Implications of the kynurenine pathway and quinolinic acid in Alzheimer's disease

Heme-based dioxygenases: Structure, function and dynamics

Tryptophan dioxygenase (TDO) and indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO) belong to a unique class of heme-based enzymes that insert dioxygen into the essential amino acid, L-tryptophan (Trp), to generate N-formylkynurenine (NFK), a critical metabolite in the kynurenine pathway. Recently, the two dioxygenases were recognized as pivotal cancer immunotherapeutic drug targets, which triggered a great deal of drug discovery targeting them. The advancement of the field is however hampered by the poor understanding of the structural properties of the two enzymes and the mechanisms by which the structures dictate their functions. In this review, we summarize recent findings centered on the structure, function, and dynamics of the human isoforms of the two enzymes.

The Kynurenine Pathway in Gut Permeability and Inflammation

The gut-brain axis (GBA) is a crucial communication network linking the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the central nervous system (CNS). The gut microbiota significantly influences metabolic, immune, and neural functions by generating a diverse array of bioactive compounds that modulate brain function and maintain homeostasis. A pivotal mechanism in this communication is the kynurenine pathway, which metabolises tryptophan into various derivatives, including neuroactive and neurotoxic compounds. Alterations in gut microbiota composition can increase gut permeability, triggering inflammation and neuroinflammation, and contributing to neuropsychiatric disorders. This review elucidates the mechanisms by which changes in gut permeability may lead to systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation, with a focus on the kynurenine pathway. We explore how probiotics can modulate the kynurenine pathway and reduce neuroinflammation, highlighting their potential as therapeutic interventions for neuropsychiatric disorders. The review integrates experimental data, discusses the balance between neurotoxic and neuroprotective kynurenine metabolites, and examines the role of probiotics in regulating inflammation, cognitive development, and gut-brain axis functions. The insights provided aim to guide future research and therapeutic strategies for mitigating GI complaints and their neurological consequences.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway: a linking bridge between the gut microbiome and neurodegenerative diseases

The Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a cytosolic receptor and ligand-activated transcription factor widely expressed across various cell types in the body. Its signaling is vital for host responses at barrier sites, regulating epithelial renewal, barrier integrity, and the activities of several types of immune cells. This makes AHR essential for various cellular responses during aging, especially those governing inflammation and immunity. In this review, we provided an overview of the mechanisms by which the AHR mediates inflammatory response at gut and brain level through signals from intestinal microbes. The age-related reduction of gut microbiota functions is perceived as a trigger of aberrant immune responses linking gut and brain inflammation to neurodegeneration. Thus, we explored gut microbiome impact on the nature and availability of AHR ligands and outcomes for several signaling pathways involved in neurodegenerative diseases and age-associated decline of brain functions, with an insight on Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, the most common neurodegenerative diseases in the elderly. Specifically, we focused on microbial tryptophan catabolism responsible for the production of several AHR ligands. Perspectives for the development of microbiota-based interventions targeting AHR activity are presented for a healthy aging.

Are Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome at Increased Risk of Alzheimer Disease? Lessons from Insulin Resistance, Tryptophan and Gonadotropin Disturbances and Their Link with Amyloid-Beta Aggregation

Alzheimer disease, the leading cause of dementia, and polycystic ovary syndrome, one of the most prevalent female endocrine disorders, appear to be unrelated conditions. However, studies show that both disease entities have common risk factors, and the amount of certain protein marker of neurodegeneration is increased in PCOS. Reports on the pathomechanism of both diseases point to the possibility of common denominators linking them. Dysregulation of the kynurenine pathway, insulin resistance, and impairment of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, which are correlated with amyloid-beta aggregation are these common areas. This article discusses the relationship between Alzheimer disease and polycystic ovary syndrome, with a particular focus on the role of disorders of tryptophan metabolism in both conditions. Based on a review of the available literature, we concluded that systemic changes occurring in PCOS influence the increased risk of neurodegeneration.

A Review of the Evidence for Tryptophan and the Kynurenine Pathway as a Regulator of Stem Cell Niches in Health and Disease

Stem cells are ubiquitously found in various tissues and organs in the body, and underpin the body's ability to repair itself following injury or disease initiation, though repair can sometimes be compromised. Understanding how stem cells are produced, and functional signaling systems between different niches is critical to understanding the potential use of stem cells in regenerative medicine. In this context, this review considers kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolism in multipotent adult progenitor cells, embryonic, haematopoietic, neural, cancer, cardiac and induced pluripotent stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells, and mesenchymal stromal cells. The KP is the major enzymatic pathway for sequentially catabolising the essential amino acid tryptophan (TRP), resulting in key metabolites including kynurenine, kynurenic acid, and quinolinic acid (QUIN). QUIN metabolism transitions into the adjoining de novo pathway for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) production, a critical cofactor in many fundamental cellular biochemical pathways. How stem cells uptake and utilise TRP varies between different species and stem cell types, because of their expression of transporters and responses to inflammatory cytokines. Several KP metabolites are physiologically active, with either beneficial or detrimental outcomes, and evidence of this is presented relating to several stem cell types, which is important as they may exert a significant impact on surrounding differentiated cells, particularly if they metabolise or secrete metabolites differently. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in mesenchymal stromal cells, for instance, highly upregulates rate-limiting enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO-1), initiating TRP depletion and production of metabolites including kynurenine/kynurenic acid, known agonists of the Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) transcription factor. AhR transcriptionally regulates an immunosuppressive phenotype, making them attractive for regenerative therapy. We also draw attention to important gaps in knowledge for future studies, which will underpin future application for stem cell-based cellular therapies or optimising drugs which can modulate the KP in innate stem cell populations, for disease treatment.

Urine Metabolite Analysis to Identify Pathomechanisms of Long COVID: A Pilot Study

Background

Around 10% of people who had COVID-9 infection suffer from persistent symptoms such as fatigue, dyspnoea, chest pain, arthralgia/myalgia, sleep disturbances, cognitive dysfunction and impairment of mental health. Different underlying pathomechanisms appear to be involved, in particular inflammation, alterations in amino acid metabolism, autonomic dysfunction and gut dysbiosis.

Aim

As routine tests are often inconspicuous in patients with Long COVID (LC), similarly to patients suffering from myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), accessible biomarkers indicating dysregulation of specific pathways are urgently needed to identify underlying pathomechanisms and enable personalized medicine treatment. Within this pilot study we aimed to proof traceability of altered metabolism by urine analysis.

Patients and Methods

Urine metabolome analyses were performed to investigate the metabolic signature of patients with LC (n = 25; 20 women, 5 men) in comparison to healthy controls (Ctrl, n = 8; 7 women, 1 man) and individuals with ME/CFS (n = 8; 2 women, 6 men). Concentrations of neurotransmitter precursors tryptophan, phenylalanine and their downstream metabolites, as well as their association with symptoms (fatigue, anxiety and depression) in the patients were examined.

Results and Conclusion

Phenylalanine levels were significantly lower in both the LC and ME/CFS patient groups when compared to the Ctrl group. In many LC patients, the concentrations of downstream metabolites of tryptophan and tyrosine, such as serotonin, dopamine and catecholamines, deviated from the reference ranges. Several symptoms (sleep disturbance, pain or autonomic dysfunction) were associated with certain metabolites. Patients experiencing fatigue had lower levels of kynurenine, phenylalanine and a reduced kynurenine to tryptophan ratio (Kyn/Trp). Lower concentrations of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and higher activity of kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO) were observed in patients with anxiety. Conclusively, our results suggest that amino acid metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis is disturbed in patients with LC and ME/CFS. The identified metabolites and their associated dysregulations could serve as potential biomarkers for elucidating underlying pathomechanisms thus enabling personalized treatment strategies for these patient populations.

The role of the kynurenine pathway in cognitive functioning after stroke: A prospective clinical study

BACKGROUND

The kynurenine pathway is the main metabolic pathway of tryptophan degradation and has been associated with stroke and impaired cognitive functioning, but studies on its role in post-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) are scarce. We aimed to investigate associations between metabolites of the kynurenine pathway at baseline and post-stroke cognitive functioning over time.

METHODS

Baseline plasma kynurenines were quantified in 198 stroke patients aged 65.4 ± 10.8 years, 138 (69.7%) men, who were followed up over a period of three years after stroke. Baseline and longitudinal associations of kynurenines with PSCI and cognitive domain scores were investigated using linear mixed models, adjusted for several confounders.

RESULTS

No evidence of associations between kynurenines and odds of PSCI were found. However, considering individual cognitive domains, higher plasma levels of anthranilic acid (AA) were associated with better episodic memory at baseline (β per SD 0.16 [0.05, 0.28]). Additionally, a linear-quadratic association was found for the kynurenic acid/ quinolinic acid ratio (KA/QA), a neuroprotective index, with episodic memory (Wald χ2 = 8.27, p = .016). Higher levels of KA were associated with better processing speed in women only (pinteraction = .008; β per SD 0.15 [95% CI 0.02, 0.27]). These associations did not change over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher levels of KA, AA and KA/QA were associated with better scores on some cognitive domains at baseline. These associations did not change over time. Given the exploratory nature and heterogeneity of findings, these results should be interpreted with caution, and verified in other prospective studies.

Dietary Kynurenine Pathway Metabolites-Source, Fate, and Chromatographic Determinations

Tryptophan metabolism plays an essential role in human health. In mammals, about 95% of dietary tryptophan is metabolized through the kynurenine pathway, which is associated with the development of several pathologies, including neurodegeneration. Some of the kynurenine pathway metabolites are agonists of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor involved in metabolic functions, inflammation, and carcinogenesis. Thus, their origins, fates, and roles are of widespread interest. Except for being produced endogenously, these metabolites can originate from exogenous sources (e.g., food) and undergo absorption in the digestive tract. Recently, a special focus on exogenous sources of tryptophan metabolites was observed. This overview summarizes current knowledge about the occurrence of the kynurenine pathway metabolites (kynurenines) in food and the analytical method utilized for their determination in different food matrices. Special attention was paid to sample preparation and chromatographic analysis, which has proven to be a core technique for the detection and quantification of kynurenines. A discussion of the fate and role of dietary kynurenines has also been addressed. This review will, hopefully, guide further studies on the impact of dietary kynurenines on human health.

Does smoking influence tryptophan metabolism in periodontal inflammation? A cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to identify the effects of smoking and periodontal inflammation on tryptophan-kynurenine metabolism as well as the correlation between these findings and clinical periodontal parameters.

BACKGROUND

It has been shown that the tryptophan amino acid's primary catabolic pathway, the kynurenine pathway (KP), may serve as a key biomarker for periodontal disease. Although there are studies investigating the effect of smoking on KYN-TRP metabolism, the effect of smoking on periodontal disease through KP has not been revealed so far.

METHODS

The salivary and serum samples were gathered from 24 nonsmoker (NS-P) stage III, grade B generalized periodontitis and 22 smoker (S-P) stage III, grade C generalized periodontitis patients, in addition to 24 nonsmoker (NS-C) and 24 smoker (S-C) periodontally healthy control individuals. Saliva and serum IL-6, kynurenine (KYN), and tryptophan (TRP) values, and KYN/TRP ratio were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Clinical periodontal measurements were recorded.

RESULTS

Salivary TRP values were significantly higher in both periodontitis groups than control groups (p < .05). Salivary KYN values were highest in NS-P group (p < .05). Salivary KYN values did not differ significantly between periodontitis groups (p = .84). Salivary KYN/TRP ratio was significantly lower in NS-P group compared to other groups (p < .001). Serum TRP value is higher in S-P group than other groups; however, significant difference was found in S-C group (p < .05). Serum KYN values were significantly lower in smokers than nonsmokers. Serum KYN/TRP ratio is higher in NS-P group. NS-P group has the highest salivary IL-6 levels, NS-C group has the lowest values (p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results point out that smoking exacerbates inflammation in the periodontium and increases TRP destruction and decreases IDO activity by suppressing KP in serum. As a result, kynurenine and its metabolites may be significant biomarkers in the link between smoking and periodontal disease.

Tryptophan metabolism in health and disease

Tryptophan (Trp) metabolism primarily involves the kynurenine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, and indole pathways. A variety of bioactive compounds produced via Trp metabolism can regulate various physiological functions, including inflammation, metabolism, immune responses, and neurological function. Emerging evidence supports an intimate relationship between Trp metabolism disorder and diseases. The levels or ratios of Trp metabolites are significantly associated with many clinical features. Additionally, studies have shown that disease progression can be controlled by modulating Trp metabolism. Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase, Trp-2,3-dioxygenase, kynurenine-3-monooxygenase, and Trp hydroxylase are the rate-limiting enzymes that are critical for Trp metabolism. These key regulatory enzymes can be targeted for treating several diseases, including tumors. These findings provide novel insights into the treatment of diseases. In this review, we have summarized the recent research progress on the role of Trp metabolites in health and disease along with their clinical applications.

Microbial-Derived Tryptophan Metabolites and Their Role in Neurological Disease: Anthranilic Acid and Anthranilic Acid Derivatives

The gut microbiome provides the host access to otherwise indigestible nutrients, which are often further metabolized by the microbiome into bioactive components. The gut microbiome can also shift the balance of host-produced compounds, which may alter host health. One precursor to bioactive metabolites is the essential aromatic amino acid tryptophan. Tryptophan is mostly shunted into the kynurenine pathway but is also the primary metabolite for serotonin production and the bacterial indole pathway. Balance between tryptophan-derived bioactive metabolites is crucial for neurological homeostasis and metabolic imbalance can trigger or exacerbate neurological diseases. Alzheimer's, depression, and schizophrenia have been linked to diverging levels of tryptophan-derived anthranilic, kynurenic, and quinolinic acid. Anthranilic acid from collective microbiome metabolism plays a complex but important role in systemic host health. Although anthranilic acid and its metabolic products are of great importance for host-microbe interaction in neurological health, literature examining the mechanistic relationships between microbial production, host regulation, and neurological diseases is scarce and at times conflicting. This narrative review provides an overview of the current understanding of anthranilic acid's role in neurological health and disease, with particular focus on the contribution of the gut microbiome, the gut-brain axis, and the involvement of the three major tryptophan pathways.

The kynurenine pathway in traumatic brain injuries and concussion

Up to 10 million people per annum experience traumatic brain injury (TBI), 80-90% of which are categorized as mild. A hit to the brain can cause TBI, which can lead to secondary brain injuries within minutes to weeks after the initial injury through unknown mechanisms. However, it is assumed that neurochemical changes due to inflammation, excitotoxicity, reactive oxygen species, etc., that are triggered by TBI are associated with the emergence of secondary brain injuries. The kynurenine pathway (KP) is an important pathway that gets significantly overactivated during inflammation. Some KP metabolites such as QUIN have neurotoxic effects suggesting a possible mechanism through which TBI can cause secondary brain injury. That said, this review scrutinizes the potential association between KP and TBI. A more detailed understanding of the changes in KP metabolites during TBI is essential to prevent the onset or at least attenuate the severity of secondary brain injuries. Moreover, this information is crucial for the development of biomarker/s to probe the severity of TBI and predict the risk of secondary brain injuries. Overall, this review tries to fill the knowledge gap about the role of the KP in TBI and highlights the areas that need to be studied.

Quinolinate promotes macrophage-induced immune tolerance in glioblastoma through the NMDAR/PPARγ signaling axis

There has been considerable scientific effort dedicated to understanding the biologic consequence and therapeutic implications of aberrant tryptophan metabolism in brain tumors and neurodegenerative diseases. A majority of this work has focused on the upstream metabolism of tryptophan; however, this has resulted in limited clinical application. Using global metabolomic profiling of patient-derived brain tumors, we identify the downstream metabolism of tryptophan and accumulation of quinolinate (QA) as a metabolic node in glioblastoma and demonstrate its critical role in promoting immune tolerance. QA acts as a metabolic checkpoint in glioblastoma by inducing NMDA receptor activation and Foxo1/PPARγ signaling in macrophages, resulting in a tumor supportive phenotype. Using a genetically-engineered mouse model designed to inhibit production of QA, we identify kynureninase as a promising therapeutic target to revert the potent immune suppressive microenvironment in glioblastoma. These findings offer an opportunity to revisit the biologic consequence of this pathway as it relates to oncogenesis and neurodegenerative disease and a framework for developing immune modulatory agents to further clinical gains in these otherwise incurable diseases.

Butyrate ameliorates quinolinic acid-induced cognitive decline in obesity models

Obesity is a risk factor for neurodegenerative disease associated with cognitive dysfunction, including Alzheimer's disease. Low-grade inflammation is common in obesity, but the mechanism between inflammation and cognitive impairment in obesity is unclear. Accumulative evidence shows that quinolinic acid (QA), a neuroinflammatory neurotoxin, is involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative processes. We investigated the role of QA in obesity-induced cognitive impairment and the beneficial effect of butyrate in counteracting impairments of cognition, neural morphology, and signaling. We show that in human obesity, there was a negative relationship between serum QA levels and cognitive function and decreased cortical gray matter. Diet-induced obese mice had increased QA levels in the cortex associated with cognitive impairment. At single-cell resolution, we confirmed that QA impaired neurons, altered the dendritic spine's intracellular signal, and reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. Using Caenorhabditis elegans models, QA induced dopaminergic and glutamatergic neuron lesions. Importantly, the gut microbiota metabolite butyrate was able to counteract those alterations, including cognitive impairment, neuronal spine loss, and BDNF reduction in both in vivo and in vitro studies. Finally, we show that butyrate prevented QA-induced BDNF reductions by epigenetic enhancement of H3K18ac at BDNF promoters. These findings suggest that increased QA is associated with cognitive decline in obesity and that butyrate alleviates neurodegeneration.

Alterations in Peripheral Metabolites as Key Actors in Alzheimer's Disease

Growing evidence supports that Alzheimer's disease (AD) could be regarded as a metabolic disease, accompanying central and peripheral metabolic disturbance. Nowadays, exploring novel and potentially alternative hallmarks for AD is needed. Peripheral metabolites based on blood and gut may provide new biochemical insights about disease mechanisms. These metabolites can influence brain energy homeostasis, maintain gut mucosal integrity, and regulate the host immune system, which may further play a key role in modulating the cognitive function and behavior of AD. Recently, metabolomics has been used to identify key AD-related metabolic changes and define metabolic changes during AD disease trajectory. This review aims to summarize the key blood- and microbial-derived metabolites that are altered in AD and identify the potential metabolic biomarkers of AD, which will provide future targets for precision therapeutic modulation.

Effects of Donepezil Treatment on Brain Metabolites, Gut Microbiota, and Gut Metabolites in an Amyloid Beta-Induced Cognitive Impairment Mouse Pilot Model

Accumulated clinical and biomedical evidence indicates that the gut microbiota and their metabolites affect brain function and behavior in various central nervous system disorders. This study was performed to investigate the changes in brain metabolites and composition of the fecal microbial community following injection of amyloid β (Aβ) and donepezil treatment of Aβ-injected mice using metataxonomics and metabolomics. Aβ treatment caused cognitive dysfunction, while donepezil resulted in the successful recovery of memory impairment. The Aβ + donepezil group showed a significantly higher relative abundance of Verrucomicrobia than the Aβ group. The relative abundance of 12 taxa, including Blautia and Akkermansia, differed significantly between the groups. The Aβ + donepezil group had higher levels of oxalate, glycerol, xylose, and palmitoleate in feces and oxalate, pyroglutamic acid, hypoxanthine, and inosine in brain tissues than the Aβ group. The levels of pyroglutamic acid, glutamic acid, and phenylalanine showed similar changes in vivo and in vitro using HT-22 cells. The major metabolic pathways in the brain tissues and gut microbiota affected by Aβ or donepezil treatment of Aβ-injected mice were related to amino acid pathways and sugar metabolism, respectively. These findings suggest that alterations in the gut microbiota might influence the induction and amelioration of Aβ-induced cognitive dysfunction via the gut–brain axis. This study could provide basic data on the effects of Aβ and donepezil on gut microbiota and metabolites in an Aβ-induced cognitive impairment mouse model.

Integrated multi-omics analysis of Huntington disease identifies pathways that modulate protein aggregation

Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease associated with polyglutamine expansion in the protein huntingtin (HTT). Although the length of the polyglutamine repeat correlates with age at disease onset and severity, psychological, cognitive and behavioral complications point to the existence of disease modifiers. Mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic deregulation are both associated with the HD but, despite multi-omics characterization of patients and model systems, their mechanisms have remained elusive. Systems analysis of multi-omics data and its validation by using a yeast model could help to elucidate pathways that modulate protein aggregation. Metabolomics analysis of HD patients and of a yeast model of HD was, therefore, carried out. Our analysis showed a considerable overlap of deregulated metabolic pathways. Further, the multi-omics analysis showed deregulated pathways common in human, mice and yeast model systems, and those that are unique to them. The deregulated pathways include metabolic pathways of various amino acids, glutathione metabolism, longevity, autophagy and mitophagy. The addition of certain metabolites as well as gene knockouts targeting the deregulated metabolic and autophagy pathways in the yeast model system showed that these pathways do modulate protein aggregation. Taken together, our results showed that the modulation of deregulated pathways influences protein aggregation in HD, and has implications for progression and prognosis. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Nociceptor-derived Reg3γ prevents endotoxic death by targeting kynurenine pathway in microglia

Nociceptors can fine-tune local or systemic immunity, but the mechanisms of nociceptive modulation in endotoxic death remain largely unknown. Here, we identified C-type lectin Reg3γ as a nociceptor-enriched hormone that protects the host from endotoxic death. During endotoxemia, nociceptor-derived Reg3γ penetrates the brain and suppresses the expression of microglial indoleamine dioxygenase 1, a critical enzyme of the kynurenine pathway, via the Extl3-Bcl10 axis. Endotoxin-administered nociceptor-null mice and nociceptor-specific Reg3γ-deficient mice exhibit a high mortality rate accompanied by decreased brain HK1 phosphorylation and ATP production despite normal peripheral inflammation. Such metabolic arrest is only observed in the brain, and aberrant production of brain quinolinic acid, a neurotoxic metabolite of the kynurenine pathway, causes HK1 suppression. Strikingly, the central administration of Reg3γ protects mice from endotoxic death by enhancing brain ATP production. By identifying nociceptor-derived Reg3γ as a microglia-targeted hormone, this study provides insights into the understanding of tolerance to endotoxic death.

Kynurenine Metabolism and Alzheimer's Disease: The Potential Targets and Approaches

L-tryptophan, an essential amino acid, regulates protein homeostasis and plays a role in neurotransmitter-mediated physiological events. It also influences age-associated neurological alterations and neurodegenerative changes. The metabolism of tryptophan is carried majorly through the kynurenine route, leading to the production of several pharmacologically active enzymes, substrates, and metabolites. These metabolites and enzymes influence a variety of physiological and pathological outcomes of the majority of systems, including endocrine, haemopoietic, gastrointestinal, immunomodulatory, inflammatory, bioenergetic metabolism, and neuronal functions. An extensive literature review of PubMed, Medline, Bentham, Scopus, and EMBASE (Elsevier) databases was carried out to understand the nature of the extensive work done on the kynurenine metabolites that influence cellular redox potential, immunoregulatory mechanisms, inflammatory pathways, cell survival channels, and cellular communication in close association with several neurodegenerative changes. The imbalanced state of kynurenine pathways has found a close association to several pathological disorders, including HIV infections, cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative and neurological disorders including Parkinson's disease, epilepsy and has found special attention in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Kynurenine pathway (KP) is intricately linked to AD pathogenesis owing to the influence of kynurenine metabolites on excitotoxic neurotransmission, oxidative stress, uptake of neurotransmitters, and modulation of neuroinflammation, amyloid aggregation, microtubule disruption, and their ability to induce a state of dysbiosis. Pharmacological modulation of KP pathways has shown encouraging results, indicating that it may be a viable and explorable target for the therapy of AD.

Immuno-Metabolic Modulation of Liver Oncogenesis by the Tryptophan Metabolism

Metabolic rewiring in tumor cells is a major hallmark of oncogenesis. Some of the oncometabolites drive suppressive and tolerogenic signals from the immune system, which becomes complicit to the advent and the survival of neoplasia. Tryptophan (TRP) catabolism through the kynurenine (KYN) pathway was reported to play immunosuppressive actions across many types of cancer. Extensive debate of whether the culprit of immunosuppression was the depletion of TRP or rather KYN accumulation in the tumor microenvironment has been ongoing for years. Results from clinical trials assessing the benefit of inhibiting key limiting enzymes of this pathway such as indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1) or tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2) failed to meet the expectations. Bearing in mind the complexity of the tumoral terrain and the existence of different cancers with IDO1/TDO2 expressing and non-expressing tumoral cells, here we present a comprehensive analysis of the TRP global metabolic hub and the driving potential of the process of oncogenesis with the main focus on liver cancers.

1-Methyl tryptophan, an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase inhibitor, attenuates cardiac and hepatic dysfunction in rats with biliary cirrhosis

Kynurenine Pathway (KP) is the dominant metabolic route of tryptophan which is catalyzed by indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). This pathway is upregulated in liver disease where the level of KP metabolites correlates with the severity of disease. Cirrhosis is associated with cardiac dysfunction, which manifests itself during severe physiological challenges such as liver transplantation. Cardiac dysfunction in cirrhosis is linked to systemic inflammation and impaired cardiac beta-adrenergic signaling pathways. The KP pathway is involved in modulation of cardiac signaling and is upregulated by systemic inflammation. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of IDO inhibition on development of cardiac dysfunction in an experimental model of cirrhosis. Cirrhosis was induced by bile duct ligation (BDL). Experimental groups were given either 1-methyl tryptophan (1-MT, 1, 3, 9 mg/kg), or saline. 28 days after BDL, cardiac chronotropic response to epinephrine was assessed ex vivo. HPLC was employed to measure hepatic and cardiac levels of tryptophan, kynurenine and kynurenic acid. Cirrhosis in rats was associated with impaired cardiac chronotropic responsiveness to adrenergic stimulation. 1-MT dose-dependently improved cirrhosis-induced chronotropic dysfunction as well as elevated serum levels of CRP and IL-6 in BDL rats. Hepatic and cardiac kynurenine/tryptophan ratio were elevated in cirrhotic rats and were reduced following 1-MT administration. Chronic administration of 1-MT could also reduce hepatic inflammation, fibrosis and ductular proliferation. 1-MT attenuates cardiac dysfunction in rats with biliary cirrhosis. This protective effect is not limited to the cardiac function as liver histopathologic changes were also improved following chronic 1-MT administration.

Alterations of kynurenine pathway in alcohol use disorder and abstinence: a link with gut microbiota, peripheral inflammation and psychological symptoms

The gut-brain communication is mostly driven by the immune, metabolic and neural pathways which remained poorly explored in patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD). The metabolites arising from the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway have gained considerable attention since they are at the interface between intestinal bacteria, host immune response and brain functions. This study described the circulating levels of kynurenine metabolites in AUD patients, at the onset (T1) and end (T2) of a 3-week detoxification program, and tested correlations between those metabolites and inflammatory markers, the gut microbiota and the psychological symptoms. Increased concentration of the neurotoxic metabolite quinolinic acid (QUIN) and decreased levels of the neuroprotector metabolite kynurenic acid (KYNA) which both modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission were observed in AUD patients, particularly at T2. The inflammatory marker hsCRP was associated with several metabolic ratios of the kynurenine pathway. Tryptophan, KYNA and QUIN were correlated with depression, alcohol craving and reaction time, respectively. Analysis of gut microbiota revealed that bacteria known as short-chain fatty acid producers, as well as bacterial metabolites including butyrate and medium-chain fatty acids were associated with some metabolites of the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway. Targeting the glutamatergic neurotransmission through the modulation of the kynurenine pathway, by manipulating the gut microbiota, might represent an interesting alternative for modulating alcohol-related behavior.

Whole-blood metabolomics of dementia patients reveal classes of disease-linked metabolites

Dementia is a slowly progressing, chronic, and usually irreversible decline in cognitive function. Mechanistic causes and definitive treatments remain elusive. Using comprehensive metabolomics, we identified five groups of 33 metabolites (A to E), 13 of them previously reported, possibly useful for diagnosis and therapy of forms of dementia, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Seven A compounds may act as neurotoxins, whereas B to E compounds may protect the nervous system against oxidative stress, maintain energy reserves, supply nutrients and neuroprotective factors. Five metabolites, ergothioneine, S-methyl-ergothioneine, trimethyl-histidine, methionine, and tryptophan, overlap with those reported for frailty. Interventions for cognitive diseases involving these dementia metabolomic markers may be accomplished either by inhibiting A compounds or by supplementing B to E compounds in patients.

Dementia is caused by factors that damage neurons. We quantified small molecular markers in whole blood of dementia patients, using nontargeted liquid chromatography–mass spectroscopy (LC-MS). Thirty-three metabolites, classified into five groups (A to E), differed significantly in dementia patients, compared with healthy elderly subjects. Seven A metabolites present in plasma, including quinolinic acid, kynurenine, and indoxyl-sulfate, increased. Possibly they act as neurotoxins in the central nervous system (CNS). The remaining 26 compounds (B to E) decreased, possibly causing a loss of support or protection of the brain in dementia. Six B metabolites, normally enriched in red blood cells (RBCs), all contain trimethylated ammonium moieties. These metabolites include ergothioneine and structurally related compounds that have scarcely been investigated as dementia markers, validating the examination of RBC metabolites. Ergothioneine, a potent antioxidant, is significantly decreased in various cognition-related disorders, such as mild cognitive impairment and frailty. C compounds also include some oxidoreductants and are normally abundant in RBCs (NADP⁺, glutathione, adenosine triphosphate, pantothenate, S-adenosyl-methionine, and gluconate). Their decreased levels in dementia patients may also contribute to depressed brain function. Twelve D metabolites contains plasma compounds, such as amino acids, glycerophosphocholine, dodecanoyl-carnitine, and 2-hydroxybutyrate, which normally protect the brain, but their diminution in dementia may reduce that protection. Seven D compounds have been identified previously as dementia markers. B to E compounds may be critical to maintain the CNS by acting directly or indirectly. How RBC metabolites act in the CNS and why they diminish significantly in dementia remain to be determined.

Caenorhabditis elegans as a model for studies on quinolinic acid-induced NMDAR-dependent glutamatergic disorders

Quinolinic acid (QUIN) is an agonist of the neurotransmitter glutamate (Glu) capable of binding to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) increasing glutamatergic signaling. QUIN is known for being an endogenous neurotoxin, able to induce neurodegeneration. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the mechanism by which QUIN induces behavioral and metabolic toxicity has not been fully elucidated. The effects of QUIN on behavioral and metabolic parameters in nmr-1 and nmr-2 NMDA receptors in transgenic and wild-type (WT) worms were performed to decipher the pathway by which QUIN exerts its toxicity. QUIN increased locomotion parameters such as wavelength and movement amplitude medium, as well as speed and displacement, without modifying the number of body bends in an NMDAR-dependent-manner. QUIN increased the response time to the chemical stimulant 1-octanol, which is modulated by glutamatergic neurotransmission in the ASH neuron. Brood size increased after exposure to QUIN, dependent upon nmr-2/NMDA-receptor, with no change in lifespan. Oxygen consumption, mitochondrial membrane potential, and the flow of coupled and unbound electrons to ATP production were reduced by QUIN in wild-type animals, but did not alter citrate synthase activity, altering the functionality but the mitochondrial viability. Notably, QUIN modified fine locomotor and chemosensory behavioral parameters, as well as metabolic parameters, analogous to previously reported effects in mammals. Our results indicate that QUIN can be used as a neurotoxin to elicit glutamatergic dysfunction in C. elegans in a way analogous to other animal models.

Cisplatin Resistance and Redox-Metabolic Vulnerability: A Second Alteration

The development of drug resistance in tumors is a major obstacle to effective cancer chemotherapy and represents one of the most significant complications to improving long-term patient outcomes. Despite early positive responsiveness to platinum-based chemotherapy, the majority of lung cancer patients develop resistance. The development of a new combination therapy targeting cisplatin-resistant (CR) tumors may mark a major improvement as salvage therapy in these patients. The recent resurgence in research into cellular metabolism has again confirmed that cancer cells utilize aerobic glycolysis ("the Warburg effect") to produce energy. Hence, this observation still remains a characteristic hallmark of altered metabolism in certain cancer cells. However, recent evidence promotes another concept wherein some tumors that acquire resistance to cisplatin undergo further metabolic alterations that increase tumor reliance on oxidative metabolism (OXMET) instead of glycolysis. Our review focuses on molecular changes that occur in tumors due to the relationship between metabolic demands and the importance of NAD+ in redox (ROS) metabolism and the crosstalk between PARP-1 (Poly (ADP ribose) polymerase-1) and SIRTs (sirtuins) in CR tumors. Finally, we discuss a role for the tumor metabolites of the kynurenine pathway (tryptophan catabolism) as effectors of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment during acquisition of resistance in CR cells. Understanding these concepts will form the basis for future targeting of CR cells by exploiting redox-metabolic changes and their consequences on immune cells in the tumor microenvironment as a new approach to improve overall therapeutic outcomes and survival in patients who fail cisplatin.

Structural Basis of Selective Human Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase 1 (hIDO1) Inhibition

hIDO1 is a heme-dioxygenase overexpressed in the tumor microenvironment and is implicated in the survival of cancer cells. Metabolism of tryptophan to N-formyl-kynurenine by hIDO1 leads to immune suppression to result in cancer cell immune escape. In this article, we discuss the discovery of selective hIDO1 inhibitors for therapeutic intervention that have been promoted to clinical trials and for which crystallographic structural information is available for the respective inhibitor-enzyme complex. The structural insights are based on the complex crystal structures and the relative biological data profiles. The structural basis of selective hIDO1 inhibition, as discussed herein, opens new avenues to the discovery of novel inhibitors with improved activity profiles, selectivity, and distinct structure frameworks.

Neuroprotection in Glaucoma: NAD+/NADH Redox State as a Potential Biomarker and Therapeutic Target

Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Its prevalence and incidence increase exponentially with age and the level of intraocular pressure (IOP). IOP reduction is currently the only therapeutic modality shown to slow glaucoma progression. However, patients still lose vision despite best treatment, suggesting that other factors confer susceptibility. Several studies indicate that mitochondrial function may underlie both susceptibility and resistance to developing glaucoma. Mitochondria meet high energy demand, in the form of ATP, that is required for the maintenance of optimum retinal ganglion cell (RGC) function. Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) levels have been closely correlated to mitochondrial dysfunction and have been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases including glaucoma. NAD⁺ is at the centre of various metabolic reactions culminating in ATP production—essential for RGC function. In this review we present various pathways that influence the NAD⁺(H) redox state, affecting mitochondrial function and making RGCs susceptible to degeneration. Such disruptions of the NAD⁺(H) redox state are generalised and not solely induced in RGCs because of high IOP. This places the NAD⁺(H) redox state as a potential systemic biomarker for glaucoma susceptibility and progression; a hypothesis which may be tested in clinical trials and then translated to clinical practice.

Quinolinic acid is associated with cognitive deficits in schizophrenia but not major depressive disorder

Tryptophan and its catabolites (TRYCATs) have been suggested to link peripheral immune system activation and central neurotransmitter abnormalities with relevance to the etio-pathophysiology of schizophrenia (SZ) and major depressive disorder (MDD). The relationship to different psychopathological dimensions within these disorders however remains to be elucidated. We thus investigated potential group differences of tryptophan, kynurenine, kynurenic acid, 3-hydroxy kynurenine and quinolinic acid in the plasma of 19 healthy controls (HC), 45 patients with SZ and 43 patients with MDD and correlated plasma proteins with the "motivation and pleasure" dimension and cognition. After correcting for the covariates age, sex, body mass index, smoking and medication, patients with MDD showed lower kynurenine and 3-hydroxy kynurenine levels compared to HC. Quinolinic acid correlated negatively with composite cognitive score in patients with SZ, indicating that more severe cognitive impairments were associated with increased plasma levels of quinolinic acid. No correlations were found in patients with MDD. These results indicate that MDD and SZ are associated with dysregulation of the kynurenine pathway. Quinolinic acid might be specifically implicated in the pathophysiology of cognitive deficits in patients with SZ. Further studies are needed to determine whether TRYCATs are causally involved in the etiology of these neuropsychiatric disorders.

The Effect of Exogenous Free Nε-(Carboxymethyl)Lysine on Diabetic-Model Goto-Kakizaki Rats: Metabolomics Analysis in Serum and Urine

The current study investigated the effects of exogenous free N^ε-(carboxymethyl) lysine (CML) from daily diet on diabetic-model Goto-Kakizaki rats. Rats were fed with free CML (2 mg/kg body weight) for 8 weeks, then metabolomics evaluation was performed on serum and urine, and biochemical and histopathologic examinations were conducted to verify metabolic results. Diabetic rats fed with free CML showed significantly increased (P < 0.05) fasting blood glucose (11.1 ± 1.07 mmol/L) and homeostasis model assessment values (homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance: 16.0 ± 4.24; homeostatic model assessment of beta cell function: 6.66 ± 2.01; and modified beta cell function index: 11.5 ± 2.66) and a significantly altered (P < 0.05) oxidative stress level when compared to the control group. Serum and urine metabolomics showed a significantly altered (P < 0.05) level of aminomalonic acid, 2-oxoadipic acid, l-malic acid, β-alanine, 2-oxoglutaric acid, d-threitol, N-acetyl-leucine, methylmalonic acid, l-cysteine, thymine, glycine, l-alanine, 4-hydroxyproline, hexadecane, succinic acid, l-ornithine, gluconolactone, maleic acid, l-lactate, tryptophan, 5-methoxyindoleacetate, γ-aminobutyric acid, homoserine, maltose, and quinolinic acid. Our results indicated that these metabolites altered by exposure to exogenous free CML were mapped to the citric acid cycle and amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism, which might be related to increased progression of diabetes and some other diabetic complications, including diabetic brain and neurological diseases, retinopathy, nephropathy, and impaired wound healing.

Metabolic phenotyping reveals a reduction in the bioavailability of serotonin and kynurenine pathway metabolites in both the urine and serum of individuals living with Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Both serotonergic signalling disruption and systemic inflammation have been associated with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The common denominator linking the two is the catabolism of the essential amino acid, tryptophan. Metabolism via tryptophan hydroxylase results in serotonin synthesis, whilst metabolism via indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) results in kynurenine and its downstream derivatives. IDO is reported to be activated in times of host systemic inflammation and therefore is thought to influence both pathways. To investigate metabolic alterations in AD, a large-scale metabolic phenotyping study was conducted on both urine and serum samples collected from a multi-centre clinical cohort, consisting of individuals clinically diagnosed with AD, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and age-matched controls.

METHODS

Metabolic phenotyping was applied to both urine (n = 560) and serum (n = 354) from the European-wide AddNeuroMed/Dementia Case Register (DCR) biobank repositories. Metabolite data were subsequently interrogated for inter-group differences; influence of gender and age; comparisons between two subgroups of MCI - versus those who remained cognitively stable at follow-up visits (sMCI); and those who underwent further cognitive decline (cMCI); and the impact of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication on metabolite concentrations.

RESULTS

Results revealed significantly lower metabolite concentrations of tryptophan pathway metabolites in the AD group: serotonin (urine, serum), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (urine), kynurenine (serum), kynurenic acid (urine), tryptophan (urine, serum), xanthurenic acid (urine, serum), and kynurenine/tryptophan ratio (urine). For each listed metabolite, a decreasing trend in concentrations was observed in-line with clinical diagnosis: control > MCI > AD. There were no significant differences in the two MCI subgroups whilst SSRI medication status influenced observations in serum, but not urine.

CONCLUSIONS

Urine and serum serotonin concentrations were found to be significantly lower in AD compared with controls, suggesting the bioavailability of the neurotransmitter may be altered in the disease. A significant increase in the kynurenine/tryptophan ratio suggests that this may be a result of a shift to the kynurenine metabolic route due to increased IDO activity, potentially as a result of systemic inflammation. Modulation of the pathways could help improve serotonin bioavailability and signalling in AD patients.

Involvement of kynurenine pathway in depressive-like behaviour induced by nandrolone decanoate in mice

Nandrolone decanoate (ND) belongs to the class II of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), which is composed of 19-nor-testosterone-derivatives. AAS represent a group of synthetic testosterone that is used in clinical treatment. However, these drugs are widely abused among individuals as a means of promoting muscle growth or enhancing athletic performance. AAS in general and ND in particular have been associated with several behavioral disturbances, such as anxiety, aggressiveness and depression. A factor that contributes to the development of depression is the brain activation of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), the rate-limiting enzyme of kynurenine pathway (KP). In the present study, we examined the involvement of KP in depressive phenotype induced by a ND treatment (10 mg/kg/day/s.c., for 28 days) that mimics human abuse system (e.g. supraphysiological doses) in C57B/6J mice. Our results showed that ND caused depressive like-behavior in the tail suspension test and anhedonic-like state measured in the sucrose preference test. ND administration decreased the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 and reduced Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity in the hippocampus, striatum and prefrontal cortex. We also found that ND elicited KP activation, as reflected by the increase of IDO activity and kynurenine levels in these brain regions. Moreover, ND decreased serotonin levels and increased 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels in the brain. Treatment with IDO inhibitor 1-methyl-dl-trypthophan (1 mg/kg/i.p.) reversed the behavioral and neurochemical alterations induced by ND. These results indicate for the first time that KP plays a key role in depressive-like behavior and neurotoxicity induced by supraphysiologicaldoses of ND in mice.

Gut Biofactory-Neurocompetent Metabolites within the Gastrointestinal Tract. A Scoping Review

The gut microbiota have gained much scientific attention recently. Apart from unravelling the taxonomic data, we should understand how the altered microbiota structure corresponds to functions of this complex ecosystem. The metabolites of intestinal microorganisms, especially bacteria, exert pleiotropic effects on the human organism and contribute to the host systemic balance. These molecules play key roles in regulating immune and metabolic processes. A subset of them affect the gut brain axis signaling and balance the mental wellbeing. Neurotransmitters, short chain fatty acids, tryptophan catabolites, bile acids and phosphatidylcholine, choline, serotonin, and L-carnitine metabolites possess high neuroactive potential. A scoping literature search in PubMed/Embase was conducted up until 20 June 2020, using three major search terms "microbiota metabolites" AND "gut brain axis" AND "mental health". This review aimed to enhance our knowledge regarding the gut microbiota functional capacity, and support current and future attempts to create new compounds for future clinical interventions.

Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disease: Microglia, Molecular Participants and Therapeutic Choices

Alzheimer's disease is the world's most common dementing illness. It is pathologically characterized by β-amyloid accumulation, extracellular senile plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles formation, and neuronal necrosis and apoptosis. Neuroinflammation has been widely recognized as a crucial process that participates in AD pathogenesis. In this review, we briefly summarized the involvement of microglia in the neuroinflammatory process of Alzheimer's disease. Its roles in the AD onset and progression are also discussed. Numerous molecules, including interleukins, tumor necrosis factor alpha, chemokines, inflammasomes, participate in the complex process of AD-related neuroinflammation and they are selectively discussed in this review. In the end of this paper from an inflammation- related perspective, we discussed some potential therapeutic choices.

Potential Mechanism of Cellular Uptake of the Excitotoxin Quinolinic Acid in Primary Human Neurons

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), excessive amounts of quinolinic acid (QUIN) accumulate within the brain parenchyma and dystrophic neurons. QUIN also regulates glutamate uptake into neurons, which may be due to modulation of Na⁺-dependent excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs). To determine the biological relationships between QUIN and glutamate dysfunction, we first quantified the functionality and kinetics of [³H]QUIN uptake in primary human neurons using liquid scintillation. We then measured changes in the protein expression of the glutamate transporter EAAT3 and EAAT1b in primary neurons treated with QUIN and the EAAT inhibitor L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (2,4-PDC) using western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Immunohistochemistry was further used to elucidate intracellular transport of exogenous QUIN and the lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP2). Structural insights into the binding between QUIN and EAAT3 were further investigated using molecular docking techniques. We report significant temperature-dependent high-affinity transport leading to neuronal uptake of [³H]QUIN with a Km of 42.2 μM, and a V_max of 9.492 pmol/2 min/mg protein, comparable with the uptake of glutamate. We also found that QUIN increases expression of the EAAT3 monomer while decreasing the functional trimer. QUIN uptake into primary neurons was shown to involve EAAT3 as uptake was significantly attenuated following EAAT inhibition. We also demonstrated that QUIN increases the expression of aberrant EAAT1b protein in neurons further implicating QUIN-induced glutamate dysfunction. Furthermore, we demonstrated that QUIN is metabolised exclusively in lysosomes. The involvement of EAAT3 as a modulator for QUIN uptake was further confirmed using molecular docking. This study is the first to characterise a mechanism for QUIN uptake into primary human neurons involving EAAT3, opening potential targets to attenuate QUIN-induced excitotoxicity in neuroinflammatory diseases.

Kinetic and Spectroscopic Characterization of the Catalytic Ternary Complex of Tryptophan 2,3-Dioxygenase

The first step of the kynurenine pathway for l-tryptophan (l-Trp) degradation is catalyzed by heme-dependent dioxygenases, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase. In this work, we employed stopped-flow optical absorption spectroscopy to study the kinetic behavior of the Michaelis complex of Cupriavidus metallidurans TDO (cmTDO) to improve our understanding of oxygen activation and initial oxidation of l-Trp. On the basis of the stopped-flow results, rapid freeze-quench (RFQ) experiments were performed to capture and characterize this intermediate by Mössbauer spectroscopy. By incorporating the chlorite dismutase-chlorite system to produce high concentrations of solubilized O₂, we were able to capture the Michaelis complex of cmTDO in a nearly quantitative yield. The RFQ-Mössbauer results confirmed the identity of the Michaelis complex as an O₂-bound ferrous species. They revealed remarkable similarities between the electronic properties of the Michaelis complex and those of the O₂ adduct of myoglobin. We also found that the decay of this reactive intermediate is the rate-limiting step of the catalytic reaction. An inverse α-secondary substrate kinetic isotope effect was observed with a k_H/k_D of 0.87 ± 0.03 when (indole-d₅)-l-Trp was employed as the substrate. This work provides an important piece of spectroscopic evidence of the chemical identity of the Michaelis complex of bacterial TDO.

Spent brewer's yeast as a source of high added value molecules: a systematic review on its characteristics, processing and potential applications

Development of new strategies to add-value to agro-industrial by-products are of environmental and economical importance. Innovative and low-cost sources of protein and bioactive peptides have been explored worldwide. Spent brewer's yeast (SBY) is the second most relevant by-product from the brewing industry, and despite its nutritional (about 50% protein, dry weight) and technological potential, it is still underused or needs to be disposed of. SBY cells need to be disrupted to release intracellular and cell wall proteins. This procedure has been performed using autolysis, glass bead milling, enzymatic hydrolysis and ultrasound processing. Enzymatic treatment is usually performed without prior purification and is a challenging process, which involves multiple factors, but has been successfully used as a strategy to add value to agro-industrial by-products. Scope and approach: in this review, we particularly focused on enzymatic hydrolysis as a strategy to promote SBY valorisation, illustrating the state-of-the-art processes used to produce protein extracts from this material as well as exploring fundamental concepts related to the particularities of yeast cell disruption and protein hydrolysis. Furthermore, innovative applications of value-added yeast by-products in food, biotechnological and pharmaceutical industries are presented and discussed. Key findings and conclusions: the discovery of valuable compounds found in spent yeasts as well as the development of new processing methodologies have been widening the possibilities of reuse and transformation of SBY as an ingredient and innovative matrix. Once released, yeast proteins and peptides may be applied as an innovative non-animal protein source or a functional and bioactive ingredient.

Tryptophan Metabolites Along the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis: An Interkingdom Communication System Influencing the Gut in Health and Disease

The ‘microbiota-gut-brain axis’ plays a fundamental role in maintaining host homeostasis, and different immune, hormonal, and neuronal signals participate to this interkingdom communication system between eukaryota and prokaryota. The essential aminoacid tryptophan, as a precursor of several molecules acting at the interface between the host and the microbiota, is fundamental in the modulation of this bidirectional communication axis. In the gut, tryptophan undergoes 3 major metabolic pathways, the 5-HT, kynurenine, and AhR ligand pathways, which may be directly or indirectly controlled by the saprophytic flora. The importance of tryptophan metabolites in the modulation of the gastrointestinal tract is suggested by several preclinical and clinical studies; however, a thorough revision of the available literature has not been accomplished yet. Thus, this review attempts to cover the major aspects on the role of tryptophan metabolites in host-microbiota cross-talk underlaying regulation of gut functions in health conditions and during disease states, with particular attention to 2 major gastrointestinal diseases, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), both characterized by psychiatric disorders. Research in this area opens the possibility to target tryptophan metabolism to ameliorate the knowledge on the pathogenesis of both diseases, as well as to discover new therapeutic strategies based either on conventional pharmacological approaches or on the use of pre- and probiotics to manipulate the microbial flora.

Association of urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites with quinolinic acid among women: A potential link to neurological disorders

BACKGROUND

Quinolinic acid (QA), a neuroactive metabolite produced during tryptophan degradation, is implicated in the pathogenesis of several neurological disorders. Phthalates are structurally similar to QA, and exposure to phthalates has demonstrated increased QA production and excretion in rodent studies. We recently showed that very high exposure to dibutyl phthalate was associated with higher concentrations of urinary QA in men. However, no human studies examined the associations between background (low) phthalate exposures and QA.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the associations of urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites with QA.

METHODS

Female participants (N = 126) who participated in a prospective cohort study at the Massachusetts General Hospital Fertility Center provided 758 urine samples (273 during pregnancy and 485 during non-pregnancy). Concentrations of 11 phthalate metabolites and QA in urine were measured. We used multivariable linear mixed effect models to estimate the percent change in urinary QA concentrations associated with a doubling (100%) of urinary phthalate metabolite concentration, and evaluated whether there was effect modification by pregnancy status.

RESULTS

Women's mean (standard deviation) age was 34.2 (4.0) years with a body mass index of 23.5 (3.7) kg/m2. The women were primarily Caucasian (92%), had at least a college degree (98%), and none were current smokers. Pairwise Spearman correlations between concentrations for phthalate metabolites and QA measured in the same urine samples ranged from 0.36 for MEHP to 0.68 for dibutyl phthalate (DBP) metabolites. In multivariable-adjusted models, the percent change in urinary QA concentrations was significantly higher for each doubling of several urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations. For example, each doubling of DBP metabolites was associated with a 13.7% (95%CI: 10.6, 16.9)% higher QA. Associations between the low molecular weight phthalate metabolites and QA were stronger among samples collected during pregnancy as compared to non-pregnancy samples from the same women.

CONCLUSIONS

Urinary concentrations of several phthalate metabolites were positively associated with QA among women. These findings, along with the known neurotoxicity of QA, warrant the need to examine whether QA concentrations may serve as a pathway for the adverse neurodevelopment outcomes found in children's health studies.

Inflammation, insulin resistance and neuroprogression in depression

Chronic low-grade inflammation has been observed in major depression and other major psychiatric disorders and has been implicated in metabolic changes that are commonly associated with these disorders. This raises the possibility that the effects of dysfunctional metabolism may facilitate changes in neuronal structure and function which contribute to neuroprogression. Such changes may have implications for the progress from major depression to dementia in the elderly patient. The purpose of this review is to examine the contribution of inflammation and hypercortisolaemia, which are frequently associated with major depression, to neurodegeneration and how they detrimentally impact on brain energy metabolism. A key factor in these adverse events is insulin insensitivity caused by pro-inflammatory cytokines in association with desensitised glucocorticoid receptors. Identifying the possible metabolic changes initiated by inflammation opens new targets to ameliorate the adverse metabolic changes. This has resulted in the identification of dietary and drug targets which are of interest in the development of a new generation of psychotropic drugs.

Metabolism of sleep and aging: Bridging the gap using metabolomics

Sleep is a conserved behavior across the evolutionary timescale. Almost all known animal species demonstrate sleep or sleep like states. Despite extensive study, the mechanistic aspects of sleep need are not very well characterized. Sleep appears to be needed to generate resources that are utilized during the active stage/wakefulness as well as clearance of waste products that accumulate during wakefulness. From a metabolic perspective, this means sleep is crucial for anabolic activities. Decrease in anabolism and build-up of harmful catabolic waste products is also a hallmark of aging processes. Through this lens, sleep and aging processes are remarkably parallel- for example behavioral studies demonstrate an interaction between sleep and aging. Changes in sleep behavior affect neurocognitive phenotypes important in aging such as learning and memory, although the underlying connections are largely unknown. Here we draw inspiration from the similar metabolic effects of sleep and aging and posit that large scale metabolic phenotyping, commonly known as metabolomics, can shed light to interleaving effects of sleep, aging and progression of diseases related to aging. In this review, data from recent sleep and aging literature using metabolomics as principal molecular phenotyping methods is collated and compared. The present data suggests that metabolic effects of aging and sleep also demonstrate similarities, particularly in lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism. Some of these changes also overlap with metabolomic data available from clinical studies of Alzheimer's disease. Together, metabolomic technologies show promise in elucidating interleaving effects of sleep, aging and progression of aging disorders at a molecular level.

Structural Basis of Inhibitor Selectivity in Human Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase 1 and Tryptophan Dioxygenase

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (hIDO1) and tryptophan dioxygenase (hTDO) are two of the only three heme-based dioxygenases in humans. They have recently been identified as key cancer immunotherapeutic drug targets. While structures of hIDO1 in complex with inhibitors have been documented, so far there are no structures of hTDO-inhibitor complexes available. Here we use PF-06840003 (IPD), a hIDO1-selective inhibitor in clinical trials, as a structural probe to elucidate inhibitor-selectivity in hIDO1 versus hTDO. Spectroscopic studies show that IPD exhibits 400-fold higher inhibition activity toward hIDO1 with respect to hTDO. Crystallographic structures reveal that the binding pocket of IPD in the active site in hIDO1 is much more flexible as compared to that in hTDO, which offers a molecular explanation for the superior inhibition activity of IPD in hIDO1 with respect to hTDO. In addition to the IPD bound in the active site, a second IPD molecule was identified in an inhibitory site on the proximal side of the heme in hIDO1 and in an exosite that is ∼40 Å away from the active site in hTDO. Taken together the data provide new insights into structure-based design of mono and dual inhibitors targeting hIDO1 and/or hTDO.

Pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylate, quinolinic acid, induces 1N4R Tau amyloid aggregation in vitro: Another evidence for the detrimental effect of the inescapable endogenous neurotoxin

Quinolinic acid (QA) known as a neuro-active metabolite associated with the kynurenine pathway. At high concentrations, QA is often involved in the initiation and development of several human neurologic diseases, like Alzheimer's disease. Because of the QA action as the NMDA receptor, it is considered as a potent excitotoxin in vivo. Since it is probable that different mechanisms are employed by QA, activation of NMDA receptors cannot fully explain the revealed toxicity and it is even believed that there are multiple unknown mechanisms/targets leading to QA cytotoxicity. Herein we report accelerated amyloid oligomerization of 1N4R Tau under the effect of QA, in vitro, then the molecular structure, morphology and toxicity of the protein aggregate were documented by using various theoretical/experimental approaches. The possible mechanism of action of QA-induced Tau oligomerization has also been explored.

Elevated quinolinic acid levels in cerebrospinal fluid in subacute sclerosing panencephalitis

Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is a rare neurodegenerative disorder caused by a persistent infection with aberrant measles virus. Indoleamine-2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO) initiates the increased production of kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolites quinolinic acid (QUIN), which has an excitotoxic effect for neurons. We measured serum IDO activity and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of QUIN. The CSF QUIN levels were significantly higher in SSPE patients than in controls, and increased according as neurological disability in a patient studied. Elevation of CSF QUIN and progression of SSPE indicate a pathological role of KP metabolism in the inflammatory neurodestruction.

Trisomy 21 activates the kynurenine pathway via increased dosage of interferon receptors

Trisomy 21 (T21) causes Down syndrome (DS), affecting immune and neurological function by ill-defined mechanisms. Here we report a large metabolomics study of plasma and cerebrospinal fluid, showing in independent cohorts that people with DS produce elevated levels of kynurenine and quinolinic acid, two tryptophan catabolites with potent immunosuppressive and neurotoxic properties, respectively. Immune cells of people with DS overexpress IDO1, the rate-limiting enzyme in the kynurenine pathway (KP) and a known interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene. Furthermore, the levels of IFN-inducible cytokines positively correlate with KP dysregulation. Using metabolic tracing assays, we show that overexpression of IFN receptors encoded on chromosome 21 contribute to enhanced IFN stimulation, thereby causing IDO1 overexpression and kynurenine overproduction in cells with T21. Finally, a mouse model of DS carrying triplication of IFN receptors exhibits KP dysregulation. Together, our results reveal a mechanism by which T21 could drive immunosuppression and neurotoxicity in DS.

Ex Vivo Analysis of Tryptophan Metabolism Using 19F NMR

Tryptophan, an essential amino acid, is metabolized into a variety of small molecules capable of impacting human physiology, and aberrant tryptophan metabolism has been linked to a number of diseases. There are three principal routes by which tryptophan is degraded, and thus methods for measuring metabolic flux through these pathways can be used to understand the factors that perturb tryptophan metabolism and potentially to measure disease biomarkers. Here, we describe a method utilizing 6-fluorotryptophan as a probe for detecting tryptophan metabolites in ex vivo tissue samples via ¹⁹F nuclear magnetic resonance. As a proof of concept, we demonstrate that 6-fluorotryptophan can be used to measure changes in tryptophan metabolism resulting from antibiotic-induced changes in gut microbiota composition. Taken together, we describe a general strategy for monitoring amino acid metabolism using ¹⁹F nuclear magnetic resonance that is operationally simple and does not require chromatographic separation of metabolites.

Microorganisms, Tryptophan Metabolism, and Kynurenine Pathway: A Complex Interconnected Loop Influencing Human Health Status

The kynurenine pathway is important in cellular energy generation and limiting cellular ageing as it degrades about 90% of dietary tryptophan into the essential co-factor NAD⁺ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Prior to the production of NAD⁺, various intermediate compounds with neuroactivity (kynurenic acid, quinolinic acid) or antioxidant activity (3-hydroxykynurenine, picolinic acid) are synthesized. The kynurenine metabolites can participate in numerous neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington disease, and Parkinson disease) or other diseases such as AIDS, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, and irritable bowel syndrome. Recently, the role of gut in affecting the emotional and cognitive centres of the brain has attracted a great deal of attention. In this review, we focus on the bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain, known as the gut-brain axis. The interaction of components of this axis, namely, the gut, its microbiota, and gut pathogens; tryptophan; the kynurenine pathway on tryptophan availability; the regulation of kynurenine metabolite concentration; and diversity and population of gut microbiota, has been considered.

High phthalate exposure increased urinary concentrations of quinolinic acid, implicated in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders: Is this a potential missing link?

BACKGROUND

Quinolinic acid (QA), a neuroactive metabolite of the Kynurenine Pathway (KP), is an excitotoxin that is implicated in the pathogenesis of many neurological disorders. KP is the main tryptophan degradation pathway. Phthalates can structurally mimic tryptophan metabolites and diets containing phthalates in rats enhanced the production and excretion of QA. However, there are no human studies that have examined the association between phthalates and QA.

OBJECTIVES

Taking advantage of different mesalamine formulations with/without dibutyl phthalate (DBP), we assessed whether DBP from mesalamine (>1000x background) altered the urinary concentrations of QA.

METHODS

Men with inflammatory bowel disease participated in a prospective crossover pilot study. 15 Men were on non-DBP mesalamine (background) at baseline crossed-over for 4 months to high-DBP mesalamine (high) (B1H-Arm) and vice versa for 15 men who were on high-DBP mesalamine at baseline (H1B-Arm). Men provided 60 urine samples (2/man). We estimated crossover and cross-sectional changes in the creatinine normalized-QA using multivariable linear mixed effect models with random intercepts.

RESULTS

At baseline, men who were on high-DBP mesalamine (H1B-Arm) had 72%, (95% confidence interval (CI): 18, 151) higher normalized-QA than men who were on background exposure and when high-DBP mesalamine was removed for four months, normalized-QA decreased with 32%, (95% CI: -45.0, -15.1). Consistently, when men in B1H-Arm were newly-exposed to high-DBP mesalamine, normalized-QA increased with 11%, (95% CI: -11, 38).

CONCLUSIONS

High-DBP exposure from mesalamine increased the urinary concentrations of QA, which was largely reversed after removal of the high-DBP exposure for four months. This novel hypothesis should warrant new promising research considering the KP and QA concentrations as a plausible mediator for the neurotoxicity possibly linked with phthalate exposures.