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Rautio IV, Holmberg EH, Kurup D, Dunn BA, Whitlock JR. A novel paradigm for observational learning in rats. Cogn Neurodyn 2024; 18:757-767. [PMID: 38699625 PMCID: PMC11061086 DOI: 10.1007/s11571-023-10022-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The ability to learn by observing the behavior of others is energy efficient and brings high survival value, making it an important learning tool that has been documented in a myriad of species in the animal kingdom. In the laboratory, rodents have proven useful models for studying different forms of observational learning, however, the most robust learning paradigms typically rely on aversive stimuli, like foot shocks, to drive the social acquisition of fear. Non-fear-based tasks have also been used but they rarely succeed in having observer animals perform a new behavior de novo. Consequently, little known regarding the cellular mechanisms supporting non-aversive types of learning, such as visuomotor skill acquisition. To address this we developed a reward-based observational learning paradigm in adult rats, in which observer animals learn to tap lit spheres in a specific sequence by watching skilled demonstrators, with successful trials leading to rewarding intracranial stimulation in both observers and performers. Following three days of observation and a 24-hour delay, observer animals outperformed control animals on several metrics of task performance and efficiency, with a subset of observers demonstrating correct performance immediately when tested. This paradigm thus introduces a novel tool to investigate the neural circuits supporting observational learning and memory for visuomotor behavior, a phenomenon about which little is understood, particularly in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida V. Rautio
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Olav Kyrresg gate 9, Trondheim, 7089 Norway
| | - Ella Holt Holmberg
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Olav Kyrresg gate 9, Trondheim, 7089 Norway
| | - Devika Kurup
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Olav Kyrresg gate 9, Trondheim, 7089 Norway
| | - Benjamin A. Dunn
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Olav Kyrresg gate 9, Trondheim, 7089 Norway
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Alfred Getz vei 1, Trondheim, 7491 Norway
| | - Jonathan R. Whitlock
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Olav Kyrresg gate 9, Trondheim, 7089 Norway
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2
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Franch M, Yellapantula S, Parajuli A, Kharas N, Wright A, Aazhang B, Dragoi V. Visuo-frontal interactions during social learning in freely moving macaques. Nature 2024; 627:174-181. [PMID: 38355804 PMCID: PMC10959748 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07084-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Social interactions represent a ubiquitous aspect of our everyday life that we acquire by interpreting and responding to visual cues from conspecifics1. However, despite the general acceptance of this view, how visual information is used to guide the decision to cooperate is unknown. Here, we wirelessly recorded the spiking activity of populations of neurons in the visual and prefrontal cortex in conjunction with wireless recordings of oculomotor events while freely moving macaques engaged in social cooperation. As animals learned to cooperate, visual and executive areas refined the representation of social variables, such as the conspecific or reward, by distributing socially relevant information among neurons in each area. Decoding population activity showed that viewing social cues influences the decision to cooperate. Learning social events increased coordinated spiking between visual and prefrontal cortical neurons, which was associated with improved accuracy of neural populations to encode social cues and the decision to cooperate. These results indicate that the visual-frontal cortical network prioritizes relevant sensory information to facilitate learning social interactions while freely moving macaques interact in a naturalistic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Franch
- Deparment of Neurobiology and Anatomy, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sudha Yellapantula
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Arun Parajuli
- Deparment of Neurobiology and Anatomy, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Natasha Kharas
- Deparment of Neurobiology and Anatomy, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Anthony Wright
- Deparment of Neurobiology and Anatomy, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Behnaam Aazhang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Valentin Dragoi
- Deparment of Neurobiology and Anatomy, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.
- Neuroengineering Initiative, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.
- Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA.
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3
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Pereg M, Hertz U, Ben-Artzi I, Shahar N. Disentangling the contribution of individual and social learning processes in human advice-taking behavior. NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2024; 9:4. [PMID: 38245562 PMCID: PMC10799906 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-024-00214-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
The study of social learning examines how individuals learn from others by means of observation, imitation, or compliance with advice. However, it still remains largely unknown whether social learning processes have a distinct contribution to behavior, independent from non-social trial-and-error learning that often occurs simultaneously. 153 participants completed a reinforcement learning task, where they were asked to make choices to gain rewards. Advice from an artificial teacher was presented in 60% of the trials, allowing us to compare choice behavior with and without advice. Results showed a strong and reliable tendency to follow advice (test-retest reliability ~0.73). Computational modeling suggested a unique contribution of three distinct learning strategies: (a) individual learning (i.e., learning the value of actions, independent of advice), (b) informed advice-taking (i.e., learning the value of following advice), and (c) non-informed advice-taking (i.e., a constant bias to follow advice regardless of outcome history). Comparing artificial and empirical data provided specific behavioral regression signatures to both informed and non-informed advice taking processes. We discuss the theoretical implications of integrating internal and external information during the learning process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maayan Pereg
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
- Minducate Center for the Science of Learning, Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv, Israel.
- Department of Psychology, Achva Academic College, Arugot, Israel.
| | - Uri Hertz
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Institute of Information Processing and Decision Making, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ido Ben-Artzi
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Minducate Center for the Science of Learning, Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Nitzan Shahar
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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4
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Paraouty N, Yao JD, Varnet L, Chou CN, Chung S, Sanes DH. Sensory cortex plasticity supports auditory social learning. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5828. [PMID: 37730696 PMCID: PMC10511464 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41641-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Social learning (SL) through experience with conspecifics can facilitate the acquisition of many behaviors. Thus, when Mongolian gerbils are exposed to a demonstrator performing an auditory discrimination task, their subsequent task acquisition is facilitated, even in the absence of visual cues. Here, we show that transient inactivation of auditory cortex (AC) during exposure caused a significant delay in task acquisition during the subsequent practice phase, suggesting that AC activity is necessary for SL. Moreover, social exposure induced an improvement in AC neuron sensitivity to auditory task cues. The magnitude of neural change during exposure correlated with task acquisition during practice. In contrast, exposure to only auditory task cues led to poorer neurometric and behavioral outcomes. Finally, social information during exposure was encoded in the AC of observer animals. Together, our results suggest that auditory SL is supported by AC neuron plasticity occurring during social exposure and prior to behavioral performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nihaad Paraouty
- Center for Neural Science New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
| | - Justin D Yao
- Department of Otolaryngology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Léo Varnet
- Laboratoire des Systèmes Perceptifs, UMR 8248, Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL University, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Chi-Ning Chou
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute, Simons Foundation, New York, NY, USA
- School of Engineering & Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - SueYeon Chung
- Center for Neural Science New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute, Simons Foundation, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dan H Sanes
- Center for Neural Science New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, 10003, USA
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5
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Garcia-Nisa I, Evans C, Kendal RL. The influence of task difficulty, social tolerance and model success on social learning in Barbary macaques. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1176. [PMID: 36670123 PMCID: PMC9860066 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-26699-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite playing a pivotal role in the inception of animal culture studies, macaque social learning is surprisingly understudied. Social learning is important to survival and influenced by dominance and affiliation in social animals. Individuals generally rely on social learning when individual learning is costly, and selectively use social learning strategies influencing what is learned and from whom. Here, we combined social learning experiments, using extractive foraging tasks, with network-based diffusion analysis (using various social relationships) to investigate the transmission of social information in free-ranging Barbary macaques. We also investigated the influence of task difficulty on reliance on social information and evidence for social learning strategies. Social learning was detected for the most difficult tasks only, with huddling relations outside task introductions, and observation networks during task introductions, predicting social transmission. For the most difficult task only, individuals appeared to employ a social learning strategy of copying the most successful demonstrator observed. Results indicate that high social tolerance represents social learning opportunities and influences social learning processes. The reliance of Barbary macaques on social learning, and cues of model-success supports the costly information hypothesis. Our study provides more statistical evidence to the previous claims indicative of culture in macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Garcia-Nisa
- Durham Cultural Evolution Research Centre, Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK.
| | - Cara Evans
- Durham Cultural Evolution Research Centre, Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Rachel L Kendal
- Durham Cultural Evolution Research Centre, Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK
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6
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Fan R, Reader SM, Sakata JT. Alarm cues and alarmed conspecifics: neural activity during social learning from different cues in Trinidadian guppies. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220829. [PMID: 36043284 PMCID: PMC9428528 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning to respond appropriately to novel dangers is often essential to survival and success, but carries risks. Learning about novel threats from others (social learning) can reduce these risks. Many species, including the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata), respond defensively to both conspecific chemical alarm cues and conspecific anti-predator behaviours, and in other fish such social information can lead to a learned aversion to novel threats. However, relatively little is known about the neural substrates underlying social learning and the degree to which different forms of learning share similar neural mechanisms. Here, we explored the neural substrates mediating social learning of novel threats from two different conspecific cues (i.e. social cue-based threat learning). We first demonstrated that guppies rapidly learn about threats paired with either alarm cues or with conspecific threat responses (demonstration). Then, focusing on acquisition rather than recall, we discovered that phospho-S6 expression, a marker of neural activity, was elevated in guppies during learning from alarm cues in the putative homologue of the mammalian lateral septum and the preoptic area. Surprisingly, these changes in neural activity were not observed in fish learning from conspecific demonstration. Together, these results implicate forebrain areas in social learning about threat but raise the possibility that circuits contribute to such learning in a stimulus-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raina Fan
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Simon M. Reader
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jon T. Sakata
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Center for Studies in Behavioural Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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7
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Bolotta S, Dumas G. Social Neuro AI: Social Interaction as the “Dark Matter” of AI. FRONTIERS IN COMPUTER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fcomp.2022.846440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This article introduces a three-axis framework indicating how AI can be informed by biological examples of social learning mechanisms. We argue that the complex human cognitive architecture owes a large portion of its expressive power to its ability to engage in social and cultural learning. However, the field of AI has mostly embraced a solipsistic perspective on intelligence. We thus argue that social interactions not only are largely unexplored in this field but also are an essential element of advanced cognitive ability, and therefore constitute metaphorically the “dark matter” of AI. In the first section, we discuss how social learning plays a key role in the development of intelligence. We do so by discussing social and cultural learning theories and empirical findings from social neuroscience. Then, we discuss three lines of research that fall under the umbrella of Social NeuroAI and can contribute to developing socially intelligent embodied agents in complex environments. First, neuroscientific theories of cognitive architecture, such as the global workspace theory and the attention schema theory, can enhance biological plausibility and help us understand how we could bridge individual and social theories of intelligence. Second, intelligence occurs in time as opposed to over time, and this is naturally incorporated by dynamical systems. Third, embodiment has been demonstrated to provide more sophisticated array of communicative signals. To conclude, we discuss the example of active inference, which offers powerful insights for developing agents that possess biological realism, can self-organize in time, and are socially embodied.
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8
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Pan Y, Novembre G, Olsson A. The Interpersonal Neuroscience of Social Learning. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 17:680-695. [PMID: 34637374 DOI: 10.1177/17456916211008429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The study of the brain mechanisms underpinning social behavior is currently undergoing a paradigm shift, moving its focus from single individuals to the real-time interaction among groups of individuals. Although this development opens unprecedented opportunities to study how interpersonal brain activity shapes behaviors through learning, there have been few direct connections to the rich field of learning science. Our article examines how the rapidly developing field of interpersonal neuroscience is (and could be) contributing to our understanding of social learning. To this end, we first review recent research extracting indices of brain-to-brain coupling (BtBC) in the context of social behaviors and, in particular, social learning. We then discuss how studying communicative behaviors during learning can aid the interpretation of BtBC and how studying BtBC can inform our understanding of such behaviors. We then discuss how BtBC and communicative behaviors collectively can predict learning outcomes, and we suggest several causative and mechanistic models. Finally, we highlight key methodological and interpretational challenges as well as exciting opportunities for integrating research in interpersonal neuroscience with social learning, and we propose a multiperson framework for understanding how interpersonal transmission of information between individual brains shapes social learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafeng Pan
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet
| | - Giacomo Novembre
- Neuroscience of Perception and Action Lab, Italian Institute of Technology
| | - Andreas Olsson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet
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9
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Leblanc H, Ramirez S. Linking Social Cognition to Learning and Memory. J Neurosci 2020; 40:8782-8798. [PMID: 33177112 PMCID: PMC7659449 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1280-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Many mammals have evolved to be social creatures. In humans, the ability to learn from others' experiences is essential to survival; and from an early age, individuals are surrounded by a social environment that helps them develop a variety of skills, such as walking, talking, and avoiding danger. Similarly, in rodents, behaviors, such as food preference, exploration of novel contexts, and social approach, can be learned through social interaction. Social encounters facilitate new learning and help modify preexisting memories throughout the lifespan of an organism. Moreover, social encounters can help buffer stress or the effects of negative memories, as well as extinguish maladaptive behaviors. Given the importance of such interactions, there has been increasing work studying social learning and applying its concepts in a wide range of fields, including psychotherapy and medical sociology. The process of social learning, including its neural and behavioral mechanisms, has also been a rapidly growing field of interest in neuroscience. However, the term "social learning" has been loosely applied to a variety of psychological phenomena, often without clear definition or delineations. Therefore, this review gives a definition for specific aspects of social learning, provides an overview of previous work at the circuit, systems, and behavioral levels, and finally, introduces new findings on the social modulation of learning. We contextualize such social processes in the brain both through the role of the hippocampus and its capacity to process "social engrams" as well as through the brainwide realization of social experiences. With the integration of new technologies, such as optogenetics, chemogenetics, and calcium imaging, manipulating social engrams will likely offer a novel therapeutic target to enhance the positive buffering effects of social experiences or to inhibit fear-inducing social stimuli in models of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heloise Leblanc
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02119
- Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, 02118
| | - Steve Ramirez
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02119
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02119
- Neurophotonics Center at Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02119
- Center for Systems Neuroscience at Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02119
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10
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Kaneko D, Brouwer AM, Hogervorst M, Toet A, Kallen V, van Erp JBF. Emotional State During Tasting Affects Emotional Experience Differently and Robustly for Novel and Familiar Foods. Front Psychol 2020; 11:558172. [PMID: 33101128 PMCID: PMC7545110 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.558172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Emotional state during food consumption is expected to affect food pleasantness. We hypothesize that a negative emotional state reduces food pleasantness and more so for novel foods than for familiar foods because novel foods have not yet been associated with previous emotions. Furthermore, we expect this effect to be stronger when judging the food again from memory without tasting. We induced a positive emotional state in 34 participants by telling them that they earned a monetary bonus and induced a negative emotional state in 35 other participants by subjecting them to a social stress test. After this emotion induction, both groups tasted and rated a (for them) novel soup (sumashi soup) and a familiar soup (vegetable soup). Several explicit and implicit measures of food pleasantness (rated valence, EsSense25, willingness-to-take-home and sip size) indicated that while the negative emotion group did not experience the soups as less pleasant than the positive emotion group, there was an interaction between food familiarity and emotional group. The positive emotion group experienced novel and familiar soups as equally pleasant, whereas the negative emotion group experienced the novel soup as relatively unpleasant and the familiar soup as pleasant. The latter result is consistent with a comforting effect of a familiar taste in a stressful situation. This effect remained in the ratings given 1 week later based on memory and even after retasting. Our results show that emotional state affects food pleasantness differently for novel and familiar foods and that such an effect can be robust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Kaneko
- Kikkoman Europe R&D Laboratory B.V., Wageningen, Netherlands.,Microbiology and Systems Biology, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Zeist, Netherlands
| | - Anne-Marie Brouwer
- Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Soesterberg, Netherlands
| | - Maarten Hogervorst
- Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Soesterberg, Netherlands
| | - Alexander Toet
- Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Soesterberg, Netherlands
| | - Victor Kallen
- Microbiology and Systems Biology, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Zeist, Netherlands
| | - Jan B F van Erp
- Perceptual and Cognitive Systems, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Soesterberg, Netherlands.,Research Group Human Media Interaction, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
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11
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Colusso PI, Clark CEF, Lomax S. Should Dairy Cattle Be Trained to a Virtual Fence System as Individuals or in Groups? Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101767. [PMID: 33003613 PMCID: PMC7600956 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary A virtual fence (VF) system is being evaluated for commercial implementation in the Australian livestock industries. For this to work in dairy systems, cows will require training to learn the association between paired stimuli for livestock containment. We aimed to understand if cow learning and response to VF stimuli would differ when trained as individuals or in groups in a controlled experimental environment. Twenty-three dairy cows were trained to a VF as individuals or in groups of 5–6, and then moved to the alternate context to test the retention of learning. Cows trained in groups were more likely to interact with the VF when tested as individuals, indicating they might rely on the response of their conspecifics rather than directly receiving stimuli themselves. It is important that all individuals learn the association between stimuli to ensure they remain within a boundary, and to minimise potential welfare implications on animals that do not learn. However, training individual cattle is impractical, therefore, further work should evaluate effective group training protocols that provide the time and space for all individuals to learn the VF. Abstract Pre-commercial virtual fence (VF) neckbands (eShepherd®, Agersens, Melbourne, Vic, Australia) can contain cows within a designated area without the need for physical fencing, through associative learning of a paired audio tone and electrical pulse. Cattle are gregarious, so there may be an impact of herd mates on the learning process. To evaluate this, a VF was set 30 m down one of three test paddocks with a feed attractant 70 m past the VF. Twenty-three Holstein-Friesian cows were all fitted with VF neckbands and trained as individuals or in groups (5–6) for four 10 min tests; then, cows were crossed over to the alternate context for two more 10 min tests. The number of cows breaking through the VF and the number of paired stimuli reduced across time (from 82% to 26% and 45% to 14%, respectively, p < 0.01). Cows trained in a group (88%) were more likely to interact with the VF in the crossover compared to those trained as individuals (36%) (p < 0.01), indicating an influence of group members on individual cow response. Individual training is impractical, therefore, future research should evaluate group training protocols ensuring all cows learn the VF to avoid any adverse impacts on animal welfare.
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12
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Gilman RT, Johnson F, Smolla M. Competition for resources can promote the divergence of social learning phenotypes. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20192770. [PMID: 32070258 PMCID: PMC7062025 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Social learning occurs when animals acquire knowledge or skills by observing or interacting with others and is the fundamental building block of culture. Within populations, some individuals use social learning more frequently than others, but why social learning phenotypes differ among individuals is poorly understood. We modelled the evolution of social learning frequency in a system where foragers compete for resources, and there are many different foraging options to learn about. Social learning phenotypes diverged when some options offered much better rewards than others and expected rewards changed moderately quickly over time. When options offered similar rewards or when rewards changed slowly, a single social learning phenotype evolved. This held for fixed and simple conditional social learning rules. Sufficiently complex conditional social learning rules prevented the divergence of social learning phenotypes under all conditions. Our results explain how competition can promote the divergence of social learning phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Tucker Gilman
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester UK
| | - Fern Johnson
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester UK
| | - Marco Smolla
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
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13
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Loureiro M, Achargui R, Flakowski J, Van Zessen R, Stefanelli T, Pascoli V, Lüscher C. Social transmission of food safety depends on synaptic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex. Science 2019; 364:991-995. [PMID: 31171697 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaw5842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
When an animal is facing unfamiliar food, its odor, together with semiochemicals emanating from a conspecific, can constitute a safety message and authorize intake. The piriform cortex (PiC) codes olfactory information, and the inactivation of neurons in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) can acutely trigger consumption. However, the neural circuit and cellular substrate of transition of olfactory perception into value-based actions remain elusive. We detected enhanced activity after social transmission between two mice in neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) that target the NAc and receive projections from the PiC. Exposure to a conspecific potentiated the excitatory postsynaptic currents in NAc projectors, whereas blocking transmission from PiC to mPFC prevented social transmission. Thus, synaptic plasticity in the mPFC is a cellular substrate of social transmission of food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaël Loureiro
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ridouane Achargui
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jérôme Flakowski
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ruud Van Zessen
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Stefanelli
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Vincent Pascoli
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Christian Lüscher
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland. .,Clinic of Neurology, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Geneva University Hospital, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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14
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Zhao W, Garcia-Oscos F, Dinh D, Roberts TF. Inception of memories that guide vocal learning in the songbird. Science 2019; 366:83-89. [PMID: 31604306 PMCID: PMC7688245 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaw4226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Animals learn many complex behaviors by emulating the behavior of more experienced individuals. This essential, yet still poorly understood, form of learning relies on the ability to encode lasting memories of observed behaviors. We identified a vocal-motor pathway in the zebra finch where memories that guide learning of song-element durations can be implanted. Activation of synapses in this pathway seeds memories that guide learning of song-element duration and can override learning from social interactions with other individuals. Genetic lesions of this circuit after memory formation, however, do not disrupt subsequent song imitation, which suggests that these memories are stored at downstream synapses. Thus, activity at these sensorimotor synapses can bypass learning from auditory and social experience and embed memories that guide learning of song timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenchan Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | | - Daniel Dinh
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Todd F Roberts
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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15
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Lind J, Ghirlanda S, Enquist M. Social learning through associative processes: a computational theory. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2019; 6:181777. [PMID: 31032033 PMCID: PMC6458397 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.181777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Social transmission of information is a key phenomenon in the evolution of behaviour and in the establishment of traditions and culture. The diversity of social learning phenomena has engendered a diverse terminology and numerous ideas about underlying learning mechanisms, at the same time that some researchers have called for a unitary analysis of social learning in terms of associative processes. Leveraging previous attempts and a recent computational formulation of associative learning, we analyse the following learning scenarios in some generality: learning responses to social stimuli, including learning to imitate; learning responses to non-social stimuli; learning sequences of actions; learning to avoid danger. We conceptualize social learning as situations in which stimuli that arise from other individuals have an important role in learning. This role is supported by genetic predispositions that either cause responses to social stimuli or enable social stimuli to reinforce specific responses. Simulations were performed using a new learning simulator program. The simulator is publicly available and can be used for further theoretical investigations and to guide empirical research of learning and behaviour. Our explorations show that, when guided by genetic predispositions, associative processes can give rise to a wide variety of social learning phenomena, such as stimulus and local enhancement, contextual imitation and simple production imitation, observational conditioning, and social and response facilitation. In addition, we clarify how associative mechanisms can result in transfer of information and behaviour from experienced to naive individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Lind
- Centre for the Study of Cultural Evolution and Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stefano Ghirlanda
- Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College of CUNY, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Magnus Enquist
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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16
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Rubio L, Téllez L, Regalado M, Torrero C, Salas M. Effects of perinatal undernutrition on social transmission of food preference in adult male Wistar rats. Int J Dev Neurosci 2018; 71:105-110. [PMID: 30149118 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Nutrition plays a fundamental role in learning and memory, and early experimental undernutrition interferes with brain memory processes. Social transmission of food preference (STFP) is a natural olfactory paired-associate learning test that has not been used to assess the effects of early undernutrition on memory consolidation. Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into two groups: control and early undernourished. The underfed rats received different percentages of a balanced diet during gestation. After birth, pups were underfed by alternating every 12 h between two lactating dams, one with ligated nipples. Weaning occurred on PD 25 followed by an ad lib diet until PD 90. Demonstrator rats were given powdered food mixed with cinnamon, followed by a 30-min interaction with an underfed observer. Thereafter, the observer had two choices of food: cinnamon or cocoa. During the food preference test, control and underfed OBS rats preferred the food containing cinnamon. Through social interaction, the UG OBS rats showed latency for head contacts and oral-nasal investigation was higher in the underfed rats; only head contacts and oral-nasal investigation frequency was lower; with the duration lower, but oral-nasal investigation duration was higher (p < 0.05). In the preference phase, the OBS underfed rat latencies for both stimuli were prolonged, the frequency lower only for cocoa, and the duration lower for cinnamon but higher for cocoa (p < 0.05). Findings suggested that early undernutrition interfered with the attentive social transmission to take a decision during the preference phase, but not with the short-term memory consolidation of social food preference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Rubio
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology and Neurophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Laura Téllez
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology and Neurophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Mirelta Regalado
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology and Neurophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Carmen Torrero
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology and Neurophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Manuel Salas
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology and Neurophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
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Koban L, Jepma M, Geuter S, Wager TD. What's in a word? How instructions, suggestions, and social information change pain and emotion. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 81:29-42. [PMID: 29173508 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Instructions, suggestions, and other types of social information can have powerful effects on pain and emotion. Prominent examples include observational learning, social influence, placebo, and hypnosis. These different phenomena and their underlying brain mechanisms have been studied in partially separate literatures, which we discuss, compare, and integrate in this review. Converging findings from these literatures suggest that (1) instructions and social information affect brain systems associated with the generation of pain and emotion, and with reinforcement learning, and that (2) these changes are mediated by alterations in prefrontal systems responsible for top-down control and the generation of affective meaning. We argue that changes in expectation and appraisal, a process of assessing personal meaning and implications for wellbeing, are two potential key mediators of the effects of instructions and social information on affective experience. Finally, we propose a tentative model of how prefrontal regions, especially dorsolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortex may regulate affective processing based on instructions and socially transmitted expectations more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie Koban
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States.
| | - Marieke Jepma
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, The Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, The Netherlands
| | - Stephan Geuter
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States
| | - Tor D Wager
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, United States; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, United States
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18
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Winfield AFT. Experiments in Artificial Theory of Mind: From Safety to Story-Telling. Front Robot AI 2018; 5:75. [PMID: 33500954 PMCID: PMC7806090 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2018.00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory of mind is the term given by philosophers and psychologists for the ability to form a predictive model of self and others. In this paper we focus on synthetic models of theory of mind. We contend firstly that such models—especially when tested experimentally—can provide useful insights into cognition, and secondly that artificial theory of mind can provide intelligent robots with powerful new capabilities, in particular social intelligence for human-robot interaction. This paper advances the hypothesis that simulation-based internal models offer a powerful and realisable, theory-driven basis for artificial theory of mind. Proposed as a computational model of the simulation theory of mind, our simulation-based internal model equips a robot with an internal model of itself and its environment, including other dynamic actors, which can test (i.e., simulate) the robot's next possible actions and hence anticipate the likely consequences of those actions both for itself and others. Although it falls far short of a full artificial theory of mind, our model does allow us to test several interesting scenarios: in some of these a robot equipped with the internal model interacts with other robots without an internal model, but acting as proxy humans; in others two robots each with a simulation-based internal model interact with each other. We outline a series of experiments which each demonstrate some aspect of artificial theory of mind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan F T Winfield
- Bristol Robotics Laboratory, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Munuera J, Rigotti M, Salzman CD. Shared neural coding for social hierarchy and reward value in primate amygdala. Nat Neurosci 2018; 21:415-423. [PMID: 29459764 PMCID: PMC6092962 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-018-0082-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The social brain hypothesis posits that dedicated neural systems process social information. In support of this, neurophysiological data have shown that some brain regions are specialized for representing faces. It remains unknown, however, whether distinct anatomical substrates also represent more complex social variables, such as the hierarchical rank of individuals within a social group. Here we show that the primate amygdala encodes the hierarchical rank of individuals in the same neuronal ensembles that encode the rewards associated with nonsocial stimuli. By contrast, orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortices lack strong representations of hierarchical rank while still representing reward values. These results challenge the conventional view that dedicated neural systems process social information. Instead, information about hierarchical rank-which contributes to the assessment of the social value of individuals within a group-is linked in the amygdala to representations of rewards associated with nonsocial stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Munuera
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Mattia Rigotti
- IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, USA
| | - C Daniel Salzman
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- Kavli Institute for Brain Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA.
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
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20
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ISODA M, NORITAKE A, NINOMIYA T. Development of social systems neuroscience using macaques. PROCEEDINGS OF THE JAPAN ACADEMY. SERIES B, PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2018; 94:305-323. [PMID: 30078829 PMCID: PMC6117490 DOI: 10.2183/pjab.94.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature on social neuroscience studies using macaques in the hope of encouraging as many researchers as possible to participate in this field of research and thereby accelerate the system-level understanding of social cognition and behavior. We describe how different parts of the primate brain are engaged in different aspects of social information processing, with particular emphasis on the use of experimental paradigms involving more than one monkey in laboratory settings. The description begins with how individual neurons are used for evaluating socially relevant information, such as the identity, face, and focus of attention of others in various social contexts. A description of the neural bases of social reward processing and social action monitoring follows. Finally, we provide several perspectives on novel experimental strategies to help clarify the nature of interacting brains under more socially and ecologically plausible conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki ISODA
- Division of Behavioral Development, Department of System Neuroscience, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences, School of Life Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Hayama, Japan
| | - Atsushi NORITAKE
- Division of Behavioral Development, Department of System Neuroscience, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences, School of Life Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Hayama, Japan
| | - Taihei NINOMIYA
- Division of Behavioral Development, Department of System Neuroscience, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences, School of Life Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Hayama, Japan
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21
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Donhoffner ME, Al Saleh S, Schink O, Wood RI. Prosocial effects of prolactin in male rats: Social recognition, social approach and social learning. Horm Behav 2017; 96:122-129. [PMID: 28935447 PMCID: PMC5722671 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) and oxytocin (OT) are pituitary hormones essential for lactation, but also promote sexual behavior. OT stimulates social behaviors, such as recognition, approach, and learning, but less is known about PRL in these behaviors. Since PRL and OT have complementary functions in reproduction, we hypothesized that PRL increases social recognition, approach, and learning. Male Long-Evans rats received ovine PRL (oPRL; 0.5, 2.0 or 5.0mg/kg), the PRL antagonist bromocriptine (0.1, 3.0 or 5.0mg/kg) or saline 20 mins before testing for recognition of familiar vs. unfamiliar stimulus males. Saline controls preferred the unfamiliar male (p<0.05), while bromocriptine blocked this preference. oPRL did not increase preference. To measure social approach, we determined if PRL restores approach 2h after defeat by an aggressive male. Defeated rats avoided the aggressive male. 2mg/kg oPRL, before or after defeat, restored approach towards the aggressive male (p<0.05). In non-defeated rats, oPRL or 3mg/kg bromocriptine had no effect. To determine if PRL increases social learning, we tested social transmission of food preference. Rats choose between two unfamiliar flavors, one of which they have previously been exposed to through interaction with a demonstrator rat. Vehicle controls preferred chow with the demonstrated flavor over the novel flavor. oPRL-treated rats were similar. Bromocriptine-treated rats failed to show a preference. When tested one week later, only oPRL-treated rats preferred the demonstrated flavor. The results suggest that PRL is required for social recognition and learning, and that increasing PRL enhances social memory and approach, similar to OT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Donhoffner
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Samar Al Saleh
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Olivia Schink
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Ruth I Wood
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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22
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IGF1-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity of Mitral Cells in Olfactory Memory during Social Learning. Neuron 2017; 95:106-122.e5. [PMID: 28683263 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
During social transmission of food preference (STFP), mice form long-term memory of food odors presented by a social partner. How does the brain associate a social context with odor signals to promote memory encoding? Here we show that odor exposure during STFP, but not unconditioned odor exposure, induces glomerulus-specific long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic strength selectively at the GABAergic component of dendrodendritic synapses of granule and mitral cells in the olfactory bulb. Conditional deletion of synaptotagmin-10, the Ca2+ sensor for IGF1 secretion from mitral cells, or deletion of IGF1 receptor in the olfactory bulb prevented the socially relevant GABAergic LTP and impaired memory formation after STFP. Conversely, the addition of IGF1 to acute olfactory bulb slices elicited the GABAergic LTP in mitral cells by enhancing postsynaptic GABA receptor responses. Thus, our data reveal a synaptic substrate for a socially conditioned long-term memory that operates at the level of the initial processing of sensory information.
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23
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Tremblay S, Sharika KM, Platt ML. Social Decision-Making and the Brain: A Comparative Perspective. Trends Cogn Sci 2017; 21:265-276. [PMID: 28214131 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The capacity and motivation to be social is a key component of the human adaptive behavioral repertoire. Recent research has identified social behaviors remarkably similar to our own in other animals, including empathy, consolation, cooperation, and strategic deception. Moreover, neurobiological studies in humans, nonhuman primates, and rodents have identified shared brain structures (the so-called 'social brain') apparently specialized to mediate such functions. Neuromodulators may regulate social interactions by 'tuning' the social brain, with important implications for treating social impairments. Here, we survey recent findings in social neuroscience from a comparative perspective, and conclude that the very social behaviors that make us human emerge from mechanisms shared widely with other animals, as well as some that appear to be unique to humans and other primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Tremblay
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - K M Sharika
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michael L Platt
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Marketing, Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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24
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Structural brain imaging correlates of ASD and ADHD across the lifespan: a hypothesis-generating review on developmental ASD-ADHD subtypes. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2016; 124:259-271. [PMID: 28000020 PMCID: PMC5285408 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-016-1651-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We hypothesize that it is plausible that biologically distinct developmental ASD-ADHD subtypes are present, each characterized by a distinct time of onset of symptoms, progression and combination of symptoms. The aim of the present narrative review was to explore if structural brain imaging studies may shed light on key brain areas that are linked to both ASD and ADHD symptoms and undergo significant changes during development. These findings may possibly pinpoint to brain mechanisms underlying differential developmental ASD-ADHD subtypes. To this end we brought together the literature on ASD and ADHD structural brain imaging symptoms and particularly highlight the adolescent years and beyond. Findings indicate that the vast majority of existing MRI studies has been cross-sectional and conducted in children, and sometimes did include adolescents as well, but without explicitly documenting on this age group. MRI studies documenting on age effects in adults with ASD and/or ADHD are rare, and if age is taken into account, only linear effects are examined. Data from various studies suggest that a crucial distinctive feature underlying different developmental ASD-ADHD subtypes may be the differential developmental thinning patterns of the anterior cingulate cortex and related connections towards other prefrontal regions. These regions are crucial for the development of cognitive/effortful control and socio-emotional functioning, with impairments in these features as key to both ASD and ADHD.
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25
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Riley WT, Martin CA, Rivera DE, Hekler EB, Adams MA, Buman MP, Pavel M, King AC. Development of a dynamic computational model of social cognitive theory. Transl Behav Med 2016; 6:483-495. [PMID: 27848208 PMCID: PMC5110484 DOI: 10.1007/s13142-015-0356-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Social cognitive theory (SCT) is among the most influential theories of behavior change and has been used as the conceptual basis of health behavior interventions for smoking cessation, weight management, and other health behaviors. SCT and other behavior theories were developed primarily to explain differences between individuals, but explanatory theories of within-person behavioral variability are increasingly needed as new technologies allow for intensive longitudinal measures and interventions adapted from these inputs. These within-person explanatory theoretical applications can be modeled as dynamical systems. SCT constructs, such as reciprocal determinism, are inherently dynamical in nature, but SCT has not been modeled as a dynamical system. This paper describes the development of a dynamical system model of SCT using fluid analogies and control systems principles drawn from engineering. Simulations of this model were performed to assess if the model performed as predicted based on theory and empirical studies of SCT. This initial model generates precise and testable quantitative predictions for future intensive longitudinal research. Dynamic modeling approaches provide a rigorous method for advancing health behavior theory development and refinement and for guiding the development of more potent and efficient interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- William T Riley
- Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, USA.
| | - Cesar A Martin
- Control Systems Engineering Laboratory (CSEL), School for Engineering of Matter, Transport, and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Daniel E Rivera
- Control Systems Engineering Laboratory (CSEL), School for Engineering of Matter, Transport, and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Eric B Hekler
- School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Marc A Adams
- School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Matthew P Buman
- School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | | | - Abby C King
- Department of Health Research and Policy, and Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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26
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Partial Adaptation of Obtained and Observed Value Signals Preserves Information about Gains and Losses. J Neurosci 2016; 36:10016-25. [PMID: 27683899 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0487-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Given that the range of rewarding and punishing outcomes of actions is large but neural coding capacity is limited, efficient processing of outcomes by the brain is necessary. One mechanism to increase efficiency is to rescale neural output to the range of outcomes expected in the current context, and process only experienced deviations from this expectation. However, this mechanism comes at the cost of not being able to discriminate between unexpectedly low losses when times are bad versus unexpectedly high gains when times are good. Thus, too much adaptation would result in disregarding information about the nature and absolute magnitude of outcomes, preventing learning about the longer-term value structure of the environment. Here we investigate the degree of adaptation in outcome coding brain regions in humans, for directly experienced outcomes and observed outcomes. We scanned participants while they performed a social learning task in gain and loss blocks. Multivariate pattern analysis showed two distinct networks of brain regions adapt to the most likely outcomes within a block. Frontostriatal areas adapted to directly experienced outcomes, whereas lateral frontal and temporoparietal regions adapted to observed social outcomes. Critically, in both cases, adaptation was incomplete and information about whether the outcomes arose in a gain block or a loss block was retained. Univariate analysis confirmed incomplete adaptive coding in these regions but also detected nonadapting outcome signals. Thus, although neural areas rescale their responses to outcomes for efficient coding, they adapt incompletely and keep track of the longer-term incentives available in the environment. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Optimal value-based choice requires that the brain precisely and efficiently represents positive and negative outcomes. One way to increase efficiency is to adapt responding to the most likely outcomes in a given context. However, too strong adaptation would result in loss of precise representation (e.g., when the avoidance of a loss in a loss-context is coded the same as receipt of a gain in a gain-context). We investigated an intermediate form of adaptation that is efficient while maintaining information about received gains and avoided losses. We found that frontostriatal areas adapted to directly experienced outcomes, whereas lateral frontal and temporoparietal regions adapted to observed social outcomes. Importantly, adaptation was intermediate, in line with influential models of reference dependence in behavioral economics.
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Miller CT, Freiwald WA, Leopold DA, Mitchell JF, Silva AC, Wang X. Marmosets: A Neuroscientific Model of Human Social Behavior. Neuron 2016; 90:219-33. [PMID: 27100195 PMCID: PMC4840471 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) has garnered interest recently as a powerful model for the future of neuroscience research. Much of this excitement has centered on the species' reproductive biology and compatibility with gene editing techniques, which together have provided a path for transgenic marmosets to contribute to the study of disease as well as basic brain mechanisms. In step with technical advances is the need to establish experimental paradigms that optimally tap into the marmosets' behavioral and cognitive capacities. While conditioned task performance of a marmoset can compare unfavorably with rhesus monkey performance on conventional testing paradigms, marmosets' social behavior and cognition are more similar to that of humans. For example, marmosets are among only a handful of primates that, like humans, routinely pair bond and care cooperatively for their young. They are also notably pro-social and exhibit social cognitive abilities, such as imitation, that are rare outside of the Apes. In this Primer, we describe key facets of marmoset natural social behavior and demonstrate that emerging behavioral paradigms are well suited to isolate components of marmoset cognition that are highly relevant to humans. These approaches generally embrace natural behavior, which has been rare in conventional primate testing, and thus allow for a new consideration of neural mechanisms underlying primate social cognition and signaling. We anticipate that through parallel technical and paradigmatic advances, marmosets will become an essential model of human social behavior, including its dysfunction in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory T Miller
- Cortical Systems and Behavior Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Winrich A Freiwald
- Laboratory of Neural Systems, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Ave., New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - David A Leopold
- Section on Cognitive Neurophysiology and Imaging, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 6001 Executive Blvd., Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jude F Mitchell
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, 358 Meliora Hall, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Afonso C Silva
- Section on Cerebral Microcirculation, Laboratory of Functional and Molecular Imaging, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, 6001 Executive Blvd., Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Xiaoqin Wang
- Laboratory of Auditory Neurophysiology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Ave., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Soto-Icaza P, Aboitiz F, Billeke P. Development of social skills in children: neural and behavioral evidence for the elaboration of cognitive models. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:333. [PMID: 26483621 PMCID: PMC4586412 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Social skills refer to a wide group of abilities that allow us to interact and communicate with others. Children learn how to solve social situations by predicting and understanding other's behaviors. The way in which humans learn to interact successfully with others encompasses a complex interaction between neural, behavioral, and environmental elements. These have a role in the accomplishment of positive developmental outcomes, including peer acceptance, academic achievement, and mental health. All these social abilities depend on widespread brain networks that are recently being studied by neuroscience. In this paper, we will first review the studies on this topic, aiming to clarify the behavioral and neural mechanisms related to the acquisition of social skills during infancy and their appearance in time. Second, we will briefly describe how developmental diseases like Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) can inform about the neurobiological mechanisms of social skills. We finally sketch a general framework for the elaboration of cognitive models in order to facilitate the comprehension of human social development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Soto-Icaza
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Cognitivas, Departamento de Psiquiatría, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Francisco Aboitiz
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias Cognitivas, Departamento de Psiquiatría, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Pablo Billeke
- División de Neurociencia, Centro de Investigación en Complejidad Social, Facultad de Gobierno, Universidad del DesarrolloSantiago, Chile
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Tavares RM, Mendelsohn A, Grossman Y, Williams CH, Shapiro M, Trope Y, Schiller D. A Map for Social Navigation in the Human Brain. Neuron 2015; 87:231-43. [PMID: 26139376 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Deciphering the neural mechanisms of social behavior has propelled the growth of social neuroscience. The exact computations of the social brain, however, remain elusive. Here we investigated how the human brain tracks ongoing changes in social relationships using functional neuroimaging. Participants were lead characters in a role-playing game in which they were to find a new home and a job through interactions with virtual cartoon characters. We found that a two-dimensional geometric model of social relationships, a "social space" framed by power and affiliation, predicted hippocampal activity. Moreover, participants who reported better social skills showed stronger covariance between hippocampal activity and "movement" through "social space." The results suggest that the hippocampus is crucial for social cognition, and imply that beyond framing physical locations, the hippocampus computes a more general, inclusive, abstract, and multidimensional cognitive map consistent with its role in episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Morais Tavares
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Avi Mendelsohn
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
| | - Yael Grossman
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | - Matthew Shapiro
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Yaacov Trope
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Daniela Schiller
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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31
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Battesti M, Pasquaretta C, Moreno C, Teseo S, Joly D, Klensch E, Petit O, Sueur C, Mery F. Ecology of information: social transmission dynamics within groups of non-social insects. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20142480. [PMID: 25589603 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
While many studies focus on how animals use public information, the dynamics of information spread and maintenance within groups, i.e. the 'ecology of information', have received little attention. Here we use fruitflies trained to lay eggs on specific substrates to implement information into groups containing both trained and untrained individuals. We quantify inter-individual interactions and then measure the spread of oviposition preference with behavioural tests. Untrained individuals increase their interactive approaches in the presence of trained individuals, and the oviposition preference transmission is directly proportional to how much trained and untrained individuals interact. Unexpectedly, the preference of trained individuals to their trained oviposition substrate decreases after interactions with untrained individuals, leading to an overall informational loss. This shows that social learning alone is not enough to support informational stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Battesti
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes et Spéciation, UPR9034 CNRS, bat 13 avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France Département de Biologie, Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Cristian Pasquaretta
- Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Strasbourg, France Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Celine Moreno
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes et Spéciation, UPR9034 CNRS, bat 13 avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France Département de Biologie, Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Serafino Teseo
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes et Spéciation, UPR9034 CNRS, bat 13 avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France Département de Biologie, Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Dominique Joly
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes et Spéciation, UPR9034 CNRS, bat 13 avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France Département de Biologie, Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Elizabeth Klensch
- Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Strasbourg, France Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Odile Petit
- Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Strasbourg, France Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Cedric Sueur
- Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Strasbourg, France Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Frederic Mery
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes et Spéciation, UPR9034 CNRS, bat 13 avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France Département de Biologie, Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
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Filiano AJ, Gadani SP, Kipnis J. Interactions of innate and adaptive immunity in brain development and function. Brain Res 2015; 1617:18-27. [PMID: 25110235 PMCID: PMC4320678 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.07.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
It has been known for decades that the immune system has a tremendous impact on behavior. Most work has described the negative role of immune cells on the central nervous system. However, we and others have demonstrated over the last decade that a well-regulated immune system is needed for proper brain function. Here we discuss several neuro-immune interactions, using examples from brain homeostasis and disease states. We will highlight our understanding of the consequences of malfunctioning immunity on neurodevelopment and will discuss the roles of the innate and adaptive immune system in neurodevelopment and how T cells maintain a proper innate immune balance in the brain surroundings and within its parenchyma. Also, we describe how immune imbalance impairs higher order brain functioning, possibly leading to behavioral and cognitive impairment. Lastly, we propose our hypothesis that some behavioral deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders, such as in autism spectrum disorder, are the consequence of malfunctioning immunity. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Neuroimmunology in Health And Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Filiano
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
| | - Sachin P Gadani
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience and Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Jonathan Kipnis
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience and Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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33
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Brown EC, Gonzalez-Liencres C, Tas C, Brüne M. Reward modulates the mirror neuron system in schizophrenia: A study into the mu rhythm suppression, empathy, and mental state attribution. Soc Neurosci 2015; 11:175-86. [DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2015.1053982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Kacsoh BZ, Bozler J, Ramaswami M, Bosco G. Social communication of predator-induced changes in Drosophila behavior and germ line physiology. eLife 2015; 4. [PMID: 25970035 PMCID: PMC4456452 DOI: 10.7554/elife.07423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral adaptation to environmental threats and subsequent social transmission of adaptive behavior has evolutionary implications. In Drosophila, exposure to parasitoid wasps leads to a sharp decline in oviposition. We show that exposure to predator elicits both an acute and learned oviposition depression, mediated through the visual system. However, long-term persistence of oviposition depression after predator removal requires neuronal signaling functions, a functional mushroom body, and neurally driven apoptosis of oocytes through effector caspases. Strikingly, wasp-exposed flies (teachers) can transmit egg-retention behavior and trigger ovarian apoptosis in naive, unexposed flies (students). Acquisition and behavioral execution of this socially learned behavior by naive flies requires all of the factors needed for primary learning. The ability to teach does not require ovarian apoptosis. This work provides new insight into genetic and physiological mechanisms that underlie an ecologically relevant form of learning and mechanisms for its social transmission. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.07423.001 Every animal must be able to adapt to threats and changes to their environment that could affect their survival. Some ‘social’ animals, such as honeybees and ants, go further than this, and also transmit information about a threat—and how to survive it—to other members of their species. This helpful behavior is now known to occur to some extent even in animals that have not been considered to be social, like the Drosophila species of fruit fly. Parasitoid wasps lay their eggs in the larvae and pupae of certain insect species. When the wasp eggs hatch, they feed on the host insect, eventually killing it. Drosophila fruit flies have evolved various behaviors to protect their offspring from these wasps. For example, female fruit flies reduce the number of eggs they lay when they are in the presence of a wasp. Kacsoh, Bozler et al. exposed female flies to wasps for a day. These flies produced fewer eggs than flies that were not exposed to wasps and continued to lay fewer eggs for 24 hours after the wasps were removed. Introducing these flies to ‘naive’ flies that had not encountered a wasp caused the naive flies to produce fewer eggs as well. After ruling out several possible ways that the wasp-exposed flies might ‘teach’ the naive flies to produce and lay fewer eggs, Kacsoh, Bozler et al. found that naive flies cannot learn this behavior when they are blind. In addition, exposed flies cannot instruct other flies of the threat if their wings are absent or deformed. These and other findings, therefore, suggest that information about the wasp threat is transmitted through visual cues that involve the wings. Kacsoh, Bozler et al. found that the flies must have certain brain circuits associated with memory and learning to be able to teach others and to reduce the numbers of eggs they lay after the wasp has been removed. This suggests that signals from this brain region must be continually sent out to alter the physiology of the developing eggs in order to maintain the lower rate of egg laying; understanding how flies use visual cues for communication and how the brain signals to the ovary remain key challenges for future work. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.07423.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Balint Z Kacsoh
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, United States
| | - Julianna Bozler
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, United States
| | - Mani Ramaswami
- Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Department of Zoology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Giovanni Bosco
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, United States
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Sexton CA. The overlooked potential for social factors to improve effectiveness of brain-computer interfaces. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9:70. [PMID: 25999824 PMCID: PMC4422002 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl Ann Sexton
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest University, School of Medicine Winston-Salem, NC, USA
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36
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Abstract
Reinforcement learning (RL) theory posits that learning is driven by discrepancies between the predicted and actual outcomes of actions (prediction errors [PEs]). In social environments, learning is often guided by similar RL mechanisms. For example, teachers monitor the actions of students and provide feedback to them. This feedback evokes PEs in students that guide their learning. We report the first study that investigates the neural mechanisms that underpin RL signals in the brain of a teacher. Neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) signal PEs when learning from the outcomes of one's own actions but also signal information when outcomes are received by others. Does a teacher's ACC signal PEs when monitoring a student's learning? Using fMRI, we studied brain activity in human subjects (teachers) as they taught a confederate (student) action-outcome associations by providing positive or negative feedback. We examined activity time-locked to the students' responses, when teachers infer student predictions and know actual outcomes. We fitted a RL-based computational model to the behavior of the student to characterize their learning, and examined whether a teacher's ACC signals when a student's predictions are wrong. In line with our hypothesis, activity in the teacher's ACC covaried with the PE values in the model. Additionally, activity in the teacher's insula and ventromedial prefrontal cortex covaried with the predicted value according to the student. Our findings highlight that the ACC signals PEs vicariously for others' erroneous predictions, when monitoring and instructing their learning. These results suggest that RL mechanisms, processed vicariously, may underpin and facilitate teaching behaviors.
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37
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Chang SWC, Isoda M. Toward a better understanding of social learning, social deciding, and other-regarding preferences. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:362. [PMID: 25414637 PMCID: PMC4222143 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Steve W. C. Chang
- Department of Psychology, Yale UniversityNew Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of MedicineNew Haven, CT, USA
- *Correspondence:
| | - Masaki Isoda
- Department of Physiology, Kansai Medical University School of MedicineHirakata, Osaka, Japan
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