Hepatic β-arrestin 2 is essential for maintaining euglycemia

Antagonism of β-arrestins in IL-4-driven microglia reactivity via the Samd4/mTOR/OXPHOS axis in Parkinson's disease

Interleukin-4 (IL-4)-exposed microglia acquire neuroprotective properties, but their functions and regulation in Parkinson's disease (PD) are poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrate that IL-4 enhances anti-inflammatory microglia reactivity, ameliorates the pathological features of PD, and reciprocally affects expression of β-arrestin 1 and β-arrestin 2 in microglia in PD mouse models. We also show that manipulation of two β-arrestins produces contrary effects on the anti-inflammatory states and neuroprotective action of microglia induced by IL-4 in vivo and in vitro. We further find that the functional antagonism of two β-arrestins is mediated through sequential activation of sterile alpha motif domain containing 4 (Samd4), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Collectively, these data reveal opposing functions of two closely related β-arrestins in regulating the IL-4-induced microglia reactivity via the Samd4/mTOR/OXPHOS axis in PD mouse models and provide important insights into the pathogenesis and therapeutics of PD.

The Role of G Protein-Coupled Receptors and Receptor Kinases in Pancreatic β-Cell Function and Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) mellitus has emerged as a major global health concern that has accelerated in recent years due to poor diet and lifestyle. Afflicted individuals have high blood glucose levels that stem from the inability of the pancreas to make enough insulin to meet demand. Although medication can help to maintain normal blood glucose levels in individuals with chronic disease, many of these medicines are outdated, have severe side effects, and often become less efficacious over time, necessitating the need for insulin therapy. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate many physiologic processes, including blood glucose levels. In pancreatic β cells, GPCRs regulate β-cell growth, apoptosis, and insulin secretion, which are all critical in maintaining sufficient β-cell mass and insulin output to ensure euglycemia. In recent years, new insights into the signaling of incretin receptors and other GPCRs have underscored the potential of these receptors as desirable targets in the treatment of diabetes. The signaling of these receptors is modulated by GPCR kinases (GRKs) that phosphorylate agonist-activated GPCRs, marking the receptor for arrestin binding and internalization. Interestingly, genome-wide association studies using diabetic patient cohorts link the GRKs and arrestins with T2D. Moreover, recent reports show that GRKs and arrestins expressed in the β cell serve a critical role in the regulation of β-cell function, including β-cell growth and insulin secretion in both GPCR-dependent and -independent pathways. In this review, we describe recent insights into GPCR signaling and the importance of GRK function in modulating β-cell physiology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Pancreatic β cells contain a diverse array of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that have been shown to improve β-cell function and survival, yet only a handful have been successfully targeted in the treatment of diabetes. This review discusses recent advances in our understanding of β-cell GPCR pharmacology and regulation by GPCR kinases while also highlighting the necessity of investigating islet-enriched GPCRs that have largely been unexplored to unveil novel treatment strategies.

Hepatic β-arrestins: potential roles in liver health and disease

Β-arrestins are intracellular scaffolding proteins that have multifaceted roles in different types of disorders. In this review article, we gave a summary about the discovery, characterization and classification of these proteins and their intracellular functions. Moreover, this review article focused on the hepatic expression of β-arrestins and their hepatocellular distribution and function in each liver cell type. Also, we showed that β-arrestins are key regulators of distinct types of hepatic disorders. On the other hand, we addressed some important points that have never been studied before regarding the role of β-arrestins in certain types of hepatic disorders which needs more research efforts to cover.

GLP-1 and GIP receptors signal through distinct β-arrestin 2-dependent pathways to regulate pancreatic β cell function

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1R) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIPR) receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors involved in glucose homeostasis. Diabetogenic conditions decrease β-arrestin 2 (ARRB2) levels in human islets. In mouse β cells, ARRB2 dampens insulin secretion by partially uncoupling cyclic AMP (cAMP)/protein kinase A (PKA) signaling at physiological doses of GLP-1, whereas at pharmacological doses, the activation of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK)/cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB) requires ARRB2. In contrast, GIP-potentiated insulin secretion needs ARRB2 in mouse and human islets. The GIPR-ARRB2 axis is not involved in cAMP/PKA or ERK signaling but does mediate GIP-induced F-actin depolymerization. Finally, the dual GLP-1/GIP agonist tirzepatide does not require ARRB2 for the potentiation of insulin secretion. Thus, ARRB2 plays distinct roles in regulating GLP-1R and GIPR signaling, and we highlight (1) its role in the physiological context and the possible functional consequences of its decreased expression in pathological situations such as diabetes and (2) the importance of assessing the signaling pathways engaged by the agonists (biased/dual) for therapeutic purposes.

Past and present of beta arrestins: A new perspective on insulin secretion and effect

BACKGROUND

Beta arrestins had been known as intracellular adaptors that uncouple and inactivate the G protein-coupled receptors that they interact with. Their roles as signal initiators for some receptors have recently been recognized.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

In this review, we focused on their role in mediating metabolic modulation primarily in relation to insulin signaling. Commenced by the upstream receptor, they seem to act like intracellular hubs that divert the metabolic profile of the cell. The amount of metabolic substrates in circulation and their usage/deposition by tissues are controlled by the contribution of all systems in the organism. This control is enabled by the release of hormones such as insulin, glucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1. Intriguingly, some ligands -either agonists or antagonists-of different classes of receptors have preferential properties mediated by β arrestins. This is not surprizing considering that substrate supply and usage should parallel physiological function such as hormone release or muscle contraction.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Available data indicate that β arrestins conduct the regulatory role in insulin secretion and action. They may be good candidates to target when the upstream signal demands the function that may compromise the cell. An example is carvedilol that is protective by preventing the stimulatory effects of excessive catecholamines, stimulates mitochondrial function and has preferential clinical outcomes in metabolic disorders.

β-Arrestins: Structure, Function, Physiology, and Pharmacological Perspectives

The two β-arrestins, β-arrestin-1 and -2 (systematic names: arrestin-2 and -3, respectively), are multifunctional intracellular proteins that regulate the activity of a very large number of cellular signaling pathways and physiologic functions. The two proteins were discovered for their ability to disrupt signaling via G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) via binding to the activated receptors. However, it is now well recognized that both β-arrestins can also act as direct modulators of numerous cellular processes via either GPCR-dependent or -independent mechanisms. Recent structural, biophysical, and biochemical studies have provided novel insights into how β-arrestins bind to activated GPCRs and downstream effector proteins. Studies with β-arrestin mutant mice have identified numerous physiologic and pathophysiological processes regulated by β-arrestin-1 and/or -2. Following a short summary of recent structural studies, this review primarily focuses on β-arrestin-regulated physiologic functions, with particular focus on the central nervous system and the roles of β-arrestins in carcinogenesis and key metabolic processes including the maintenance of glucose and energy homeostasis. This review also highlights potential therapeutic implications of these studies and discusses strategies that could prove useful for targeting specific β-arrestin-regulated signaling pathways for therapeutic purposes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The two β-arrestins, structurally closely related intracellular proteins that are evolutionarily highly conserved, have emerged as multifunctional proteins able to regulate a vast array of cellular and physiological functions. The outcome of studies with β-arrestin mutant mice and cultured cells, complemented by novel insights into β-arrestin structure and function, should pave the way for the development of novel classes of therapeutically useful drugs capable of regulating specific β-arrestin functions.

The molecular pharmacology of glucagon agonists in diabetes and obesity

Within recent decades glucagon receptor (GcgR) agonism has drawn attention as a therapeutic tool for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. In both mice and humans, glucagon administration enhances energy expenditure and suppresses food intake suggesting a promising metabolic utility. Therefore synthetic optimization of glucagon-based pharmacology to further resolve the physiological and cellular underpinnings mediating these effects has advanced. Chemical modifications to the glucagon sequence have allowed for greater peptide solubility, stability, circulating half-life, and understanding of the structure-function potential behind partial and "super"-agonists. The knowledge gained from such modifications has provided a basis for the development of long-acting glucagon analogues, chimeric unimolecular dual- and tri-agonists, and novel strategies for nuclear hormone targeting into glucagon receptor-expressing tissues. In this review, we summarize the developments leading toward the current advanced state of glucagon-based pharmacology, while highlighting the associated biological and therapeutic effects in the context of diabetes and obesity.

A Common Variant of ARRB2 Promoter Region Associated with the Prognosis of Heart Failure

INTRODUCTION

The role of ARRB2 in cardiovascular disease has recently gained increasing attention. However, the association between ARRB2 polymorphisms and heart failure (HF) has not yet been investigated.

METHODS

A total of 2,386 hospitalized patients with chronic HF were enrolled as the first cohort and followed up for a mean period of 20.2 months. Meanwhile, ethnically and geographically matched 3,000 individuals without evidence of HF were included as healthy controls. We genotyped the common variant in ARRB2 gene to identify the association between variant and HF. A replicated independent cohort enrolling 837 patients with chronic HF was applied to validate the observed association. A series of function analyses were conducted to illuminate the underlying mechanism.

RESULTS

We identified a common variant rs75428611 associated with the prognosis of HF in two-stage population: adjusted p = 0.001, hazard ratio (HR) = 1.31 (1.11-1.54) in additive model and adjusted p = 0.001, HR = 1.39 (1.14-1.69) in dominant model in first-stage population; adjusted p = 0.04, HR = 1.41 (1.02-1.95) in additive model and adjusted p = 0.03, HR = 1.51 (1.03-2.20) in dominant model in replicated stage. However, rs75428611 did not significantly associate with the risk of HF. Functional analysis indicated that rs75428611-G allele increased the promoter activity and the mRNA expression level of ARRB2 by facilitating transcription factor SRF binding but not the A allele.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrated that rs75428611 in promoter of ARRB2 was associated with the risk of HF mortality. It is a promising potential treatment target for HF.

Endosomal trafficking in metabolic homeostasis and diseases

The global prevalences of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus have reached epidemic status, presenting a heavy burden on society. It is therefore essential to find novel mechanisms and targets that could be utilized in potential treatment strategies and, as such, intracellular membrane trafficking has re-emerged as a regulatory tool for controlling metabolic homeostasis. Membrane trafficking is an essential physiological process that is responsible for the sorting and distribution of signalling receptors, membrane transporters and hormones or other ligands between different intracellular compartments and the plasma membrane. Dysregulation of intracellular transport is associated with many human diseases, including cancer, neurodegeneration, immune deficiencies and metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus and its associated complications. This Review focuses on the latest advances on the role of endosomal membrane trafficking in metabolic physiology and pathology in vivo, highlighting the importance of this research field in targeting metabolic diseases.

Roles of Pancreatic Islet Catecholamine Neurotransmitters in Glycemic Control and in Antipsychotic Drug-Induced Dysglycemia

Catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) are essential for a myriad of functions throughout the central nervous system, including metabolic regulation. These molecules are also present in the pancreas, and their study may shed light on the effects of peripheral neurotransmission on glycemic control. Though sympathetic innervation to islets provides NE that signals at local α-cell and β-cell adrenergic receptors to modify hormone secretion, α-cells and β-cells also synthesize catecholamines locally. We propose a model where α-cells and β-cells take up catecholamine precursors in response to postprandial availability, preferentially synthesizing DA. The newly synthesized DA signals in an autocrine/paracrine manner to regulate insulin and glucagon secretion and maintain glycemic control. This enables islets to couple local catecholamine signaling to changes in nutritional state. We also contend that the DA receptors expressed by α-cells and β-cells are targeted by antipsychotic drugs (APDs)-some of the most widely prescribed medications today. Blockade of local DA signaling contributes significantly to APD-induced dysglycemia, a major contributor to treatment discontinuation and development of diabetes. Thus, elucidating the peripheral actions of catecholamines will provide new insights into the regulation of metabolic pathways and may lead to novel, more effective strategies to tune metabolism and treat diabetes.

Vps37a regulates hepatic glucose production by controlling glucagon receptor localization to endosomes

During mammalian energy homeostasis, the glucagon receptor (Gcgr) plays a key role in regulating both glucose and lipid metabolisms. However, the mechanisms by which these distinct signaling arms are differentially regulated remain poorly understood. Using a Cy5-glucagon agonist, we show that the endosomal protein Vps37a uncouples glucose production from lipid usage downstream of Gcgr signaling by altering intracellular receptor localization. Hepatocyte-specific knockdown of Vps37a causes an accumulation of Gcgr in endosomes, resulting in overactivation of the cAMP/PKA/p-Creb signaling pathway to gluconeogenesis without affecting β-oxidation. Shifting the receptor back to the plasma membrane rescues the differential signaling and highlights the importance of the spatiotemporal localization of Gcgr for its metabolic effects. Importantly, since Vps37a knockdown in animals fed with a high-fat diet leads to hyperglycemia, although its overexpression reduces blood glucose levels, these data reveal a contribution of endosomal signaling to metabolic diseases that could be exploited for treatments of type 2 diabetes.

The reduced serum concentrations of β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2 in pregnancies complicated with gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to analyze maternal serum β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2 concentrations in pregnant women complicated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and compare them with the normoglycemic uncomplicated healthy control group.

METHODS

A prospective case-control study was conducted, including pregnant women complicated with GDM between 15 February 2021, and 31 July 2021. We recorded serum β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2 concentrations of the participants. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to describe and compare the performance of diagnostics value of variables β-arrestin-1, and β-arrestin-2.

RESULTS

The mean β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2 levels were found to be significantly lower in the GDM group (41.0 ± 62.8 ng/mL, and 6.3 ± 9.9 ng/mL) than in the control group (93.1 ± 155.4 ng/mL, and 12.4 ± 17.7, respectively, p < .001). When we analyze the area under the ROC curve (AUC), maternal serum β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2 levels can be considered a statistically significant parameter for diagnosing GDM. β-arrestin-1 had a significant negative correlation with fasting glucose (r = -0.551, p < .001), plasma insulin levels (r = -0.522, p < .001), HOMA-IR (r = -0.566, p < .001), and HbA1C (r = -0.465, p < .001). β-arrestin-2 was significantly negatively correlated with fasting glucose (r = -0.537, p < .001), plasma insulin levels (r = -0.515, p < .001), HOMA-IR (r = -0.550, p < .001), and HbA1C (r = -0.479, p < .001).

CONCLUSION

β-arrestin 1 and β-arrestin 2 could be utilized as biomarkers in the diagnosis of GDM. The novel therapeutic strategies targeting these β-arrestins may be designed for the GDM treatment.

The Two β-Arrestins Regulate Distinct Metabolic Processes: Studies with Novel Mutant Mouse Models

The two β-arrestins (β-arrestin-1 and -2; alternative names: arrestin-2 and -3, respectively) are well known for their ability to inhibit signaling via G protein-coupled receptors. However, β-arrestins can also act as signaling molecules in their own right. Although the two proteins share a high degree of sequence and structural homology, early studies with cultured cells indicated that β-arrestin-1 and -2 are not functionally redundant. Recently, the in vivo metabolic roles of the two β-arrestins have been studied using mutant mice selectively lacking either β-arrestin-1 or -2 in cell types that are of particular relevance for regulating glucose and energy homeostasis. These studies demonstrated that the β-arrestin-1 and -2 mutant mice displayed distinct metabolic phenotypes in vivo, providing further evidence for the functional heterogeneity of these two highly versatile signaling proteins.

Propranolol and low-dose isoproterenol ameliorate insulin resistance, enhance β-arrestin2 signaling, and reduce cardiac remodeling in high-fructose, high-fat diet-fed mice: Comparative study with metformin

AIMS

β-Arrestin2 signaling has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for the management of insulin resistance and related complications. Moreover, recent studies have shown that certain G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) ligands can modulate β-arrestin2 signaling. The current study examined the effects of the β-blocker propranolol and a low dose of the agonist isoproterenol (L-D-ISOPROT) on β-arrestin2 signaling, insulin resistance, and cardiac remodeling in high-fructose, high-fat diet (HFrHFD)-fed mice. In addition, the effects of these agents were compared to those of the clinical antidiabetic agent, metformin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Insulin resistance was induced by HFrHFD feeding for 16 weeks. Mice were then randomly allocated to groups receiving propranolol, L-D-ISOPROT, metformin, or vehicle (control) for 4 weeks starting on week 13 of HFrHFD feeding. Survival rate, body weight, visceral fat weight, blood glucose, serum insulin, insulin resistance index, hepatic β-arrestin2 signaling, heart weight, left and right ventricular thicknesses, cardiac fibrosis severity, serum endothelin-1, cardiac cardiotrophin-1, and cardiac β-arrestin2 signaling were then compared among groups.

KEY FINDINGS

HFrHFD for 16 weeks significantly increased insulin resistance index, cardiac fibrosis area, and serum endothelin-1, and reduced hepatic β-arrestin2 signaling, cardiac cardiotrophin-1, and cardiac β-arrestin2 signaling without significant changes in survival rate, body weight, visceral fat weight, heart weight, or left and right ventricular thicknesses. All three drugs reduced insulin resistance and cardiac remodeling parameters and enhanced β-arrestin2 signaling with variable efficacies.

SIGNIFICANCE

Propranolol and L-D-ISOPROT, like metformin, can reduce insulin-resistance and cardiac remodeling in HFrHFD-fed mice, possibly by upregulating β-arrestin2 signaling activity. Therefore, β-arrestin2-signaling modulation might be a promising strategy for insulin-resistance treatment.

Receptor Activity-Modifying Protein 2 (RAMP2) alters glucagon receptor trafficking in hepatocytes with functional effects on receptor signalling

OBJECTIVES

Receptor Activity-Modifying Protein 2 (RAMP2) is a chaperone protein which allosterically binds to and interacts with the glucagon receptor (GCGR). The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of RAMP2 on GCGR trafficking and signalling in the liver, where glucagon (GCG) is important for carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.

METHODS

Subcellular localisation of GCGR in the presence and absence of RAMP2 was investigated using confocal microscopy, trafficking and radioligand binding assays in human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) and human hepatoma (Huh7) cells. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) lacking the Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein and scar homologue (WASH) complex and the trafficking inhibitor monensin were used to investigate the effect of halted recycling of internalised proteins on GCGR subcellular localisation and signalling in the absence of RAMP2. NanoBiT complementation and cyclic AMP assays were used to study the functional effect of RAMP2 on the recruitment and activation of GCGR signalling mediators. Response to hepatic RAMP2 upregulation in lean and obese adult mice using a bespoke adeno-associated viral vector was also studied.

RESULTS

GCGR is predominantly localised at the plasma membrane in the absence of RAMP2 and exhibits remarkably slow internalisation in response to agonist stimulation. Rapid intracellular accumulation of GCG-stimulated GCGR in cells lacking the WASH complex or in the presence of monensin indicates that activated GCGR undergoes continuous cycles of internalisation and recycling, despite apparent GCGR plasma membrane localisation up to 40 min post-stimulation. Co-expression of RAMP2 induces GCGR internalisation both basally and in response to agonist stimulation. The intracellular retention of GCGR in the presence of RAMP2 confers a bias away from β-arrestin-2 recruitment coupled with increased activation of Gαs proteins at endosomes. This is associated with increased short-term efficacy for glucagon-stimulated cAMP production, although long-term signalling is dampened by increased receptor lysosomal targeting for degradation. Despite these signalling effects, only a minor disturbance of carbohydrate metabolism was observed in mice with upregulated hepatic RAMP2.

CONCLUSIONS

By retaining GCGR intracellularly, RAMP2 alters the spatiotemporal pattern of GCGR signalling. Further exploration of the effects of RAMP2 on GCGR in vivo is warranted.

β-Arrestins as Important Regulators of Glucose and Energy Homeostasis

β-Arrestin-1 and -2 (also known as arrestin-2 and -3, respectively) are ubiquitously expressed cytoplasmic proteins that dampen signaling through G protein-coupled receptors. However, β-arrestins can also act as signaling molecules in their own right. To investigate the potential metabolic roles of the two β-arrestins in modulating glucose and energy homeostasis, recent studies analyzed mutant mice that lacked or overexpressed β-arrestin-1 and/or -2 in distinct, metabolically important cell types. Metabolic analysis of these mutant mice clearly demonstrated that both β-arrestins play key roles in regulating the function of most of these cell types, resulting in striking changes in whole-body glucose and/or energy homeostasis. These studies also revealed that β-arrestin-1 and -2, though structurally closely related, clearly differ in their metabolic roles under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. These new findings should guide the development of novel drugs for the treatment of various metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes and obesity. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Physiology, Volume 84 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Tertiary butylhydroquinone alleviated liver steatosis and increased cell survival via β-arrestin-2/PI3K/AKT pathway

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the effects and the underlying mechanisms of tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) on diabetic liver steatosis and cell survival.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed streptozocin injection and used a high-sugar-high-fat diet for mice to develop an animal model of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Bodyweight, blood glucose levels, and content of insulin were measured on all of the mice. The liver tissues were observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining. Protein levels of the liver were measured by Western blot analysis in mice. Primary hepatocytes were induced by hypochlorous acid (HClO) and insulin to form insulin resistance (IR). Primary hepatocyte apoptosis was observed by Hoechst staining. The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and β-arrestin-2 factor were evaluated by Western blot assay.

RESULTS

TBHQ reduced the blood glucose level and content of insulin in serum, increased body weight, and effectively alleviated liver steatosis in diabetic mice. TBHQ significantly up-regulated the expression of p-PI3K, p-AKT, GLUT4, GSK3β, and β-arrestin-2 in the liver of diabetic mice. Cell experiments confirmed that TBHQ increased the survival ability of primary hepatocytes, and TBHQ improved the expression of p-PI3K, p-AKT, GLUT4, and GSK3β by activating β-arrestin-2 in primary hepatocytes.

CONCLUSION

TBHQ could alleviate liver steatosis and increase cell survival, and the mechanism is due in part to β-arrestin-2 activation.

Partial agonism improves the anti-hyperglycaemic efficacy of an oxyntomodulin-derived GLP-1R/GCGR co-agonist

OBJECTIVE

Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon receptor (GLP-1R/GCGR) co-agonism can maximise weight loss and improve glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes and obesity. In this study, we investigated the cellular and metabolic effects of modulating the balance between G protein and β-arrestin-2 recruitment at GLP-1R and GCGR using oxyntomodulin (OXM)-derived co-agonists. This strategy has been previously shown to improve the duration of action of GLP-1R mono-agonists by reducing target desensitisation and downregulation.

METHODS

Dipeptidyl dipeptidase-4 (DPP-4)-resistant OXM analogues were generated and assessed for a variety of cellular readouts. Molecular dynamic simulations were used to gain insights into the molecular interactions involved. In vivo studies were performed in mice to identify the effects on glucose homeostasis and weight loss.

RESULTS

Ligand-specific reductions in β-arrestin-2 recruitment were associated with slower GLP-1R internalisation and prolonged glucose-lowering action in vivo. The putative benefits of GCGR agonism were retained, with equivalent weight loss compared to the GLP-1R mono-agonist liraglutide despite a lesser degree of food intake suppression. The compounds tested showed only a minor degree of biased agonism between G protein and β-arrestin-2 recruitment at both receptors and were best classified as partial agonists for the two pathways measured.

CONCLUSIONS

Diminishing β-arrestin-2 recruitment may be an effective way to increase the therapeutic efficacy of GLP-1R/GCGR co-agonists. These benefits can be achieved by partial rather than biased agonism.

Emerging Targets in Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Complications

Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic, chronic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and elevated blood glucose levels. Although a large drug portfolio exists to keep the blood glucose levels under control, these medications are not without side effects. More importantly, once diagnosed diabetes is rarely reversible. Dysfunctions in the kidney, retina, cardiovascular system, neurons, and liver represent the common complications of diabetes, which again lack effective therapies that can reverse organ injury. Overall, the molecular mechanisms of how type 2 diabetes develops and leads to irreparable organ damage remain elusive. This review particularly focuses on novel targets that may play role in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Further research on these targets may eventually pave the way to novel therapies for the treatment-or even the prevention-of type 2 diabetes along with its complications.

β-Arrestin-1 is required for adaptive β-cell mass expansion during obesity

Obesity is the key driver of peripheral insulin resistance, one of the key features of type 2 diabetes (T2D). In insulin-resistant individuals, the expansion of beta-cell mass is able to delay or even prevent the onset of overt T2D. Here, we report that beta-arrestin-1 (barr1), an intracellular protein known to regulate signaling through G protein-coupled receptors, is essential for beta-cell replication and function in insulin-resistant mice maintained on an obesogenic diet. Specifically, insulin-resistant beta-cell-specific barr1 knockout mice display marked reductions in beta-cell mass and the rate of beta-cell proliferation, associated with pronounced impairments in glucose homeostasis. Mechanistic studies suggest that the observed metabolic deficits are due to reduced Pdx1 expression levels caused by beta-cell barr1 deficiency. These findings indicate that strategies aimed at enhancing barr1 activity and/or expression in beta-cells may prove useful to restore proper glucose homeostasis in T2D.

Glucagon's Metabolic Action in Health and Disease

Discovered almost simultaneously with insulin, glucagon is a pleiotropic hormone with metabolic action that goes far beyond its classical role to increase blood glucose. Albeit best known for its ability to directly act on the liver to increase de novo glucose production and to inhibit glycogen breakdown, glucagon lowers body weight by decreasing food intake and by increasing metabolic rate. Glucagon further promotes lipolysis and lipid oxidation and has positive chronotropic and inotropic effects in the heart. Interestingly, recent decades have witnessed a remarkable renaissance of glucagon's biology with the acknowledgment that glucagon has pharmacological value beyond its classical use as rescue medication to treat severe hypoglycemia. In this article, we summarize the multifaceted nature of glucagon with a special focus on its hepatic action and discuss the pharmacological potential of either agonizing or antagonizing the glucagon receptor for health and disease. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1759-1783, 2021.

Loss of APJ mediated β-arrestin signalling improves high-fat diet induced metabolic dysfunction but does not alter cardiac function in mice

Apelin receptor (APJ) is a G protein-coupled receptor that contributes to many physiological processes and is emerging as a therapeutic target to treat a variety of diseases. For most disease indications the role of G protein vs β-arrestin signalling in mitigating disease pathophysiology remains poorly understood. This hinders the development of G protein biased APJ agonists, which have been proposed to have several advantages over balanced APJ signalling agonists. To elucidate the contribution of APJ β-arrestin signalling, we generated a transgenic mouse harbouring a point mutation (APJ I107A) that maintains full G protein activity but fails to recruit β-arrestin following receptor activation. APJ I107A mutant mice did not alter cardiac function at rest, following exercise challenge or in response to pressure overload induced cardiac hypertrophy. Additionally, APJ I107A mice have comparable body weights, plasma glucose and lipid levels relative to WT mice when fed a chow diet. However, APJ I107A mice showed significantly lower body weight, blood insulin levels, improved glucose tolerance and greater insulin sensitivity when fed a high-fat diet. Furthermore, loss of APJ β-arrestin signalling also affected fat composition and the expression of lipid metabolism related genes in adipose tissue from high-fat fed mice. Taken together, our results suggest that G protein biased APJ activation may be more effective for certain disease indications given that loss of APJ mediated β-arrestin signalling appears to mitigate several aspects of diet induced metabolic dysfunction.

Key Metabolic Functions of β-Arrestins: Studies with Novel Mouse Models

β-Arrestin-1 and -2 are intracellular proteins that are able to inhibit signaling via G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). However, both proteins can also modulate cellular functions in a G protein-independent fashion. During the past few years, studies with mutant mice selectivity lacking β-arrestin-1 and/or -2 in metabolically important cell types have led to novel insights into the mechanisms through which β-arrestins regulate key metabolic processes in vivo, including whole-body glucose and energy homeostasis. The novel information gained from these studies should inform the development of novel drugs, including β-arrestin- or G protein-biased GPCR ligands, that could prove useful for the therapy of several important pathophysiological conditions, including type 2 diabetes and obesity.

Genetic and biased agonist-mediated reductions in β-arrestin recruitment prolong cAMP signaling at glucagon family receptors

Receptors for the peptide hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1R), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIPR), and glucagon (GCGR) are important regulators of insulin secretion and energy metabolism. GLP-1R agonists have been successfully deployed for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, but it has been suggested that their efficacy is limited by target receptor desensitization and downregulation due to recruitment of β-arrestins. Indeed, recently described GLP-1R agonists with reduced β-arrestin-2 recruitment have delivered promising results in preclinical and clinical studies. We therefore aimed to determine if the same phenomenon could apply to the closely related GIPR and GCGR. In HEK293 cells depleted of both β-arrestin isoforms the duration of G protein-dependent cAMP/PKA signaling was increased in response to the endogenous ligand for each receptor. Moreover, in wildtype cells, "biased" GLP-1, GCG, and GIP analogs with selective reductions in β-arrestin-2 recruitment led to reduced receptor endocytosis and increased insulin secretion over a prolonged stimulation period, although the latter effect was only seen at high agonist concentrations. Biased GCG analogs increased the duration of cAMP signaling, but this did not lead to increased glucose output from hepatocytes. Our study provides a rationale for the development of GLP-1R, GIPR, and GCGR agonists with reduced β-arrestin recruitment, but further work is needed to maximally exploit this strategy for therapeutic purposes.

Metabolic Functions of G Protein-Coupled Receptors and β-Arrestin-Mediated Signaling Pathways in the Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity

Seven transmembrane receptors (7TMRs), often termed G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), are the most common target of therapeutic drugs used today. Many studies suggest that distinct members of the GPCR superfamily represent potential targets for the treatment of various metabolic disorders including obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). GPCRs typically activate different classes of heterotrimeric G proteins, which can be subgrouped into four major functional types: G_αs, G_αi, G_αq/11, and G_12/13, in response to agonist binding. Accumulating evidence suggests that GPCRs can also initiate β-arrestin-dependent, G protein-independent signaling. Thus, the physiological outcome of activating a certain GPCR in a particular tissue may also be modulated by β-arrestin-dependent, but G protein-independent signaling pathways. In this review, we will focus on the role of G protein- and β-arrestin-dependent signaling pathways in the development of obesity and T2D-related metabolic disorders.

SUMOylation involves in β-arrestin-2-dependent metabolic regulation in breast cancer cell

β-arrestin-2, a multifunctional adaptor protein, was originally identified as a negative regulator of G protein-mediated signaling. We previously revealed that SUMOylation as a novel mechanism modulates β-arrestin-2-mediated IL-1R/TRAF6 signaling. However, the potential role of β-arrestin-2 SUMOylation in tumor cells was incompletely explored. In this study, we showed that SUMOylation deficiency of β-arrestin-2 resulted in slower migration of breast cancer cells, but little effect on the cell proliferation. Importantly, our data indicated that SUMOylation involves in β-arrestin-2-dependent metabolic regulation, suggesting a potent regulatory pattern for β-arrestin-2-mediated biological functions of tumor cells.

Sodium Butyrate-Modulated Mitochondrial Function in High-Insulin Induced HepG2 Cell Dysfunction

The liver plays a pivotal role in maintaining euglycemia. Biogenesis and function of mitochondria within hepatocytes are often the first to be damaged in a diabetic population, and restoring its function is recently believed to be a promising strategy on inhibiting the progression of diabetes. Previously, we demonstrated that the gut microbiota metabolite butyrate could reduce hyperglycemia and modulate the metabolism of glycogen in both db/db mice and HepG2 cells. To further explore the mechanism of butyrate in controlling energy metabolism, we investigated its influence and underlying mechanism on the biogenesis and function of mitochondria within high insulin-induced hepatocytes in this study. We found that butyrate significantly modulated the expression of 54 genes participating in mitochondrial energy metabolism by a PCR array kit, both the content of mitochondrial DNA and production of ATP were enhanced, expressions of histone deacetylases 3 and 4 were inhibited, beta-oxidation of fatty acids was increased, and oxidative stress damage was ameliorated at the same time. A mechanism study showed that expression of GPR43 and its downstream protein beta-arrestin2 was increased on butyrate administration and that activation of Akt was inhibited, while the AMPK-PGC-1alpha signaling pathway and expression of p-GSK3 were enhanced. In conclusion, we found in the present study that butyrate could significantly promote biogenesis and function of mitochondria under high insulin circumstances, and the GPR43-β-arrestin2-AMPK-PGC1-alpha signaling pathway contributed to these effects. Our present findings will bring new insight on the pivotal role of metabolites from microbiota on maintaining euglycemia in diabetic population.

β-arrestin-1 suppresses myogenic reprogramming of brown fat to maintain euglycemia

A better understanding of the signaling pathways regulating adipocyte function is required for the development of new classes of antidiabetic/obesity drugs. We here report that mice lacking β-arrestin-1 (barr1), a cytoplasmic and nuclear signaling protein, selectively in adipocytes showed greatly impaired glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity when consuming an obesogenic diet. In contrast, transgenic mice overexpressing barr1 in adipocytes were protected against the metabolic deficits caused by a high-calorie diet. Barr1 deficiency led to a myogenic reprogramming of brown adipose tissue (BAT), causing elevated plasma myostatin (Mstn) levels, which in turn led to impaired insulin signaling in multiple peripheral tissues. Additional in vivo studies indicated that barr1-mediated suppression of Mstn expression by BAT is required for maintaining euglycemia. These findings convincingly identify barr1 as a critical regulator of BAT function. Strategies aimed at enhancing barr1 activity in BAT may prove beneficial for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Beneficial metabolic role of β-arrestin-1 expressed by AgRP neurons

β-Arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2 have emerged as important signaling molecules that modulate glucose fluxes in several peripheral tissues. The potential roles of neuronally expressed β-arrestins in regulating glucose homeostasis remain unknown. We here report that mice lacking β-arrestin-1 (barr1) selectively in AgRP neurons displayed impaired glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity when consuming an obesogenic diet, while mice overexpressing barr1 selectively in AgRP neurons were protected against obesity-associated metabolic impairments. Additional physiological, biochemical, and electrophysiological data indicated that the presence of barr1 is essential for insulin-mediated hyperpolarization of AgRP neurons. As a result, barr1 expressed by AgRP neurons regulates efferent neuronal pathways that suppress hepatic glucose production and promote lipolysis in adipose tissue. Mice lacking β-arrestin-2 (barr2) selectively in AgRP neurons showed no substantial metabolic phenotypes. Our data suggest that agents able to enhance the activity of barr1 in AgRP neurons may prove beneficial as antidiabetic drugs.

Autophagy mediates hepatic GRK2 degradation to facilitate glucagon-induced metabolic adaptation to fasting

The liver plays a key role during fasting to maintain energy homeostasis and euglycemia via metabolic processes mainly orchestrated by the insulin/glucagon ratio. We report here that fasting or calorie restriction protocols in C57BL6 mice promote a marked decrease in the hepatic protein levels of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2), an important negative modulator of both G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and insulin signaling. Such downregulation of GRK2 levels is liver-specific and can be rapidly reversed by refeeding. We find that autophagy, and not the proteasome, represents the main mechanism implicated in fasting-induced GRK2 degradation in the liver in vivo. Reducing GRK2 levels in murine primary hepatocytes facilitates glucagon-induced glucose production and enhances the expression of the key gluconeogenic enzyme Pck1. Conversely, preventing full downregulation of hepatic GRK2 during fasting using adenovirus-driven overexpression of this kinase in the liver leads to glycogen accumulation, decreased glycemia, and hampered glucagon-induced gluconeogenesis, thus preventing a proper and complete adaptation to nutrient deprivation. Overall, our data indicate that physiological fasting-induced downregulation of GRK2 in the liver is key for allowing complete glucagon-mediated responses and efficient metabolic adaptation to fasting in vivo.

Sex Differences in High Fat Diet-Induced Metabolic Alterations Correlate with Changes in the Modulation of GRK2 Levels

A differential sex-related sensitivity has been reported in obesity and insulin resistance-related cardio-metabolic diseases, with a lower incidence of these pathologies being observed in young females when compared to age-matched males. However, such relative protection is lost with age. The mechanisms underlying such sex and age-related changes in the susceptibility to diabetes and obesity are not fully understood. Herein, we report that the relative protection that is displayed by young female mice, as compared to male littermates, against some of the metabolic alterations that are induced by feeding a high fat diet (HFD), correlates with a lower upregulation of the protein levels of G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK2), which is a key regulator of both insulin and G protein-coupled receptor signaling, in the liver and adipose tissue. Interestingly, when the HFD is initiated in middle-aged (32 weeks) female mice, these animals are no longer protected and display a more overt obese and insulin-resistant phenotype, along with a more evident increase in the GRK2 protein levels in metabolically relevant tissues in such conditions. Our data suggest that GRK2 dosage might be involved in the sex and age-biased sensitivity to insulin resistance-related pathologies.

GPCRs and Insulin Receptor Signaling in Conversation: Novel Avenues for Drug Discovery

Type 2 diabetes is a major health issue worldwide with complex metabolic and endocrine abnormalities. Hyperglycemia, defects in insulin secretion and insulin resistance are classic features of type 2 diabetes. Insulin signaling regulates metabolic homeostasis by regulating glucose and lipid turnover in the liver, skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. Major treatment modalities for diabetes include the drugs from the class of sulfonyl urea, Insulin, GLP-1 agonists, SGLT2 inhibitors, DPP-IV inhibitors and Thiazolidinediones. Emerging antidiabetic therapeutics also include classes of drugs targeting GPCRs in the liver, adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Interestingly, recent research highlights several shared intermediates between insulin and GPCR signaling cascades opening potential novel avenues for diabetic drug discovery.

Metabolic effects of skeletal muscle-specific deletion of beta-arrestin-1 and -2 in mice

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) has become a major health problem worldwide. Skeletal muscle (SKM) is the key tissue for whole-body glucose disposal and utilization. New drugs aimed at improving insulin sensitivity of SKM would greatly expand available therapeutic options. β-arrestin-1 and -2 (Barr1 and Barr2, respectively) are two intracellular proteins best known for their ability to mediate the desensitization and internalization of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Recent studies suggest that Barr1 and Barr2 regulate several important metabolic functions including insulin release and hepatic glucose production. Since SKM expresses many GPCRs, including the metabolically important β2-adrenergic receptor, the goal of this study was to examine the potential roles of Barr1 and Barr2 in regulating SKM and whole-body glucose metabolism. Using SKM-specific knockout (KO) mouse lines, we showed that the loss of SKM Barr2, but not of SKM Barr1, resulted in mild improvements in glucose tolerance in diet-induced obese mice. SKM-specific Barr1- and Barr2-KO mice did not show any significant differences in exercise performance. However, lack of SKM Barr2 led to increased glycogen breakdown following a treadmill exercise challenge. Interestingly, mice that lacked both Barr1 and Barr2 in SKM showed no significant metabolic phenotypes. Thus, somewhat surprisingly, our data indicate that SKM β-arrestins play only rather subtle roles (SKM Barr2) in regulating whole-body glucose homeostasis and SKM insulin sensitivity.

Scaffold Proteins: From Coordinating Signaling Pathways to Metabolic Regulation

Among their pleiotropic functions, scaffold proteins are required for the accurate coordination of signaling pathways. It has only been within the past 10 years that their roles in glucose homeostasis and metabolism have emerged. It is well appreciated that changes in the expression or function of signaling effectors, such as receptors or kinases, can influence the development of chronic diseases such as diabetes and obesity. However, little is known regarding whether scaffolds have similar roles in the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases. In general, scaffolds are often underappreciated in the context of metabolism or metabolic diseases. In the present review, we discuss various scaffold proteins and their involvement in signaling pathways related to metabolism and metabolic diseases. The aims of the present review were to highlight the importance of scaffold proteins and to raise awareness of their physiological contributions. A thorough understanding of how scaffolds influence metabolism could aid in the discovery of novel therapeutic approaches to treat chronic conditions, such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease, for which the incidence of all continue to increase at alarming rates.

Arrestins: Introducing Signaling Bias Into Multifunctional Proteins

Arrestins were discovered as proteins that bind active phosphorylated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and block their interactions with G proteins, i.e., for their role in homologous desensitization of GPCRs. Mammals express only four arrestin subtypes, two of which are largely restricted to the retina. Two nonvisual arrestins are ubiquitous and interact with hundreds of different GPCRs and dozens of other binding partners. Changes of just a few residues on the receptor-binding surface were shown to dramatically affect GPCR preference of inherently promiscuous nonvisual arrestins. Mutations on the cytosol-facing side of arrestins modulate their interactions with individual downstream signaling molecules. Thus, it appears feasible to construct arrestin mutants specifically linking particular GPCRs with signaling pathways of choice or mutants that sever the links between selected GPCRs and unwanted pathways. Signaling-biased "designer arrestins" have the potential to become valuable molecular tools for research and therapy.