identified two sets of 40 proteins determining sensitivity and resistance to lupeol and quercetin, further pointing to the multi-specific nature of chamomile compounds. Furthermore, lupeol, quercetin, and β-amyrin inhibited the mRNA expression of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL6 in NF-κB reporter cells (HEK-Blue Null1). Moreover, Kaplan-Meier-based survival analyses with NF-κB as the target protein of these compounds were performed by mining the TCGA-based KM-Plotter repository with 7489 cancer patients. Renal clear cell carcinomas (grade 3, low mutational rate, low neoantigen load) were significantly associated with shorter survival of patients, indicating that these subgroups of tumors might benefit from NF-κB inhibition by chamomile compounds.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed the potential of chamomile, positioning it as a promising preventive agent against inflammation and cancer. Further research and clinical studies are recommended.

Chlorogenic acid ameliorates intestinal inflammation by inhibiting NF-κB and endoplasmic reticulum stress in lipopolysaccharide-challenged broilers

Intestinal inflammation is a primary contributor to poor growth performance during poultry production. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a natural phenolic acid that exhibits superior anti-inflammatory activity and improved intestinal health. To investigate the protective effects and molecular mechanisms of CGA during intestinal inflammation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged broilers, we randomly divided 288 one-day-old male Cobb broilers into 4 groups: a control group fed a basal diet (CON group), a basal diet + LPS group (LPS group), and 2 basal diet groups fed 500 or 750 mg/kg CGA + LPS (CGA_500 or CGA_750 groups). Broilers were injected with LPS or saline at 15, 17, 19, and 21 d old. Chlorogenic acid supplementation improved the growth performance of LPS-challenged broilers by increasing average daily gain (ADG) and reducing feed/gain (F/G) ratios (P < 0.05). CGA also improved intestinal barrier function in LPS-challenged boilers by enhancing jejunum morphology and integrity, decreasing intestinal permeability, and increasing occludin 3, zonula occludens-1, and mucin 2 expression (P < 0.05). CGA supplementation also improved systemic and jejunum antioxidant capacity by significantly enhancing glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) activities (P < 0.05), and reducing malonaldehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyl (PCO) levels (P < 0.05). Chlorogenic acid supplementation reduced systemic and jejunum pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-12) and increased anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) in LPS-challenged broilers (P < 0.05) by inhibiting the toll like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway (P < 0.05). In addition, the protective effects of CGA toward intestinal inflammation and apoptosis appeared to be correlated with inhibited endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress (P < 0.05). In summary, CGA supplementation improved intestinal morphology and integrity by inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB and ER stress pathways, which potentially reduced oxidative stress and inflammation, and ultimately improved the growth performance of LPS-challenged broilers.

Supplementing Ryegrass Ameliorates Commercial Diet-Induced Gut Microbial Dysbiosis-Associated Spleen Dysfunctions by Gut-Microbiota-Spleen Axis

The type and composition of food strongly affect the variation and enrichment of the gut microbiota. The gut-microbiota-spleen axis has been developed, incorporating the spleen's function and maturation. However, how short-chain fatty-acid-producing gut microbiota can be considered to recover spleen function, particularly in spleens damaged by changed gut microbiota, is unknown in geese. Therefore, the gut microbial composition of the caecal chyme of geese was assessed by 16S rRNA microbial genes, and a Tax4Fun analysis identified the enrichment of KEGG orthologues involved in lipopolysaccharide production. The concentrations of LPS, reactive oxygen species, antioxidant/oxidant enzymes, and immunoglobulins were measured from serum samples and spleen tissues using ELISA kits. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR was employed to detect the Kelch-like-ECH-associated protein 1-Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Keap1-Nrf2), B cell and T cell targeting markers, and anti-inflammatory/inflammatory cytokines from the spleen tissues of geese. The SCFAs were determined from the caecal chyme of geese by using gas chromatography. In this study, ryegrass-enriched gut microbiota such as Eggerthellaceae, Oscillospiraceae, Rikenellaceae, and Lachnospiraceae attenuated commercial diet-induced gut microbial alterations and spleen dysfunctions in geese. Ryegrass significantly improved the SCFAs (acetic, butyric, propionic, isovaleric, and valeric acids), AMPK pathway-activated Nrf2 redox signaling cascades, B cells (B220, CD19, and IgD), and T cells (CD3, CD4, CD8, and IL-2, with an exception of IL-17 and TGF-β) to activate anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) and immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG, and IgM) in geese. In conclusion, ryegrass-improved reprogramming of the gut microbiota restored the spleen functions by attenuating LPS-induced oxidative stress and systemic inflammation through the gut-microbiota-spleen axis in geese.

Biodistribution and intestinal inflammatory response following voluntary oral intake of silver nanoparticles by C57BL/6J mice

Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) are among the most widely commercialized nanomaterials globally, with applications in medicine and the food industry. Consequently, the increased use of AgNP in the food industry has led to an unavoidable rise  in human exposure to these nanoparticles. Their widespread use raises concerns about potential hazards to human health, specifically their intestinal pro-inflammatory effects. Thus, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the biological effects of two subacute doses of 5 nm polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-AgNP in C57BL/6J mice. One mg/kg body weight or 10 mg/kg bw was provided once a day for 14 days, using a new technology (HaPILLness) that allows voluntary, stress-free, and accurate oral dosing. It was observed that after oral ingestion, while AgNP is biodistributed throughout the entire organism, most of the ingested dose is excreted in the feces. The passage and accumulation of AgNP throughout the intestine instigated a prominent inflammatory response, marked by significant histological, vascular, and cellular transformations. This response was driven by the activation of the nuclear factor-кB (NF-кB) inflammatory pathway, ultimately leading to the generation of multiple cytokines and chemokines.

Honokiol alleviates radiation-induced premature ovarian failure via enhancing Nrf2

BACKGROUND

The ovary is highly sensitive to radiation, and patients receiving radiotherapy are at significant risk of premature ovarian failure (POF). This study aimed to explore the radioprotective effect of honokiol (HKL) on ionizing radiation (IR)-induced POF.

METHODS

Female C57BL/6 mice were administered intraperitoneally with vehicle or HKL once daily for 7 days. On day 7, the mice in the IR and HKL+IR groups were exposed to 3.2 Gy whole-body radiation for one hour after the intraperitoneal injection and sacrificed 12 or 72 h after radiation exposure. The gonadosomatic index (GSI) was calculated. Blood samples were collected for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Ovaries were harvested for histological examination, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, TUNEL, western blot, and qPCR. The fertility assessment was evaluated by calculating live offspring number.

RESULTS

The optimum dose of HKL against radiation was 10 mg/kg via intraperitoneal injection. POF was induced 72 h after irradiation with significantly downregulated proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). The numbers of primordial and preantral follicles decreased significantly after irradiation (p < .001), whereas the number of atretic follicles increased (p < .001). The serum levels of estradiol (E2 ) and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) decreased to 50% of the control group after irradiation (p < .05). Moreover, the GSI after irradiation was 27% lower than in the control group (p < .05). The number of offspring in the IR group dropped by 50% compared with the control group (p < .05). HKL pretreatment protected the animals' fertility, GSI, PCNA, serum levels of E2 and AMH, and the number of primordial and preantral follicles. Significant upregulation of apoptosis-related proteins such as Pho-P53, Bax, Cyto C, C-caspase-3, C-PARP, and pyroptosis-related proteins such as Pho-NF-κB p65, NLRP3, caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18 was observed after irradiation, while the expression of Bcl-2 decreased. HKL pretreatment prevented these changes. After irradiation, malondialdehyde (MDA), Nrf2, and HO-1 were upregulated. HKL treatment activated the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 and promoted the nucleus translocation of Nrf2. Furthermore, HKL did not affect ovarian reserves under physiological conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

HKL ameliorated IR-induced POF by inhibiting apoptosis and pyroptosis by enhancing Nrf2 expression and translocation.

Genetic variation in environmental enteropathy and stunting in Zambian children: A pilot genome wide association study using the H3Africa chip

PURPOSE

Stunting is known to be heavily influenced by environmental factors, so the genetic contribution has received little attention. Here we report an exploration of genetic influences in stunted Zambian children with environmental enteropathy.

METHOD

Children with stunting (LAZ < -2) were enrolled and given nutritional therapy. Those that were non-responsive to therapy were designated as cases, and children with good growth (LAZ > -1) from the same community as controls. Blood and stool samples were taken to measure biomarkers of intestinal inflammation, epithelial damage, and microbial translocation. Single nucleotide polymorphism array genotyping was carried out on saliva samples using the H3Africa consortium array.

RESULTS

Genome wide associations were analysed in 117 cases and 41 controls. While no significant associations with stunting were observed at P<5x10-8, likely due to the small sample size, interesting associations were observed at lower thresholds. SNPs associated with stunting were in genomic regions known to modulate neuronal differentiation and fatty acid biosynthesis. SNPs associated with increased microbial translocation were associated with non-integrin membrane ECM interactions, tight junctions, hemostasis, and G-alpha signalling events. SNPs associated with increased inflammation were associated with, ECM interactions, purine metabolism, axon guidance, and cell motility. SNPs negatively associated with inflammation overlapped genes involved in semaphoring interactions. We explored the existing coeliac disease risk HLA genotypes and found present: DQ2.5 (7.5%), DQ8 (3.5%) and DQ2.2 (3.8%); however, no children were positive for coeliac antibodies. We detected HLA-DRB:1301 and HLA-C:1802 with high odds ratios and P<0.05 in stunted children compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

Genetic variations associated with stunting and the enteropathy underlying it, include variants associated with multiple pathways relating to gene expression, glycosylation, nerve signalling, and sensing of the nutritional and microbiological milieu.

Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide Hydrolysate Ameliorates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Ulcerative Colitis via Regulating the Gut Microbiota

(1) Background: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a disease caused by noninfectious chronic inflammation characterized by varying degrees of inflammation affecting the colon or its entire mucosal surface. Current therapeutic strategies rely on the suppression of the immune response, which is effective, but can have detrimental effects. Recently, different plant polysaccharides and their degradation products have received increasing attention due to their prominent biological activities. The aim of this research was to evaluate the mitigation of inflammation exhibited by tamarind seed polysaccharide hydrolysate (TSPH) ingestion in colitis mice. (2) Methods: TSPH was obtained from the hydrolysis of tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) by trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). The structure and physical properties of TSPH were characterized by ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-ESI/MS) analysis. Then, the alleviative effects of the action of TSPH on 2.5% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis mice were investigated. (3) Results: TSPH restored pathological lesions in the colon and inhibited the over-secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in UC mice. The relative expression level of mRNA for colonic tight junction proteins was increased. These findings suggested that TSPH could reduce inflammation in the colon. Additionally, the structure of the gut microbiota was also altered, with beneficial bacteria, including Prevotella and Blautia, significantly enriched by TSPH. Moreover, the richness of Blautia was positively correlated with acetic acid. (4) Conclusions: In conclusion, TSPH suppressed colonic inflammation, alleviated imbalances in the intestinal flora and regulated bacterial metabolites. Thus, this also implies that TSPH has the potential to be a functional food against colitis.

Astilbin Attenuates Cadmium-Induced Adipose Tissue Damage by Inhibiting NF-κB Pathways and Regulating the Expression of HSPs in Chicken

Cadmium (Cd) can damage tissues by inducing oxidative stress, lymphocyte infiltration, and inflammation in these sites. Meanwhile, astilbin (Ast) is an antioxidant agent. At present, only a few mechanisms of Cd-induced adipose tissue damage have been described. Herein, we assessed the potential protective effects and the molecular mechanism underlying the antioxidant properly of Ast after Cd intake in chicken adipose tissue. In this study, a total of 160 7-day-old roosters were randomly divided into four groups. Roosters were fed with a basic diet (C group), Ast 40 mg/kg (Ast group), CdCl₂ 150 mg/kg + Ast 40 mg/kg (Cd/Ast group), and CdCl₂ 150 mg/kg (Cd group) for 60 days. We found that Cd intake changed the morphology and structure of adipose tissues and decreased the expression of several antioxidants, including total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), but increased those of oxidative stress markers including malondialdehyde (MDA), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), NO, and H2O2. Cd further activated the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway and increased the expression of the inflammation-related mediators, interleukin 1beta (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 8 (IL-8), interleukin 10 (IL-10), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), iNOS, prostaglandin E synthase (PTGES), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). Cd-induced oxidative stress upregulated the expression of three heat shock proteins (HSPs), including HSP27, HSP70, and HSP90. Summarily, Cd causes oxidative stress-mediated tissue damage by activating the NF-κB pathway, promoting inflammation and upregulating the expression of HSPs. However, Ast supplementation modulates oxidative stress in adipose tissue by inhibiting inflammation mediated by the NF-κB pathway and regulating the expression of HSPs.

GLP-1 Receptor Agonists in Obese Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease: from Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Considerations and Practical Recommendations for Safe and Effective Use

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To discuss current literature and provide practical recommendations for the safe and effective use of glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) in people with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) and/or obesity. The molecular mechanisms that justify the potential benefits of GLP-1 RA in IBD and the links between IBD, obesity, and cardiovascular disease are also discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Preliminary data suggest that GLP-1 RA can modulate crucial pathways in the pathogenesis of IBD, such as chronic inflammation circuits, intestinal tight junctions, and gut microbiome dysbiosis, setting the stage for human trials to investigate the role of these agents in the treatment of IBD among people with or without diabetes and obesity. However, gastrointestinal side effects related to GLP-1 RA need appropriate clinical management to mitigate risks and maximize the benefits of therapy in people with IBD. GLP-1 RA originally emerged as drugs for the treatment of hyperglycemia and are currently licensed for the management of T2D and/or overweight/obesity. However, their wealth of pleiotropic actions soon raised expectations that they might confer benefits on non-metabolic disorders. Future studies are expected to clarify whether GLP-1 RA deserve an adjunct place in the arsenal of drugs against IBD.

Intestinal homeostasis disruption in mice chronically exposed to arsenite-contaminated drinking water

Chronic exposure to inorganic arsenic [As(III) and As(V)] affects about 200 million people, and is linked to a greater incidence of certain types of cancer. Drinking water is the main route of exposure, so, in endemic areas, the intestinal mucosa is constantly exposed to the metalloid. However, studies on the intestinal toxicity of inorganic As are scarce. The objective of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of a chronic exposure to As(III) on the intestinal mucosa and its associated microbiota. For this purpose, BALB/c mice were exposed during 6 months through drinking water to As(III) (15 and 30 mg/L). Treatment with As(III) increased reactive oxygen species (43-64%) and lipid peroxidation (8-51%). A pro-inflammatory response was also observed, evidenced by an increase in fecal lactoferrin (23-29%) and mucosal neutrophil infiltration. As(III) also induced an increase in the colonic levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (24-201%) and the activation of some pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. Reductions in the number of goblet cells and mucus production were also observed. Moreover, As(III) exposure resulted in changes in gut microbial alpha diversity but no differences in beta diversity. This suggested that the abundance of some taxa was significantly affected by As(III), although the composition of the population did not show significant alterations. Analysis of differential taxa agreed with this, 21 ASVs were affected in abundance or variability, especially ASVs from the family Muribaculaceae. Intestinal microbiota metabolism was also affected, as reductions in fecal concentration of short-chain fatty acids were observed. The effects observed on different components of the intestinal barrier may be responsible of the increased permeability in As(III) treated mice, evidenced by an increase in fecal albumin (48-66%). Moreover, serum levels of Lipopolysaccharide binding proteins and TNF-α were increased in animals treated with 30 mg/L of As(III), suggesting a low-level systemic inflammation.

Hypothermic machine perfusion alleviates ischemia-reperfusion injury of intestinal transplantation in pigs

Background

Intestinal transplantation (IT) has become an important procedure for the treatment of irreversible intestinal failure. However, IT is extremely vulnerable to ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Due to the limitations of static cold storage (SCS), hypothermic machine perfusion (HMP) is rapidly gaining popularity. In this study, the intestinal HMP system is established and HMP is compared with SCS.

Methods

An intestinal HMP system was built. Ten miniature pigs were randomly divided into the HMP and SCS groups, and their intestines were perfused using the HMP device and SCS, respectively, followed by orthotopic auto-transplantation. Analysis was done on the grafts between the two groups.

Results

Operation success rates of the surgery were 100% in both groups. The 7-day survival rate was 100% in the HMP group, which was significantly higher than that of the SCS group (20%, P< 0.05). The pathological results showed that fewer injuries of grafts were in the HMP group. Endotoxin (ET), IL-1, IL-6, IFN-γ and TNF-α levels in the HMP group were significantly lower than in the SCS group (P<0.05), whereas IL-10 levels were significantly higher (P<0.05).The intestinal expression levels of ZO-1 and Occludin were higher in the HMP group compared to the SCS group, whereas Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), and caspase-3 were lower.

Conclusions

In this study, we established a stable intestinal HMP system and demonstrated that HMP could significantly alleviate intestinal IRI and improve the outcome after IT.

Embelin alleviates weaned piglets intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction via PCAF/NF-κB signaling pathway in intestinal epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Intestinal barrier plays key roles in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. Inflammation damage can severely destroy the intestinal integrity of mammals. This study was conducted to investigate the protective effects of embelin and its molecular mechanisms on intestinal inflammation in a porcine model. One hundred sixty 21-day-old castrated weaned pigs (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire, average initial body weight was 7.05 ± 0.28 kg, equal numbers of castrated males and females) were allotted to four groups and fed with a basal diet or a basal diet containing 200, 400, or 600 mg embelin/kg for 28 d. The growth performance, intestinal inflammatory cytokines, morphology of jejunum and ileum, tight junctions in the intestinal mucosa of piglets were tested. IPEC-1 cells with overexpression of P300/CBP associating factor (PCAF) were treated with embelin, the activity of PCAF and acetylation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) were analyzed to determine the effect of embelin on PCAF/NF-κB pathway in vitro.

RESULTS

The results showed that embelin decreased (P < 0.05) serum D-lactate and diamine oxidase (DAO) levels, and enhanced the expression of ZO-1, occludin and claudin-1 protein in jejunum and ileum. Moreover, the expression levels of critical inflammation molecules (interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and NF-κB) were down-regulated (P < 0.05) by embelin in jejunal and ileal mucosa. Meanwhile, the activity of PCAF were down-regulated (P < 0.05) by embelin. Importantly, transfection of PCAF siRNAs to IPEC-1 cell decreased NF-κB activities; embelin treatment downregulated (P < 0.05) the acetylation and activities of NF-κB by 31.7%-74.6% in IPEC-1 cells with overexpression of PCAF.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that embelin ameliorates intestinal inflammation in weaned pigs, which might be mediated by suppressing the PCAF/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Maternal supplementation of different trace mineral sources on broiler breeder production and progeny growth and gut health

Trace mineral minerals Zn, Cu, and Mn play important roles in breeder production and progeny performance. The objective of this study was to determine maternal supplementation of trace mineral minerals on breeder production and progeny growth and development. A total of 540 broiler breeders, Cobb 500 (Slow feathering; 0-66 weeks old) were assigned to one of three treatment groups with the same basal diet and three different supplemental trace minerals: ITM-inorganic trace minerals in sulfates: 100, 16, and 100 ppm of Zn, Cu, and Mn respectively; MMHAC -mineral methionine hydroxy analog chelate: 50, 8, and 50 ppm of bis-chelated MINTREX®Zn, Cu and Mn (Novus International, Inc.), and TMAAC - trace minerals amino acid complex: 50, 8, and 50 ppm of Zn, Cu, and Mn. At 28 weeks of age, eggs from breeder treatments were hatched for progeny trial, 10 pens with 6 males and 6 female birds per pen were fed a common diet with ITM for 45 days. Breeder production, egg quality, progeny growth performance, mRNA expression of gut health associated genes in breeder and progeny chicks were measured. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA; means were separated by Fisher's protected LSD test. A p-Value ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically different and 0.1 was considered numerical trend. Breeders on ITM treatment had higher (p < 0.05) body weight (BW), weight gain and lower (p < 0.05) feed conversion ratio (FCR) from 0 to 10 weeks, when compared to birds fed MMHAC. MMHAC significantly improved egg mass by 3 g (p < 0.05) and FCR by 34 points (0.05 < p < 0.1) throughout the reproductive period (26-66 weeks) in comparison to ITM. MMHAC improved (p < 0.01) egg yolk color versus (vs.) ITM and TMAAC in all periods, except 28 weeks, increased (p < 0.01) eggshell thickness and resistance vs. TMAAC at 58 weeks, and reduced (p < 0.05) jejunal NF-κB gene expression vs. TMAAC at 24 weeks. There was a significant reduction in tibial dry matter weight, Seedor index and resistance for the breeders that received MMHAC and/or TMAAC when compared to ITM at 18 weeks. Lower seedor index but numerically wider tibial circumference was seen in hens fed MMHAC at 24 weeks, and wider tibial circumference but lower tibial resistance in hens fed TMAAC at 66 weeks. Maternal supplementation of MMHAC in breeder hens increased (p < 0.0001) BW vs. ITM and TMAAC at hatching, reduced (p < 0.05) feed intake vs. ITM at d14 and d28, and improved (p < 0.01) FCR and performance index vs. TMAAC at d28, reduced (p < 0.01) NF-κB gene expression and increased (p < 0.05) A20 gene expression vs. TMAAC on d0 and vs. ITM on d14, reduced (p < 0.05) TLR2 gene expression vs. ITM on d0 and vs. TMAAC on d14, increased (p < 0.05) MUC2 gene expression vs. both ITM and TMAAC on d45 in progeny jejunum. Overall, these results suggest that supplementation with lower levels of MHA-chelated trace minerals improved breeder production and egg quality and reduced breeder jejunal inflammation while maintaining tibial development in comparison to those receiving higher inorganic mineral supplementation, and it also carried over the benefits to progeny with better growth performance, less jejunal inflammation and better innate immune response and gut barrier function in comparison to ITM and/or TMAAC.

The role of guggulsterone on the NF-κB pathway in inflammatory bowel disease: preclinical evidence

Guggulsterone, a phytosterol in the herb Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, has been used in the treatment of diseases such as hyperlipidemia, arthritis and atherosclerosis. It has attracted significant research interest because of its pharmacological properties, especially its anti-inflammatory nature. It can be used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a disease characterized by chronic inflammation and damage in the gastrointestinal tract. In various preclinical studies, it inhibited NF-κB, an important pathway in the pathophysiology of IBD. This review summarizes the preclinical studies on this topic for providing more insights to the mechanism by which guggulsterone exerts its effect.

Nucleopore Traffic Is Hindered by SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 Protein to Efficiently Suppress IFN-β and IL-6 Secretion

A weak production of INF-β along with an exacerbated release of pro-inflammatory cytokines have been reported during infection by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus. SARS-CoV-2 encodes several proteins that are able to counteract the host immune system, which is believed to be one of the most important features contributing to the viral pathogenesis and development of a severe clinical outcomes. Previous reports demonstrated that the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 protein strongly suppresses INF-β production by hindering the RIG-I, MDA-5, and MAVS signaling cascade. In the present study, we better characterized the mechanism by which the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 counteracts IFN-β and interleukin-6 (IL-6), which plays a crucial role in the inflammation process associated with the viral infection. In the present study, we demonstrated that the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 protein has evolved an alternative mechanism to guarantee host IFN-β and IL-6 suppression, in addition to the transcriptional control exerted on the genes. Indeed, a block in movement through the nucleopore of newly synthetized messenger RNA encoding the immune-modulatory cytokines IFN-β and IL-6 are reported here. The ORF6 accessory protein of SARS-CoV-2 displays a multifunctional activity and may represent one of the most important virulence factors. Where conventional antagonistic strategies of immune evasion-such as the suppression of specific transcription factors (e.g., IRF-3, STAT-1/2)-would not be sufficient, the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 protein is the trump card for the virus, also blocking the movement of IFN-β and IL-6 mRNAs from nucleus to cytoplasm. Conversely, we showed that nuclear translocation of the NF-κB transcription factor is not affected by the ORF6 protein, although inhibition of its cytoplasmic activation occurred. Therefore, the ORF6 protein exerts a 360-degree inhibition of the antiviral response by blocking as many critical points as possible.

Potential health effects of brewers' spent grain as a functional food ingredient assessed by markers of oxidative stress and inflammation following gastro-intestinal digestion and in a cell model of the small intestine

Brewer's spent grains (BSG) are a by-product of the beer-brewing industry, often employed as animal feeding stuffs. With BSG being rich not only in proteins, lipids, and dietary fiber but also in certain phytochemicals, it constitutes a potentially valuable food source that could be employed as a functional food, e.g. against chronic inflammatory diseases. Several types of bread were prepared with various amounts of BSG as flour replacement (0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%), either employing wet BSG or dried BSG after pressing. Total phenolics, flavonoids, insoluble dietary fiber, as well as antioxidant capacity (FRAP, ABTS) were measured in the bread, before and after simulated gastro-intestinal digestion. Furthermore, we investigated digested BSG and bread-containing BSG for their capability to alter oxidative stress (Nrf2, malondialdehyde) and inflammation (IL-6, IL-8, NO, and PGE2) in a Caco-2 cell culture model of the small intestine. Incorporation of BSG significantly and dose-dependently enhanced the amount of dietary fiber in the product, as well as total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity, by over 10-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold and 5-fold, respectively, when replacing all of the flour with BSG. This pattern remained after in vitro digestion. However, digesta failed to show significant antioxidant or anti-inflammatory effects on the biomarkers observed in the cell model. Consuming 150 g of such a BSG-bread (wet based) would supply the proposed RDA of 25 g d^-1 dietary fiber and could be a healthy product valorizing BSG.

Colonic mucosal eosinophilia and immunohistochemical expression of COX-2 and NF-kB in patients with irritable bowel syndrome

BACKGROUND

There is growing evidence that eosinophilic infiltration can release mediators which are harmful to the intestinal epithelium in patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Although cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and nuclear factor-kappa beta (NF-kB) expression had been previously reported to increase in many inflammatory conditions, there is a paucity in data investigating their expressions in IBS. Our aim was to evaluate colonic mucosal eosinophilia and immunohistochemical expression of COX-2 and NF-kB in patients with irritable bowel syndrome.

METHODS

A total of 80 patients who met the inclusion criteria of IBS based on Rome IV symptoms questionnaire were subjected to abdominal ultrasound, laboratory investigations, serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) level assessment and colonoscopic examination. Immunohistochemistry was performed to detect COX-2 and NF-kB expression in colonic biopsies obtained from IBS patients.

RESULTS

Histopathological examination showed that 60 colonic biopsy specimens (75%) showed few mixed inflammatory cells ≤3 cells/ HPF, 12 biopsy specimens (15%) showed eosinophilic infiltration ≥25 eosinophils/HPF and 8 biopsy specimens (10%) showed severe lymphocytic infiltration and aggregation. Colonic eosinophilic infiltrate was significantly higher among patients presented with IBS-D subtype. Serum IgE was significantly higher among patients with colonic eosinophilic infiltrate than the others. In IBS-D patients, colonic mucosa showed positive expression of COX-2 and NF-kB in 52.1% and 81.25% of cases, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Patients with IBS -particularly IBS-D subtype- should undergo colonoscopy and biopsy to exclude underlying inflammatory pathology. Moreover, patients with positive COX-2 and NF-kB need further evaluation and follow-up.

Probiotics Function as Immunomodulators in the Intestine in C57Bl/6 Male Mice Exposed to Inhaled Diesel Exhaust Particles on a High-Fat Diet

Epidemiological studies reveal a correlation between air pollution exposure and gastrointestinal (GI) diseases, yet few studies have investigated the role of inhaled particulate matter on intestinal integrity in conjunction with a high-fat (HF) diet. Additionally, there is currently limited information on probiotics in mitigating air-pollutant responses in the intestines. Thus, we investigated the hypothesis that exposure to inhaled diesel exhaust particles (DEP) and a HF diet can alter intestinal integrity and inflammation, which can be attenuated with probiotics. 4-6-w-old male C57Bl/6 mice on a HF diet (45% kcal fat) were randomly assigned to be exposed via oropharyngeal aspiration to 35 µg of DEP suspended in 35 µL of 0.9% sterile saline or sterile saline (CON) only twice a week for 4 w. A subset of mice was treated with 0.3 g/day of Winclove Ecologic^® barrier probiotics (PRO) in drinking water throughout the duration of the study. Our results show that DEP exposure ± probiotics resulted in increased goblet cells and mucin (MUC)-2 expression, as determined by AB/PAS staining. Immunofluorescent quantification and/or RT-qPCR showed that DEP exposure increases claudin-3, occludin, zona occludens (ZO)-1, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, and toll-like receptor (TLR)-4, and decreases tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-10 expression compared to CON. DEP exposure + probiotics increases expression of claudin-3, occludin, ZO-1, TNF-α, and IL-10 and decreases MMP-9 and TLR-4 compared to CON + PRO in the small intestine. Collectively, these results show that DEP exposure alters intestinal integrity and inflammation in conjunction with a HF diet. Probiotics proved fundamental in understanding the role of the microbiome in protecting and altering inflammatory responses in the intestines following exposure to inhaled DEP.

Establishment of a High Content Image Platform to Measure NF-κB Nuclear Translocation in LPS-Induced RAW264.7 Macrophages for Screening Anti-inflammatory Drug Candidates

BACKGROUND

High content image (HCI), an automatic imaging and analysis system, provides a fast drug screening method by detecting the subcellular distribution of protein in intact cells.

OBJECTIVE

This study established the first standardized HCI platform for lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 macrophages to screen anti-inflammatory compounds by measuring nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) nuclear translocation.

METHOD

The influence of the cell passages, cell density, LPS induction time and concentration, antibody dilution, serum, dimethyl sulfoxide and analysis parameters on NF-κB nuclear translocation and HCI data quality was optimized. The BAY-11-7085, the positive control for inhibiting NF-κB and Western blot assay were separately employed to verify the stability and reliability of the platform. Lastly, the effect of BHA on NO release, iNOS expression, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α mRNA in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells was detected.

RESULTS

The optimal conditions for measuring NF-κB translocation in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells by HCI were established. Cells that do not exceed 22 passages were seeded at a density of 10 k cells/well and pretreated with compounds following 200 ng/mL LPS for 40 min. Parameters including nuclear area of 65 μm2, cell area of 80 μm2, collar of 0.9 μm and sensitivity of 25% were recommended for image segmentation algorithms in the analysis workstation. Benzoylhypaconine from aconite was screened for the first time as an anti-inflammatory candidate by the established HCI platform. The inhibitory effect of benzoylhypaconine on NF-κB translocation was verified by Western blot. Furthermore, benzoylhypaconine reduced the release of NO, inhibited the expression of iNOS, decreased the mRNA levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

The established HCI platform could be applied to screen anti-inflammatory compounds by measuring the NF-κB nuclear translocation in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells.

Long-term maternal intake of inulin exacerbated the intestinal damage and inflammation of offspring rats in a DSS-induced colitis model

This study aimed to investigate the effects of long-term maternal intake of inulin on intestinal morphology, permeability, inflammation and microbiota of offspring rats treated with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Sixteen female adult Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to two groups receiving the fiber-free diet (FFD) or inulin diet (INU, 5% inulin) for three parities. The offspring weaned rats (third-parity) were fed with the same diet for four weeks until receiving 6% DSS for 7 days; the four groups were as follows: FFD, FFD + DSS, INU and INU + DSS. The results showed that maternal intake of inulin increased the histopathology score and activity of diamine oxidase (DAO) in serum, and the highest histopathology scores and activity of DAO were observed in INU + DSS rats. Maternal intake of inulin increased the activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO), mRNA expressions of inflammatory factors and protein expression of IL-1β in colonic tissues. Likewise, INU + DSS rats had the highest activity of MPO and mRNA expressions of inflammatory factors in colonic tissues. Maternal intake of inulin increased the abundances of Bacteroidetes, Bacteroides and Parasutterella, which were the highest enriched in INU + DSS rats. The level of acetate in the colonic digesta of INU + DSS rats was lower than that in FFD and INU rats. These results indicated that long-term maternal intake of inulin exacerbated the intestinal damage and inflammation of DSS-induced offspring rats, associated with the decreased level of acetate and altered intestinal microbiota.

A New Butyrate Releaser Exerts a Protective Action against SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Human Intestine

Butyrate is a major gut microbiome metabolite that regulates several defense mechanisms against infectious diseases. Alterations in the gut microbiome, leading to reduced butyrate production, have been reported in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. A new butyrate releaser, useful for all the known applications of butyrate, presenting physiochemical characteristics suitable for easy oral administration, (N-(1-carbamoyl-2-phenyl-ethyl) butyramide (FBA), has been recently developed. We investigated the protective action of FBA against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the human small intestine and enterocytes. Relevant aspects of SARS-CoV-2 infection were assessed: infectivity, host functional receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2), transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), neuropilin-1 (NRP1), pro-inflammatory cytokines expression, genes involved in the antiviral response and the activation of Nf-kB nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2-like) 2 (Nfr2) pathways. We found that FBA positively modulates the crucial aspects of the infection in small intestinal biopsies and human enterocytes, reducing the expression of ACE2, TMPRSS2 and NRP1, pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-15, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and TNF-α, and regulating several genes involved in antiviral pathways. FBA was also able to reduce the number of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells, and ACE2, TMPRSS2 and NRP1 expression. Lastly, through the inhibition of Nf-kB and the up-regulation of Nfr2, it was also able to reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-15, MCP-1 and TNF-α in human enterocytes. The new butyrate releaser, FBA, exerts a preventive action against SARS-CoV-2 infection. It could be considered as an innovative strategy to limit COVID-19.

SBT (Composed of Panax ginseng and Aconitum carmichaeli) and Stigmasterol Enhances Nitric Oxide Production and Exerts Curative Properties as a Potential Anti-Oxidant and Immunity-Enhancing Agent

Immune dysregulation is a risk factor for several diseases, including infectious diseases. Immunostimulatory agents have been used for the treatment of immune dysregulation, but deleterious adverse effects have been reported. The present study aims to establish the anti-oxidant and immunity-enhancing effects of Sambu-Tang (SBT), composed of Panax ginseng and Aconitum carmichaeli, and stigmasterol (Stig), an active compound of SBT. Immune-related factors were analyzed in RAW264.7 macrophage cells, mouse primary splenocytes, and the serum and spleen of cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice. Results showed that the production levels of nitric oxide (NO) and expression levels of inducible NO synthase and heme oxygenase-1 were increased following SBT or Stig treatment in RAW264.7 cells. SBT or Stig increased the production levels of G-CSF, IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α and induced the activation of NF-κB in RAW264.7 cells. SBT or Stig promoted splenic lymphocyte proliferation and increased splenic NK cell cytotoxic activity. In addition, SBT or Stig enhanced the levels of IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-2, IL-6, or TNF-α in the serum and spleen of the immunosuppressed mice. SBT or Stig increased the superoxide dismutase activity in the spleen. Collectively, SBT and Stig possess anti-oxidant and immunomodulatory activities, so they may be considered effective natural compounds for the treatment of various symptoms caused by immune dysregulation.

Bifidobacterium Longum: Protection against Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), increases gradually worldwide in the past decades. IBD is generally associated with the change of the immune system and gut microbiota, and the conventional treatments usually result in some side effects. Bifidobacterium longum, as colonizing bacteria in the intestine, has been demonstrated to be capable of relieving colitis in mice and can be employed as an alternative or auxiliary way for treating IBD. Here, the mechanisms of the Bifidobacterium longum in the treatment of IBD were summarized based on previous cell and animal studies and clinical trials testing bacterial therapies. This review will be served as a basis for future research on IBD treatment.

The Enhanced Inhibitory Effect of Estrogen on PD-L1 Expression Following Nrf2 Deficiency in the AOM/DSS Model of Colitis-Associated Cancer

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) plays a dual role in carcinogenesis. We previously reported that Nrf2 deficiency enhances the anti-tumorigenic effect of 17β-estradiol (E2) in an azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) model of colitis-associated cancer (CAC). Herein, we aimed to determine a possible explanation for our recent work and investigated the immune microenvironment represented by programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression. One week after the AOM injection, mice were administered with DSS in drinking water for seven days; daily E2 injections were intraperitoneally administered during this period. The mice were sacrificed 16 weeks after AOM injection and analyzed for PD-L1 expression in the distal colon tissues using Western blotting and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Based on Western blotting results, PD-L1 expression was reduced in Nrf2 knockout (KO) female and E2-treated male mice when compared with their wild-type counterparts, following AOM/DSS treatment; this supports the association of PD-L1 expression with tumor progression. Additionally, this finding was in good agreement with the IHC results for PD-L1. Furthermore, we observed that PD-L1 is predominantly expressed in stromal cells rather than on epithelial cells in the colon. Western blotting revealed that PD-L1 expression in the colon positively correlates with expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (male, P = 0.002; female, P <0.001) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) (male, P <0.001; female, P <0.001). Collectively, our findings indicate that estrogen ameliorates the immune microenvironment represented by PD-L1 expression and enhances its effect in the absence of Nrf2.

Intestinal interplay of quorum sensing molecules and human receptors

Human gut is in permanent contact with microorganisms that play an important role in many physiological processes including metabolism and immunologic activity. These microorganisms communicate and manage themself by the quorum sensing system (QS) that helps to coordinate optimal growth and subsistence by activating signaling pathways that regulate bacterial gene expression. Diverse QS molecules produced by pathogenic as well as resident microbiota have been found throughout the human gut. However, even a host can by affected by these molecules. Intestinal and immune cells possess a range of molecular targets for QS. Our present knowledge on bacteria-cell communication encompasses G-protein-coupled receptors, nuclear receptors and receptors for bacterial cell-wall components. The QS of commensal bacteria has been approved as a protective factor with favourable effects on intestinal homeostasis and immunity. Signaling molecules of QS interacting with above-mentioned receptors thus parcipitate on maintaining of barrier functions, control of inflammation processes and increase of resistance to pathogen colonization in host organisms. Pathogens QS molecules can have a dual function. Host cells are able to detect the ongoing infection by monitoring the presence and changes in concentrations of QS molecules. Such information can help to set the most effective immune defence to prevent or overcome the infection. Contrary, pathogens QS signals can target the host receptors to deceive the immune system to get the best conditions for growth. However, our knowledge about communication mediated by QS is still limited and detailed understanding of molecular mechanisms of QS signaling is desired.

Sex Hormones and Lung Inflammation

Inflammation is a characteristic marker in numerous lung disorders. Several immune cells, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, eosinophils, as well as T and B lymphocytes, synthetize and release cytokines involved in the inflammatory process. Gender differences in the incidence and severity of inflammatory lung ailments including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary fibrosis (PF), lung cancer (LC), and infectious related illnesses have been reported. Moreover, the effects of sex hormones on both androgens and estrogens, such as testosterone (TES) and 17β-estradiol (E2), driving characteristic inflammatory patterns in those lung inflammatory diseases have been investigated. In general, androgens seem to display anti-inflammatory actions, whereas estrogens produce pro-inflammatory effects. For instance, androgens regulate negatively inflammation in asthma by targeting type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and T-helper (Th)-2 cells to attenuate interleukin (IL)-17A-mediated responses and leukotriene (LT) biosynthesis pathway. Estrogens may promote neutrophilic inflammation in subjects with asthma and COPD. Moreover, the activation of estrogen receptors might induce tumorigenesis. In this chapter, we summarize the most recent advances in the functional roles and associated signaling pathways of inflammatory cellular responses in asthma, COPD, PF, LC, and newly occurring COVID-19 disease. We also meticulously deliberate the influence of sex steroids on the development and progress of these common and severe lung diseases.

Heat-Treated Bifidobacterium longum CECT-7347: A Whole-Cell Postbiotic with Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Gut-Barrier Protection Properties

Non-viable preparations of probiotics, as whole-cell postbiotics, attract increasing interest because of their intrinsic technological stability, and their functional properties, such as immune system modulation, gut barrier maintenance, and protection against pathogens. However, reports on Bifidobacteria-derived postbiotics remain scarce. This study aims to demonstrate the functional properties of a heat-treated (HT), non-viable, Bifidobacterium longum strain, CECT-7347, a strain previously selected for its anti-inflammatory phenotype and ability to improve biomarkers of intestinal integrity in clinical trials. The study used the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and HT-29 cell cultures as eukaryotic model systems. Our results show that HT-CECT-7347 preserves the capacity to protect against oxidative stress damage, while it also reduces acute inflammatory response and gut-barrier disruption, and inhibits bacterial colonization, by activating pathways related to innate immune function. These findings highlight the interest of the ingredient as a novel postbiotic and pave the way to broaden the range of HT-CECT-7347 applications in gut health.

Hot-water extract of ripened Pu-erh tea attenuates DSS-induced colitis through modulation of the NF-κB and HIF-1α signaling pathways in mice

Tea consumption has been found to be associated with low incidence of inflammatory bowel disease in Asian countries. However, there is very limited knowledge of such potential protection and its underlying mechanism. Ripened Pu-erh tea (RPT) belongs to the variety of microbial fermented tea, but its function regarding anti-inflammation remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of RPT on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice. The results demonstrated that RPT significantly relieved the loss of body weight, disease severity and shortening of colon length, and remarkably inhibited the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by lessening the infiltration of inflammatory cells. Furthermore, we found that RPT suppressed the activation of the NF-κB pathway and down-regulated the expression of HIF-1α. Thus, it was concluded that RPT attenuated the progress of colitis via suppressing the HIF-1α/NF-κB signaling pathways thus reducing inflammation. This suggests that RPT may be a potential anti-inflammatory nutraceutical for the prevention and treatment of colonic colitis.

Effects of mineral methionine hydroxy analog chelate in sow diets on epigenetic modification and growth of progeny

The study was conducted to determine the effects of mineral methionine hydroxy analog chelate (MMHAC) partially replacing inorganic trace minerals in sow diets on epigenetic and transcriptional changes in the muscle and jejunum of progeny. The MMHAC is zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu) chelated with methionine hydroxy analog (Zn-, Mn-, and Cu-methionine hydroxy analog chelate [MHAC]). On day 35 of gestation, 60 pregnant sows were allotted to two dietary treatments in a randomized completed block design using parity as a block: 1) ITM: inorganic trace minerals with zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄), manganese oxide (MnO), and copper sulfate (CuSO₄) and 2) CTM: 50% of ITM was replaced with MMHAC (MINTREX trace minerals, Novus International Inc., St Charles, MO). Gestation and lactation diets were formulated to meet or exceed NRC requirements. On days 1 and 18 of lactation, milk samples from 16 sows per treatment were collected to measure immunoglobulins (immunoglobulin G, immunoglobulin A, and immunoglobulin M) and micromineral concentrations. Two pigs per litter were selected to collect blood to measure the concentration of immunoglobulins in the serum, and then euthanized to collect jejunal mucosa, jejunum tissues, and longissimus muscle to measure global deoxyribonucleic acid methylation, histone acetylation, cytokines, and jejunal histomorphology at birth and day 18 of lactation. Data were analyzed using Proc MIXED of SAS. Supplementation of MMHAC tended to decrease (P = 0.059) body weight (BW) loss of sows during lactation and tended to increase (P = 0.098) piglet BW on day 18 of lactation. Supplementation of MMHAC increased (P < 0.05) global histone acetylation and tended to decrease myogenic regulatory factor 4 messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA; P = 0.068) and delta 4-desaturase sphingolipid1 (DEGS1) mRNA (P = 0.086) in longissimus muscle of piglets at birth. Supplementation of MMHAC decreased (P < 0.05) nuclear factor kappa B mRNA in the jejunum and DEGS1 mRNA in longissimus muscle and tended to decrease mucin-2 (MUC2) mRNA (P = 0.057) and transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) mRNA (P = 0.057) in the jejunum of piglets on day 18 of lactation. There were, however, no changes in the amounts of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-8, TGF-β, MUC2, and myogenic factor 6 in the tissues by MMHAC. In conclusion, maternal supplementation of MMHAC could contribute to histone acetylation and programming in the fetus, which potentially regulates intestinal health and skeletal muscle development of piglets at birth and weaning, possibly leading to enhanced growth of their piglets.

The role of dietary polyphenols in inflammatory bowel disease: A possible clue on the molecular mechanisms involved in the prevention of immune and inflammatory reactions

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is one of the major complications of the gastrointestinal tract, characterized by chronic inflammation, which disturbs the quality of life of the affected individuals. Genetic predisposition, immune, inflammatory, and enzyme-mediated signaling cascades are the primary mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. Currently, the treatment strategy involves the maintenance of remission and induction of inflammation by anti-inflammatory agents and immune suppressants. Polyphenol-containing diets, including fruits and vegetables of regular use, possess anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant potential through the inhibition of major contributing pathways to IBD. This review discusses the role of these dietary polyphenols in downregulating the major signaling cascades in IBD. Our review encourages the development of nutritional strategies to improve the efficiency of current therapies for IBD and reduce the risks of side effects associated with conventional therapy. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: At present, almost every third person in society is under stress and having chronic disorders like diabetes, arthritis, allergy, cardiovascular disease, IBD, etc. This insists on the direct/indirect role of changes in the lifestyle for such deterioration in society. This review would emphasize the medicinal value of polyphenols present in fruits and vegetables for chronic inflammatory disorders. This concept portrays the food components which have the potential to promote health, improve general well-being, and reduce the risk of IBD. We propose to add fruits with bioactive polyphenols in the regular diet to help in preventing the immune-mediated intestinal chronic inflammatory syndrome and reduce the risks of colorectal cancer development.

Staphylococcus aureus induces mammary gland fibrosis through activating the TLR/NF-κB and TLR/AP-1 signaling pathways in mice

To investigate the TLR-NF-κB/AP-1 pathways in S. aureus infection-induced mammary gland fibrosis, mice were infected with S. aureus isolated from the mammary glands of cows with mastitis. Lactating mice were divided into three groups: control group (CON); PBS control group (PBS) and the S. aureus-treated group (S. aureus). Pathological observations revealed that neutrophil infiltration into mammary gland tissue was obviously induced by S. aureus at the early stage of infection (1-7 d). With persistent S. aureus infection, mammary gland fibrosis developed and was characterized by infiltration and proliferation of macrophage, lymphocyte and fibroblast and ECM hyperplasia (7-21 d). Immunohistochemistry staining showed upregulation of fibrosis associated cytokines viz bFGF and PDGF-BB. Real-time qPCR and Western blot analysis revealed that transcription and translation of TLR2, TLR4, bFGF, PDGF-BB, α-SMA and COL Ⅰ α1 was significantly upregulated by S. aureus. NF-κB p65 and AP-I c-jun were translocated into the nucleus after S. aureus infection. There was no remarkable difference between the CON and PBS groups. The datas indicate that mammary gland fibrosis in mice is induced by S. aureus, which promotes cytokine release and the expression of ECM though activating the TLR/NF-κB p65 and TLR/AP-1 c-jun signaling pathways.

Small-Molecule Antagonist Targeting Exportin-1 via Rational Structure-Based Discovery

Exportin-1 (also named as CRM1) plays a prominent role in autoimmune disorders and has emerged as a potential therapeutic target for colitis. Here we report on the rational structure-based discovery of a small-molecule antagonist of exportin-1, LFS-829, with low-range nanomolar activities. The co-crystallographic structure, surface plasmon resonance binding assay, and cell-based phenotypic nuclear export functional assay validated that exportin-1 is a key target of LFS-829. Moreover, we demonstrated that the C528S mutation or the knockdown on exportin-1 can abolish the cellular activities of LFS-829. Strikingly, oral administration of LFS-829 can significantly reverse the pathological features of colitis model mice. We revealed that LFS-829 can attenuate dual NF-κB signaling and the Nrf2 cytoprotection pathway via targeting exportin-1 in colitis mice. Moreover, LFS-829 has a very low risk of cardiotoxicity and acute toxicity. Therefore, LFS-829 holds great promise for the treatment of colitis and may warrant translation for use in clinical trials.

Cronobacter sakazakii induces necrotizing enterocolitis by regulating NLRP3 inflammasome expression via TLR4

Introduction. Neonatal infection with Cronobacter sakazakii can cause severe intestinal damage and necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). The inflammasome and Toll-like receptors mediate intestinal damage caused by other intestinal pathogens causing NEC, but the exact mechanism is unclear.Aim. We evaluated the molecular mechanisms underlying C. sakazakii-induced NEC.Methodology. The effects of C. sakazakii treatment on two cell lines and a Sprague-Dawley rat model of NEC were evaluated by a cell death assay, western blot and real-time PCR analyses of the NLRP3 inflammasome and downstream factors, and observation of cell and intestinal damage.Results. C. sakazakii caused cellular damage in vitro, as well as intestinal damage in an animal model. NLRP3, caspase-1, TLR4 and MyD88, as well as the downstream factor IL-1β, were upregulated in C. sakazakii-infected J774A.1 and HT-29 cells. Western blotting showed that C. sakazakii-infected J774A.1 and HT-29 cells and the NEC rat model had higher expression levels of N-terminal gasdermin D (GSDMD) compared with those in the control groups. C. sakazakii and its components promote NF-κB expression via the TLR4/MyD88 signalling pathway, thereby regulating the NLRP3 inflammasome and mediating GSDMD cleavage, resulting in pyroptosis-induced intestinal damage.Conclusion. We found that C. sakazakii upregulates NF-κB via TLR4/MyD88 to promote activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, leading to the up-regulation of downstream caspase-1, release of IL-1β, GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis and development of NEC. These findings clarify the mechanisms by which C. sakazakii contributes to NEC.

Identifying Microbiota Signature and Functional Rules Associated With Bacterial Subtypes in Human Intestine

Gut microbiomes are integral microflora located in the human intestine with particular symbiosis. Among all microorganisms in the human intestine, bacteria are the most significant subgroup that contains many unique and functional species. The distribution patterns of bacteria in the human intestine not only reflect the different microenvironments in different sections of the intestine but also indicate that bacteria may have unique biological functions corresponding to their proper regions of the intestine. However, describing the functional differences between the bacterial subgroups and their distributions in different individuals is difficult using traditional computational approaches. Here, we first attempted to introduce four effective sets of bacterial features from independent databases. We then presented a novel computational approach to identify potential distinctive features among bacterial subgroups based on a systematic dataset on the gut microbiome from approximately 1,500 human gut bacterial strains. We also established a group of quantitative rules for explaining such distinctions. Results may reveal the microstructural characteristics of the intestinal flora and deepen our understanding on the regulatory role of bacterial subgroups in the human intestine.

Chronic lead exposure induces histopathological damage, microbiota dysbiosis and immune disorder in the cecum of female Japanese quails (Coturnix japonica)

Lead (Pb) is one of the most hazardous metals to human and wildlife and it also has multiple negative impacts on birds. However, its influences on bird gut morphology and intestinal microbiota were still unclear. We used female Japanese quails (Coturnix japonica) to examine the effects of chronic lead exposure (0, 50 ppm and 1000 ppm) on cecal histology, microbial communities and immune function. The results showed 50 ppm lead exposure caused subtle damages of cecum cell structure. However, 1000 ppm lead exposure caused severe cecum histopathological changes characterized by mucosa abscission, Lieberkühn glands destruction and lymphocyte proliferation. Moreover, both lead concentrations induced ultrastructural damages featured by nucleus pyknosis, mitochondrial vacuolation and microvilli contraction. Meanwhile, microbial community structure, species diversity, taxonomic compositions and taxa abundance in the cecum were affected by lead exposure. Furthermore, the mRNA relative expression of immunity-related genes such as interleukin 2 (IL-2) and gamma interferon (IFN-γ) was significantly downregulated while that of interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and natural killer kappa B (NF-κB) was significantly upregulated in the cecum of 50 and 1000 ppm lead exposure groups. We concluded that lead exposure may cause gut health impairment of female Japanese quails by inducing cecal histopathological changes, microbiota dysbiosis and cecal immune disorder.

Protective effect of adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells in an experimental model of high-risk colonic anastomosis

BACKGROUND

Dehiscence of intestinal anastomosis results in high morbidity and mortality. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of locally administered adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells in a model of high-risk colonic anastomosis in rats.

METHODS

Seven days after induction of colitis with 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid, Wistar rats were submitted to a transection of the descending colon followed by end-to-end anastomosis and were then treated with 2×10⁶ adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (from the preperitoneal fat) or an acellular culture solution instilled onto the surface of the anastomosis. At day 14, after macroscopic survey of the abdominal cavity, the anastomotic area was submitted to histologic and immunohistochemical analysis, evaluation of myeloperoxidase activity, fibrosis, epithelial integrity, NF-κ B activation, expression of inflammatory cytokines, and extracellular matrix-related genes.

RESULTS

Anastomotic leakage and mortality associated with high-risk anastomosis decreased with treatment with adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (P < .03). Application of adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells resulted in lower histologic scores (P = .011), decreased deposition of collagen fibers (P = .003), preservation of goblet cells (P = .033), decreased myeloperoxidase activity (P = .012), decreased accumulation of CD4+ T-cells (P = .014) and macrophages (P = .011) in the lamina propria, a decrease in the number of apoptotic cells (P = .008), and the activation of NF-κ B (P = .036). Overexpression of IL-17, TNF-α , IFN-γ, and metalloproteinases in the acellular culture solution-treated, high-risk anastomosis group decreased (P < .05) to near normal values with adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells treatment.

CONCLUSION

Improvements in outcomes of a high-risk colonic anastomosis with adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells therapy reflect the immunomodulatory activity and healing effect of these cells, even after just topical administration and reinforces their use in future translational research.

Detection of genomic regions underlying resistance to gastrointestinal parasites in Australian sheep

BACKGROUND

This study aimed at identifying genomic regions that underlie genetic variation of worm egg count, as an indicator trait for parasite resistance in a large population of Australian sheep, which was genotyped with the high-density 600 K Ovine single nucleotide polymorphism array. This study included 7539 sheep from different locations across Australia that underwent a field challenge with mixed gastrointestinal parasite species. Faecal samples were collected and worm egg counts for three strongyle species, i.e. Teladorsagia circumcincta, Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis were determined. Data were analysed using genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and regional heritability mapping (RHM).

RESULTS

Both RHM and GWAS detected a region on Ovis aries (OAR) chromosome 2 that was highly significantly associated with parasite resistance at a genome-wise false discovery rate of 5%. RHM revealed additional significant regions on OAR6, 18, and 24. Pathway analysis revealed 13 genes within these significant regions (SH3RF1, HERC2, MAP3K, CYFIP1, PTPN1, BIN1, HERC3, HERC5, HERC6, IBSP, SPP1, ISG20, and DET1), which have various roles in innate and acquired immune response mechanisms, as well as cytokine signalling. Other genes involved in haemostasis regulation and mucosal defence were also detected, which are important for protection of sheep against invading parasites.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified significant genomic regions on OAR2, 6, 18, and 24 that are associated with parasite resistance in sheep. RHM was more powerful in detecting regions that affect parasite resistance than GWAS. Our results support the hypothesis that parasite resistance is a complex trait and is determined by a large number of genes with small effects, rather than by a few major genes with large effects.

Cancer testis antigen 55 deficiency attenuates colitis-associated colorectal cancer by inhibiting NF-κB signaling

Colitis-associated cancer (CAC), a prototype of inflammation-associated cancer, is one of the most common gastrointestinal tumors. As a potential cancer testis antigen (CT antigen), cancer testis antigen 55 (CT55) is expressed in different tumors and normal testes. However, its role in CAC remains unknown. Here, we identified CT55 as a new potent promoter of CAC. We discovered that Ct55 deficiency alleviated inflammatory responses, decreased cell proliferation and colitis-associated tumorigenesis in an azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS) mouse model. Mechanistically, CT55 acts as an accelerator of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling. Upon stimulation with TNF-α, CT55 interacts with the IκB kinase (IKK) complex, which increases the phosphorylation of IKKα/β and activates IKK–p65 signaling, while knockout of CT55 blocks IKK–p65 signaling. Notably, inhibition of IKK abolished the positive effect of CT55 on NF-κB activation. Collectively, our findings strongly indicate that CT55 deficiency suppresses the development of CAC and that the CT55-TNF-α-induced NF-κB axis may represent a promising target for CAC therapy.

Schistosoma mansoni Coinfection Attenuates Murine Toxoplasma gondii-Induced Crohn's-Like Ileitis by Preserving the Epithelial Barrier and Downregulating the Inflammatory Response

Background and aims: Mice orally infected with T. gondii develop Crohn's disease (CD)-like enteritis associated with severe mucosal damage and a systemic inflammatory response, resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Previously, helminthic infections have shown therapeutic potential in experimental colitis. However, the role of S. mansoni in T. gondii-induced CD-like enteritis has not been elucidated. Our study investigated the mechanisms underlying T. gondii-induced ileitis and the potential therapeutic effect of S. mansoni coinfection.

Methods: C57BL/6 mice were infected by subcutaneous injection of cercariae of the BH strain of S. mansoni, and 7–9 weeks later, they were orally infected with cysts of the ME49 strain of T. gondii. After euthanasia, the ileum was removed for histopathological analysis; staining for goblet cells; immunohistochemistry characterizing mononuclear cells, lysozyme expression, apoptotic cells, and intracellular pathway activation; and measuring gene expression levels by real-time PCR. Cytokine concentrations were measured in the serial serum samples and culture supernatants of the ileal explants, in addition to myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity.

Results:T. gondii-monoinfected mice presented dense inflammatory cell infiltrates and ulcerations in the terminal ileum, with abundant cell extrusion, apoptotic bodies, and necrosis; these effects were absent in S. mansoni-infected or coinfected animals. Coinfection preserved goblet cells and Paneth cells, remarkably depleted in T. gondii-infected mice. Densities of CD4- and CD11b-positive cells were increased in T. gondii- compared to S. mansoni-infected mice and controls. MPO was significantly increased among T. gondii-mice, while attenuated in coinfected animals. In T. gondii-infected mice, the culture supernatants of the explants showed increased concentrations of TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, and IL-17, and the ileal tissue revealed increased expression of the mRNA transcripts for IL-1 beta, NOS2, HMOX1, MMP3, and MMP9 and activation of NF-kappa B and p38 MAPK signaling, all of which were counterregulated by S. mansoni coinfection.

Conclusion:S. mansoni coinfection attenuates T. gondii-induced ileitis by preserving mucosal integrity and downregulating the local inflammatory response based on the activation of NF-kappa B and MAPK. The protective function of prior S. mansoni infection suggests the involvement of innate immune mechanisms and supports a conceptually new approach to the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases, including CD.

Protective Effects of Astragaloside IV against LPS-Induced Endometritis in Mice through Inhibiting Activation of the NF-κB, p38 and JNK Signaling Pathways

Endometritis, inflammation of the endometrium, is a common reproductive obstacle disease that can lead to infertility in female animals. Astragaloside IV (AS IV), one of the major and active components of the Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bunge, is known for its anti-inflammatory effects. In the present study, the effects and mechanisms of AS IV on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endometritis were investigated using a mouse model. Female mice were prepared with AS IV (0.01 mg/g) by gavage for six days before being stimulated with LPS. The results showed that the histopathological changes, levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-α), concentration of NO, and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in LPS-induced uteri were attenuated significantly by pretreatment with AS IV. Furthermore, LPS-induced activations of NF-κB, p38, and JNK signal pathways were suppressed by pretreatment with AS IV. In conclusion, the data provided new evidence that AS IV effectively attenuates LPS-induced endometritis through inhibition of TLR4-mediated NF-κB, p38, and JNK signaling pathways, implying that AS IV might become a promising potential anti-inflammatory agent for endometritis and other inflammatory diseases.

The inhibitory effects of Qingchang Wenzhong granule on the interactive network of inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in rats with dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a kind of complex immune disease, the pathogenesis of which remains elusive. Destruction of the intestinal barrier, extreme inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis might play key roles in the development of UC. In previous studies, we observed that Qingchang Wenzhong granule (QCWZG) had the exact effect on the remission of UC in the clinic; however, the underlying mechanism has not been identified. This study aimed to reveal the effects of QCWZG on the intestinal physical barrier and the interactive network of inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in rats with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis.

METHODS

Sixty rats were randomly divided into six groups: blank group, model group, high/mild/low-dose QCWZG groups, and mesalazine group. The rats in the experimental group drank 4% DSS for 7 days and 1% DSS for the subsequent 7 days. Different medications or distilled water was supplied by intragastric administration for 7 days. The levels of colitis and indices related to inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis were assessed.

RESULTS

Compared with the model group, the QCWZG group (P < 0.05) demonstrated attenuated disease activity index, colonic mucosa disease index, histological lesions, and colonic weights; lower levels of inflammatory substances, such as interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and myeloperoxidase; lower levels of malondialdehyde; and increased levels of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. The QCWZG group also demonstrated elevated expression of Bcl-2 and occluding but downregulated db expression of Bax and caspase 3 in the colon.

CONCLUSION

QCWZG could relieve rats with DSS-induced colitis from UC symptoms by improving the intestinal physical barrier, which resists the interactive network of inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and their overactivated interactions.