High Incidence Rate of Computed Tomography-Measured Steatotic Liver Disease in Men With and Without HIV Infection

INTRODUCTION

We determined steatotic liver disease (SLD) incidence in a prospective cohort of men with HIV (MWH) and men without HIV (MWOH).

METHODS

Incident SLD was defined using paired noncontrast computed tomography scans performed during 2010-2013 and repeated during 2015-2017.

RESULTS

Of 268 men, 173 MWH and 95 MWOH, 33 had incident SLD (11.1%, incidence rate 2.4 and 2.7/100 person-years for MWH and MWOH, respectively). Overall, higher abdominal visceral adipose tissue was independently associated with increased SLD risk. In MWH, increased visceral adipose tissue, insulin resistance, chronic hepatitis B, and cumulative etravirine use were associated with SLD.

DISCUSSION

Metabolic factors, but not HIV, were associated with incident SLD. The high incidence rate suggests that SLD will continue to increase in PWH.

Association of Gut Microbiota With Objective Sleep Measures in Women With and Without Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: The IDOze Study

BACKGROUND

Poor sleep health is an underrecognized health challenge, especially for people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Gut microbiota related to sleep are underinvestigated.

METHODS

The IDOze microbiota substudy included 190 women (114 with HIV and 76 without HIV). Wrist actigraphy measured total sleep duration, sleep efficiency, number of wake bouts, wake after sleep onset, fragmentation index, and sleep timing. 16S rRNA gene sequencing identified gut microbial genera. Analysis of compositions of microbiomes with bias correction was used to investigate cross-sectional associations between gut microbiota and sleep. Abundances of sleep-related gut microbial genera were compared between women with and without HIV.

RESULTS

Enrichment of 7 short-chain fatty acid-producing genera (eg, Butyricimonas, Roseburia, and Blautia) was associated with lower fragmentation index. Enrichment of 9 genera (eg, Dorea) was associated with lower sleep efficiency and/or more wake after sleep onset. Enrichment of proinflammatory Acidaminococcus was associated with late sleep midpoint and offset time. These associations were largely consistent regardless of HIV status. The abundance of Butyricimonas was lower among women with HIV compared to those without HIV.

CONCLUSIONS

Seventeen genera were identified to be associated with sleep continuity or timing. Butyricimonas, a potentially beneficial genus associated with sleep continuity, was less abundant among women with HIV.

Hepatitis B care cascade among people with HIV/HBV coinfection in the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design, 2012-2016

A care cascade is a critical tool for evaluating delivery of care for chronic infections across sequential stages, starting with diagnosis and ending with viral suppression. However, there have been few data describing the hepatitis B virus (HBV) care cascade among people living with HIV infection who have HBV coinfection. We conducted a cross-sectional study among people living with HIV and HBV coinfection receiving care between January 1, 2012 and December 31, 2016 within 13 United States and Canadian clinical cohorts contributing data to the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (NA-ACCORD). We evaluated each of the steps in this cascade, including: 1) laboratory-confirmed HBV infection, 2) tenofovir-based or entecavir-based HBV therapy prescribed, 3) HBV DNA measured during treatment, and 4) viral suppression achieved via undetectable HBV DNA. Among 3,953 persons with laboratory-confirmed HBV (median age, 50 years; 6.5% female; 43.8% were Black; 7.1% were Hispanic), 3,592 (90.9%; 95% confidence interval, 90.0-91.8%) were prescribed tenofovir-based antiretroviral therapy or entecavir along with their antiretroviral therapy regimen, 2,281 (57.7%; 95% confidence interval, 56.2-59.2%) had HBV DNA measured while on therapy, and 1,624 (41.1%; 95% confidence interval, 39.5-42.6) achieved an undetectable HBV DNA during HBV treatment. Our study identified significant gaps in measurement of HBV DNA and suppression of HBV viremia among people living with HIV and HBV coinfection in the United States and Canada. Periodic evaluation of the HBV care cascade among persons with HIV/HBV will be critical to monitoring success in completion of each step.

Health Insurance and Initiation of Direct-Acting Antivirals for Hepatitis C in US Women With Human Immunodeficiency Virus

BACKGROUND

Direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy for hepatitis C virus (HCV) is well tolerated, cost-effective, and yields high sustained virologic response rates, yet it has remained financially inaccessible to many patients.

METHODS

Participants of the Women's Interagency HIV Study (an observational US cohort) with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and HCV (RNA+) reporting no prior hepatitis C treatment were followed for DAA initiation (2015-2019). We estimated risk ratios (RRs) of the relationship between time-varying health insurance status and DAA initiation, adjusting for confounders with stabilized inverse probability weights. We also estimated weighted cumulative incidences of DAA initiation by health insurance status.

RESULTS

A total of 139 women (74% Black) were included; at baseline, the median age was 55 years and 86% were insured. Most had annual household incomes ≤$18 000 (85%); advanced liver fibrosis (21%), alcohol use (45%), and recreational drug use (35%) were common. Across 439 subsequent semiannual visits, 88 women (63%) reported DAA initiation. Compared with no health insurance, health insurance increased the likelihood of reporting DAA initiation at a given visit (RR, 4.94; 95% confidence limit [CL], 1.92 to 12.8). At 2 years, the weighted cumulative incidence of DAA initiation was higher among the insured (51.2%; 95% CL, 43.3% to 60.6%) than the uninsured (3.5%; 95% CL, 0.8% to 14.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Accounting for clinical, behavioral, and sociodemographic factors over time, health insurance had a substantial positive effect on DAA initiation. Interventions to increase insurance coverage should be prioritized to increase HCV curative therapy uptake for persons with HIV.

Dynamic impairment classification through arrayed comparisons

The multivariate normative comparison (MNC) method has been used for identifying cognitive impairment. When participants' cognitive brain domains are evaluated regularly, the longitudinal MNC (LMNC) has been introduced to correct for the intercorrelation among repeated assessments of multiple cognitive domains in the same participant. However, it may not be practical to wait until the end of study for diagnosis. For example, in participants of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS), cognitive functioning has been evaluated repeatedly for more than 35 years. Therefore, it is optimal to identify cognitive impairment at each assessment, while the family-wise error rate (FWER) is controlled with unknown number of assessments in future. In this work, we propose to use the difference of consecutive LMNC test statistics to construct independent tests. Frequency modeling can help predict how many assessments each participant will have, so Bonferroni-type correction can be easily adapted. A chi-squared test is used under the assumption of multivariate normality, and permutation test is proposed where this assumption is violated. We showed through simulation and the MACS data that our method controlled FWER below a predetermined level.

Hepatitis B virus and hepatitis D virus infection in women with or at risk for HIV infection in the United States

Hepatitis D virus (HDV) requires co-infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV). Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) shares transmission routes with these viruses. Among 4,932 US women infected with or at-risk for HIV during 1994-2015, HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) positivity was more common in women with HIV (2.8% vs. 1.2%; p = 0.001); HDV was more common among participants enrolled during 2013-2015 (p = 0.0004) and those with resolved rather than active hepatitis C (1.9% vs. 0.5%; p = 0.02). Among HBsAg-positive women (n = 117), HDV antibody prevalence was 22% and did not vary by HIV status; HDV infection was associated with the presence of advanced fibrosis/cirrhosis at enrollment (adjusted odds ratio, 5.70; 95% confidence interval, 1.46-22.29). Our results demonstrate the importance of HDV testing in HBV-infected US women.

Effects of Erectile Dysfunction Drugs Use on T-cells and Immune Markers on Men Who Have Sex with Men

Objective

Examine prospective relationships between erectile dysfunction (ED) drugs EDand CD4 and CD8 T-cells, and immune markers among men who have sex with men (MSM).

Methods

Data from Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study, an observational prospective cohort study, with semi-annual follow-ups conducted in four U.S. centers from 1998 onwards was used. Marginal structural models using g-computation was fitted to estimate the mean differences for the effects of self-reported ED drug use on CD4 and CD8 T-cell outcomes and immune biomarkers.

Results

Total of 1,391 men with HIV (MWH) and 307 men without HIV (MWOH) was included. Baseline mean CD4 cell count among MWH and MWOH was 499.9 cells/μL and 966.7 cells/μL, respectively. At baseline, 41.8% of MWH were virally suppressed. ED drug users reported a mean of 44.4 months of exposure to ED drugs. ED drug use was associated with increased CD4 cell outcomes among MWH but not MWOH. Mean differences in CD4 cell counts after 1 year of ED drug use was 57.6 cells/μL and increased to 117.7 after 10 years among MWH. CD8 counts were higher in ED drug users among MWH over 10 years than non-users; no consistent differences were found among MWOH. ED drug use appeared to reduce immune marker levels, such as IL-6 and increase markers, such as IL-10. We observed similar effects of ED drug use on biomarker levels among MWOH.

Conclusion

Long-term use of ED drugs do not adversely affect immune function among MWH or MWOH. Future studies on the relationships between different types of ED drugs and effects on T-cell subtypes are warranted.

Molecular profiling of breast and lung cancer in women with HIV reveals high tumor mutational burden

OBJECTIVE

This study compared the mutation profile and tumor mutational burden (TMB) in women with HIV (WWH) diagnosed with lung adenocarcinoma (n = 8) or breast ductal neoplasm (n = 13) who were enrolled into the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS).

DESIGN

Previous studies tended to focus on single institutions based on sample availability. This study is based on a representative, multicenter cohort that represents the racial and ethnic composition of women with HIV in the United States.

METHODS

The study sequenced the complete human exome of n = 26 cancer samples from HIV-positive women, using Ion torrent next-generation sequencing. The study cohort was compared with a HIV-negative cohort obtained from the Genomic Data Commons Data Portal of the NCI.

RESULTS

There were no differences in known cancer mutations between breast cancer and lung cancer that developed in WWH and those that developed in HIV-negative (HIV-) women; however, WWH presented a significantly higher TMB in comparison to HIV- patients. Seventy-five percent of lung cancers and 61% of breast cancers were defined as TMB-high (more than 10 mutation/mb of DNA).

CONCLUSION

This study affirms the recommendation that WWH be included in clinical trials of novel treatments for these cancers. Although these data are preliminary, the high TMB in WLHV suggests, paradoxically, that this immune challenged population may benefit greatly from immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies.

Peripheral artery disease and physical function in women with and without HIV

OBJECTIVES

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is associated with decreased physical function and increased mortality in the general population. We previously found that PAD is common in middle-aged women with and without HIV infection, but its association with functional decline is unclear. We examine the contribution of PAD to functional decline in the Women's Interagency HIV Study, controlling for traditional cardiovascular risk factors and HIV-related factors.

METHODS

Analysis included 1839 participants (72% with HIV) with measured ankle-brachial index (ABI) and 4 m gait speed. ABI values categorized PAD severity. Linear models with repeated measures estimated the association of PAD severity with log-transformed gait speed after controlling for demographic, behavioral, and metabolic risk factors, and HIV/hepatitis C virus status.

RESULTS

Median age was 50 years and more than 70% were Black. Compared with normal ABI, there was a dose-response relationship between increasing PAD severity and slower gait speed in univariable analyses: 6% slower gait speed for low-normal ABI [95% confidence interval (CI): 4-9%], 10% for borderline PAD (95% CI: 6-13%), 14% for mild PAD (95% CI: 9-18%), and 16% for moderate-severe PAD (95% CI: 5-25%). PAD severity remained associated with slower gait speed in multivariable analyses. HIV/hepatitis C virus co-infection was independently associated with 9% (95% CI: 4-14%) slower gait speed compared with those with neither infection. Among women with HIV, neither CD4+ cell count nor HIV-RNA level was associated with gait speed.

CONCLUSION

In middle-aged women with and without HIV infection, greater PAD severity is associated with progressively slower gait speed. Early detection of subclinical PAD may decrease the risk of lower extremity functional impairment and its long-term health consequences.

Hepatitis D-associated hospitalizations in the United States: 2010-2018

In the United States, hepatitis D is not a reportable condition, leading to gaps in epidemiological and clinical knowledge. We aim to estimate the incidence of hepatitis D-associated hospitalizations in the United States and describe the clinical, demographic and geographic characteristics of those hospitalizations. We utilized hospitalization data from the 2010-2018 National Inpatient Sample from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project. Hepatitis D and hepatitis B only (HBV only) hospitalizations were identified by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) and International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes. We identified 3825 hepatitis D-associated hospitalizations. The hospitalization rate of hepatitis D was between 6.9 and 20.7 per 10,000,000 but did not change significantly over time. Compared to HBV only, the hepatitis D cohort had a greater proportion of males, Hispanics, hospitalizations in the Northeast region. The hepatitis D-associated hospitalizations also had significantly greater frequencies of liver failure, non-alcoholic cirrhosis, portal hypertension, ascites and thrombocytopenia. While mortality in hepatitis D was similar to that of HBV only, age >65 years (odds ratio [OR] = 3.79; p = .020) and having a diagnosis of alcoholic cirrhosis (OR = 3.37; p = .044) increased the odds of mortality within the hepatitis D cohort. Although the hepatitis D-associated hospitalizations were relatively uncommon, they were associated with severe complications.

Legacy effect on neuropsychological function in HIV-infected men on combination antiretroviral therapy

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) initiation alters the trajectory of cognitive performance in HIV+ men, and whether cognition prior to cART predicts postcART function.

DESIGN

Longitudinal cohort study. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.

METHODS

From an initial set of 3701 men with complete neuropsychological data, men with HIV infection were initially matched with men without infection on cognitive status, race, age, and timeline (T0 defined as cART initiation). Propensity score matching was then used to match pairs on depressive symptoms at T0, education, T0 cognitive scores, and recruitment cohort. There were 506 matched pairs of infected and uninfected men in the final analysis. Mixed effect models were constructed to analyze the trajectories of cognitive functions and to test the effect of cART and HIV on cognitive functions over time.

RESULTS

Performance in each cognitive domain did not change following the initiation of cART among HIV-infected men with prior impairment and was comparable to the performance of their matched uninfected men. However, among the infected men who were unimpaired prior to cART, motor function declined significantly faster than it did for uninfected controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive dysfunction is persistent in HIV-infected men and cART does not alter the trajectory of cognitive decline in men who were impaired prior to effective therapy. This suggests that current cognitive impairment in HIV+ men results from a legacy effect, and from factors other than the HIV itself. Furthermore, motor skills may be uniquely vulnerable to the virus, cART, or age-related co-morbidities.

Characteristics and Longitudinal Patterns of Erectile Dysfunction Drug Use Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in the U.S

We investigated the longitudinal relationship between erectile dysfunction (ED) drug use with behavioral factors, including substance use and sexual activities in men who have sex with men from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study during 1998-2016 (n = 1636). We used a bivariate random-intercept model to evaluate ED drug use along with other behavioral factors to assess relationships between the two outcomes over time on a population level and also at the individual level. Average ED drug use among men who have sex with men (MSM) with HIV was positively correlated with average use of marijuana (r = .19), poppers (r = .27), and stimulants (r = .25). In this group, testosterone use (r = .32), multiple partners (r = .41), insertive anal intercourse with condom (r = .40), and insertive anal intercourse without condom (r = .43) all showed moderate correlations over time with average ED use (p < .001). Associations among MSM without HIV were similar, with average marijuana use (r = .19) and stimulant use (r = .22) being positively correlated with average ED drug use, and were also correlated with having multiple partners (r = .36), insertive anal intercourse with condom (r = .22), and insertive anal intercourse without condom (r = .18) over time. Positive within-individual associations between ED drug use and multiple partners and insertive anal intercourse with and without condom were observed regardless of HIV serostatus. This study showed that MSM who reported use of ED drugs were also, on average, more likely to use recreational drugs and engage in sexual activities, such as having multiple partners and insertive anal intercourse. Within individuals, average ED drug use was also positively correlated with sexual behaviors.

Decreases in markers of monocyte/macrophage activation after hepatitis C eradication in HIV/hepatitis C virus coinfected women

OBJECTIVE

Eradication of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in HIV disease decreases liver and non-liver-related morbidity and mortality. Elevated markers of monocyte/macrophage activation (soluble CD163 and sCD14) are associated with excess non-AIDS morbidity and mortality in HIV. We examined the effect of HCV eradication on these markers in relation to change in hepatic fibrosis.

DESIGN

A nested substudy within a longitudinal observational cohort.

METHODS

We studied 126 HIV/HCV-coinfected women successfully treated for HCV, with undetectable HCV RNA at least 12 weeks after therapy completion. sCD163 and sCD14 were measured in serum collected before and after HCV eradication. Results were correlated with changes in markers of hepatic fibrosis.

RESULTS

Mean age of participants was 56.3 years, mean CD4+ cell count was 615, and 72% had suppressed HIV RNA. After treatment, sCD163 and sCD14 levels significantly decreased from pre-treatment levels in unadjusted analyses. After adjusting for age, race, hepatic fibrosis status, baseline HCV RNA, CD4 count and HIV RNA status, cigarette smoking, and alcohol use, the decreases in sCD163 and sCD14 remained significant. Decrease in pre-treatment to post-treatment sCD163 were significantly positively correlated with changes in FIB-4 (r = 0.250, P = 0.005) and APRI (r = 0.262, P = 0.003); similarly decrease in sCD14 was significantly positively correlated with changes in FIB-4 (r = 0.333, P = 0.0001) and APRI (r = 0.457, P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

HCV eradication is associated with significant reductions in monocyte/macrophage activation markers that correlate with reductions in markers of hepatic fibrosis. These findings support broad access to and early initiation of HCV treatment in order to decrease immune activation and improve health in HIV-infected persons.

Clinical Predictors of Morbidity and Mortality in Hospitalized Pediatric Patients With Ascites

OBJECTIVES

Ascites is a pathologic buildup of fluid in the peritoneal cavity. Knowledge is lacking in clinical outcome in pediatric patients with ascites. We aim to identify and assess clinical variables, associated with morbidity and mortality in pediatric patients who are hospitalized with ascites.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was performed on patients ages 0 to 21 hospitalized at Johns Hopkins Hospital between 1983 and 2010 with an ICD-9 discharge diagnosis of ascites (789.5, 789.51, 789.59). A total of 518 pediatric patients were studied, all with a diagnosis of ascites during hospitalization. Study outcomes included hospital length of stay (LOS) as a proxy for morbidity and death at hospital discharge for mortality. Variables analyzed included demographic data, ascites etiology and grade, comorbidities, and laboratory markers. Variables were analyzed by log-linear regression and competing risk model.

RESULTS

Among the 3 age groups (0-5, 6-12, and 13-21), the 0 to 5 age group experienced significantly increased LOS (P < 0.001) and mortality (P = 0.027). Ascites etiology of veno-occlusive disease (VOD) and the presence of hydrothorax or thrombocytopenia was also significantly associated with increased LOS. Ascites with the etiology of congestive hepatopathy and the presence of grade 3 ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, hepatorenal syndrome, hydrothorax, hyponatremia, and thrombocytopenia were associated with increased mortality. Additionally, black pediatric patients have an increased risk of mortality (P = 0.027). Other factors including sex, leukopenia, portal vein thrombosis, and splenomegaly were not associated with LOS or mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Morbidity and mortality in pediatric patients hospitalized with ascites are associated with specific demographic and clinical factors. Further studies are required to apply this knowledge to predict the clinical outcomes.

Direct-Acting Antiviral Hepatitis C Treatment Cascade and Barriers to Treatment Initiation Among US Men and Women With and Without HIV

BACKGROUND

People with HIV are disproportionately coinfected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and experience accelerated liver-related mortality. Direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) yield high sustained virologic response (SVR) rates, but uptake is suboptimal. This study characterizes the DAA-era HCV treatment cascade and barriers among US men and women with or at risk for HIV.

METHODS

We constructed HCV treatment cascades using the Women's Interagency HIV Study (women, 6 visits, 2015-2018, n = 2447) and Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (men, 1 visit, 2015-2018, n = 2221). Cascades included treatment-eligible individuals (ie, HCV RNA-positive or reported DAAs). Surveys captured self-reported clinical (eg, CD4), patient (eg, missed visits), system (eg, appointment access), and financial/insurance barriers.

RESULTS

Of 323/92 (women/men) treatment eligible, most had HIV (77%/70%); 69%/63% were black. HIV-positive women were more likely to attain cascade outcomes than HIV-negative women (39% vs 23% initiated, 21% vs 12% SVR); similar discrepancies were noted for men. Black men and substance users were treated less often. Women initiating treatment (vs not) reported fewer patient barriers (14%/33%). Among men not treated, clinical barriers were prevalent (53%).

CONCLUSIONS

HIV care may facilitate HCV treatment linkage and barrier navigation. HIV-negative individuals, black men, and substance users may need additional support.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION

NCT00000797 (Women's Interagency HIV Study); NCT00046280 (Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study).

Longitudinal 5-year prediction of cognitive impairment among men with HIV disease

BACKGROUND

Although combination antiretroviral therapy reduced the prevalence of HIV-associated dementia, milder syndromes persist. Our goals were to predict cognitive impairment of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) participants 5 years ahead and from a large pool of factors, select the ones that mostly contributed to our predictions.

DESIGN

Longitudinal, natural and treated history of HIV infection among MSM.

METHODS

The MACS is a longitudinal study of the natural and treated history of HIV disease in MSM; the neuropsychological substudy aims to characterize cognitive disorders in men with HIV disease.

RESULTS

We modeled on an annual basis the risk of cognitive impairment 5 years in the future. We were able to predict cognitive impairment at individual level with high precision and overperform default methods. We found that while a diagnosis of AIDS is a critical risk factor, HIV infection per se does not necessarily convey additional risk. Other infectious processes, most notably hepatitis B and C, are independently associated with increased risk of impairment. The relative importance of an AIDS diagnosis diminished across calendar time.

CONCLUSION

Our prediction models are a powerful tool to help clinicians address dementia in early stages for MACS paticipants. The strongest predictors of future cognitive impairment included the presence of clinical AIDS and hepatitis B or C infection. The fact that the pattern of predictive power differs by calendar year suggests a clinically critical change to the face of the epidemic.

Dietary intake is associated with neuropsychological impairment in women with HIV

BACKGROUND

Diet is a modifiable risk factor that may influence cognition in people with HIV.

OBJECTIVES

We examined the association between dietary intake and cognition in women with HIV (WWH) and HIV-seronegative women.

METHODS

An 18-item dietary National Cancer Institute screener was completed by 729 WWH and 346 HIV-seronegative Women's Interagency HIV Study participants. Daily intake frequencies of processed meats, sweet beverages, fish, whole milk, and vegetables were calculated. Participants completed biennial neuropsychological (NP) testing. NP domains included attention/working memory, executive function, processing speed, memory, learning, fluency, and motor function. NP impairment was defined as demographically adjusted T-scores (mean = 50; SD = 10) ≤40 at ≥1 visit after completing the dietary screener. Multivariable logistic regression, stratified by HIV serostatus, examined associations between intake frequency tertile (referent = lowest intake) and NP performance.

RESULTS

Dietary intake frequencies of individual food line items were similar between WWH and HIV-seronegative women, except for sweet beverages, for which HIV-seronegative women reported higher intake frequencies than WWH (P values < 0.05). In WWH, multivariable-adjusted models indicated higher odds of NP impairment with higher intake frequencies of processed meat [P = 0.006; ORupper tertile = 1.91 (95% CI: 1.23-2.95; P = 0.003); ORmiddle tertile = 1.66 (95% CI: 1.14-2.42; P = 0.01)], sweet beverages [P = 0.02; ORupper tertile = 1.75 (95% CI: 1.17-2.64; P = 0.007)], fish [P = 0.01; ORupper tertile = 1.70 (95% CI: 1.10-2.64; P = 0.02)], and whole milk [P = 0.029; ORupper tertile = 1.66 (95% CI: 1.14-2.42; P = 0.008)]. Lower odds of NP impairment [P = 0.005; ORupper tertile = 0.65 (95% CI: 0.45-0.95; P = 0.02); ORmiddle tertile = 0.42 (95% CI: 0.24-0.73; P = 0.002)] were associated with higher vegetable intakes. In HIV-seronegative women, multivariable-adjusted models did not show associations between food line items/diet quality score and NP outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Intakes of processed meat, sweet beverages, whole milk, fish, and vegetables may be associated with NP functions among WWH. Associations among WWH are not directly comparable to those among HIV-seronegative women, because models were conducted on each group separately given controls for HIV-specific covariates in WWH. Further studies are needed using more rigorous dietary assessment methods and lengthier longitudinal follow-ups.

Longitudinal multivariate normative comparisons

Motivated by the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS), we develop classification procedures for cognitive impairment based on longitudinal measures. To control family-wise error, we adapt the cross-sectional multivariate normative comparisons (MNC) method to the longitudinal setting. The cross-sectional MNC was proposed to control family-wise error by measuring the distance between multiple domain scores of a participant and the norms of healthy controls and specifically accounting for intercorrelations among all domain scores. However, in a longitudinal setting where domain scores are recorded multiple times, applying the cross-sectional MNC at each visit will still have inflated family-wise error rate due to multiple testing over repeated visits. Thus, we propose longitudinal MNC procedures that are constructed based on multivariate mixed effects models. A χ 2 test procedure is adapted from the cross-sectional MNC to classify impairment on longitudinal multivariate normal data. Meanwhile, a permutation procedure is proposed to handle skewed data. Through simulations we show that our methods can effectively control family-wise error at a predetermined level. A dataset from a neuropsychological substudy of the MACS is used to illustrate the applications of our proposed classification procedures.

Serological Responses to Toxoplasma gondii and Matrix Antigen 1 Predict the Risk of Subsequent Toxoplasmic Encephalitis in People Living with HIV

BACKGROUND

Clinically useful predictors for fatal toxoplasmosis are lacking. We investigated the value of serological assays for antibodies to whole Toxoplasma antigens and to peptide antigens of the Toxoplasma cyst protein MAG1, for predicting incident toxoplasmic encephalitis (TE) in people living with HIV (PLWH).

METHODS

We performed a nested case control study, conducted within the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS), using serum samples obtained 2 years prior to diagnosis of TE from 28 cases, and 37 HIV disease-matched Toxoplasma seropositive controls at matched time-points. Sera were tested for Toxoplasma antibodies using a commercial assay and for antibodies to MAG1_4.2 and MAG1_5.2 peptides in ELISA.

RESULTS

Two years prior to clinical diagnosis, 68% of TE cases were MAG1_4.2 seropositive compared with 16% of controls (OR 25.0, 95% CI 3.14-199.18). Corresponding results for MAG1_5.2 seropositivity were 36% and 14% (OR 3.6, 95% CI 0.95-13.42). Higher levels of antibody to MAG1_4.2 (OR 18.5 per doubling of the OD value, 95% CI 1.41-242) and to Toxoplasma (OR 2.91 for each OD unit increase, 95% CI 1.48-5.72) were also associated with the risk of TE. When seropositivity was defined as the presence of MAG1 antibody or relatively high levels of Toxoplasma antibody, the sensitivity was 89% and specificity was 68% for subsequent TE.

CONCLUSIONS

Antibodies to MAG1 showed predictive value on the occurrence of TE in PLWH, and the predictive performance was further improved by adding the levels of Toxoplasma antibody. These measures could be clinically useful for predicting subsequent diseases in multiple at-risk populations.

Risk of smoking-related cancers among women and men living with and without HIV

OBJECTIVES

We investigated whether the effect of smoking on the incidence of smoking-related cancers differs by HIV-infection status, if sex modifies the impact of risk factors for smoking-related cancers, and the sex-specific attributable risk of smoking on cancer incidence.

DESIGN

Data from two large prospective studies in the United States were analyzed: 6789 men in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study from 1984 through 2018 and 4423 women in the Women's Interagency HIV Study from 1994 through 2018.

METHODS

Incidence rates, relative risks, and adjusted population attributable fractions (PAFs) were calculated for smoking-related cancers.

RESULTS

During study follow-up, there were 214 incident smoking-related cancers in the men and 192 in the women. The age-adjusted incidence ratess for smoking-related cancers were higher in the women (392/100 000) than for the men (198/100 000; P < 0.01) and higher for people living with HIV (PLWH, 348/100 000) than for those without HIV (162/100 000; P < 0.01). Unadjusted incidence rates in PLWH were higher than in those without HIV when stratifying by cumulative pack-years of smoking (all P values <0.01). In adjusted interaction models, the effects of cumulative pack-years of smoking were significantly stronger in women. The adjusted PAFs for smoking-related cancers were nonsignificantly higher in the women than in the men (39 vs. 28%; P = 0.35).

CONCLUSION

HIV looks to be an independent risk factor for smoking-related cancers and women appear to have a greater risk than men. These results highlight the need for interventions to help PLWH, especially women, quit smoking and sustain cessation to reduce their risk of smoking-related cancers.

Quantifying diagnostic accuracy improvement of new biomarkers for competing risk outcomes

The net reclassification improvement (NRI) and the integrated discrimination improvement (IDI) were originally proposed to characterize accuracy improvement in predicting a binary outcome, when new biomarkers are added to regression models. These two indices have been extended from binary outcomes to multi-categorical and survival outcomes. Working on an AIDS study where the onset of cognitive impairment is competing risk censored by death, we extend the NRI and the IDI to competing risk outcomes, by using cumulative incidence functions to quantify cumulative risks of competing events, and adopting the definitions of the two indices for multi-category outcomes. The "missing" category due to independent censoring is handled through inverse probability weighting. Various competing risk models are considered, such as the Fine and Gray, multistate, and multinomial logistic models. Estimation methods for the NRI and the IDI from competing risk data are presented. The inference for the NRI is constructed based on asymptotic normality of its estimator, and the bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap procedure is used for the IDI. Simulations demonstrate that the proposed inferential procedures perform very well. The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study is used to illustrate the practical utility of the extended NRI and IDI for competing risk outcomes.

Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin Levels Are Inversely Associated With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in HIV-Infected and -Uninfected Men

BACKGROUND

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a leading cause of liver disease worldwide. Elevated sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels have been observed in the setting of HIV and may protect against some metabolic disorders. We aimed to investigate whether higher SHBG levels may protect against NAFLD in men with/without HIV.

METHODS

NAFLD was assessed using noncontrast computed tomography in 530 men in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) who drank <3 alcoholic drinks/d and were uninfected with chronic hepatitis C or B (340HIV+, 190HIV-). Morning serum samples were tested for SHBG, total testosterone (TT), and adiponectin. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess associations between HIV, SHBG, TT, adiponectin, and NAFLD.

RESULTS

Median SHBG was highest among HIV+/NAFLD- men and lowest among HIV-/NAFLD+ men. Adjusted for demographics, HIV, visceral adiposity, HOMA-IR, TT, and PNPLA3 genotype, higher SHBG was associated with lower odds of NAFLD (odds ratio [OR], 0.52 per doubling; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.34-0.80). In separate multivariable models without SHBG, HIV (OR, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.26-0.79) and higher adiponectin (OR, 0.66 per doubling; 95% CI, 0.49-0.89) were associated with lower NAFLD odds, whereas TT was not significantly associated (OR, 0.74 per doubling; 95% CI, 0.53-1.04). Adjusting for SHBG attenuated the associations of HIV (OR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.34-1.08) and adiponectin (OR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.54-1.02) with NAFLD.

CONCLUSIONS

SHBG levels were higher among HIV+ men, were independently associated with lower NAFLD, and could partially explain the associations of HIV and higher adiponectin with lower NAFLD in our cohort. These findings suggest that SHBG may protect against NAFLD, supporting further prospective and mechanistic studies.

Cross-sectional analysis of cognitive function using multivariate normative comparisons in men with HIV disease

BACKGROUND

Prevalence estimates of cognitive impairment in HIV disease vary widely. Here we used multivariate normative comparison (MNC) with identify individuals with impaired cognition, and to compare the results with those using the Frascati and Gisslén criteria.

METHODS

The current project used data collected before October 2014 from bisexual/gay men from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. A total of 2904 men (mean age 39.7 years, 52.7% seropositive) had complete data in six cognitive domains at their first neuropsychological evaluation. T-scores were computed for each domain and the MNC was applied to detect impairment among seronegative and seropositive groups.

RESULTS

The MNC classified 6.26% of seronegative men as being impaired using a predetermined 5% false discovery rate. By contrast, the Frascati and the Gisslén criteria identified 24.54 and 11.36% of seronegative men as impaired. For seropositive men, the percentage impairment was 7.45, 25.73, and 11.69%, respectively, by the MNC, Frascati and Gisslén criteria. When we used seronegative men without medical comorbidities as the control group, the MNC, the Frascati and the Gisslén criteria identified 5.05, 27.07, and 4.21% of the seronegative men, and 4.34, 30.95, and 4.48% of the seropositive men as having cognitive impairment. For each method, serostatus was not associated with cognitive impairment.

CONCLUSION

The MNC controls the false discovery rate and therefore avoids the low specificity that characterizes the Frascati and Gisslén criteria. More research is needed to evaluate the sensitivity of the MNC method in a seropositive population that may be sicker and older than the current study sample and that includes women.

The Effects of Hepatitis C Treatment Eligibility Criteria on All-cause Mortality Among People With Human Immunodeficiency Virus

BACKGROUND

The cost of direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) for hepatitis C virus (HCV) prompted many payers to restrict treatment to patients who met non-evidence-based criteria. These restrictions have implications for survival of people with HCV, especially for people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/HCV coinfection who are at high risk for liver disease progression. The goal of this work was to estimate the effects of DAA access policies on 10-year all-cause mortality among people with HIV.

METHODS

The study population included 3056 adults with HIV in the Women's Interagency HIV Study and Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study from 1 October 1994 through 30 September 2015. We used the parametric g-formula to estimate 10-year all-cause mortality under DAA access policies that included treating (i) all people with HCV; (ii) only people with suppressed HIV; (iii) only people with severe fibrosis; and (iv) only people with HIV suppression and severe fibrosis.

RESULTS

The 10-year risk difference of treating all coinfected persons with DAAs compared with no treatment was -3.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], -9.1% to .6%). Treating only those with suppressed HIV and severe fibrosis yielded a risk difference of -1.1% (95% CI, -2.8% to .6%), with 51% (95% CI, 38%-59%) of coinfected persons receiving DAAs. Treating a random selection of 51% of coinfected persons at baseline decreased the risk by 1.9% (95% CI, -4.7% to .3%).

CONCLUSIONS

Restrictive DAA access policies may decrease survival compared to treating similar proportions of people with HIV/HCV coinfection with DAAs at random. These findings suggest that lives could be saved by thoughtfully revising access policies.

Elevated Depressive Symptoms Are a Stronger Predictor of Executive Dysfunction in HIV-Infected Women Than in Men

BACKGROUND

HIV-infected (HIV+) women seem to be more vulnerable to neurocognitive impairment (NCI) than HIV+ men, perhaps in part due to mental health factors. We assessed the association between elevated depressive symptoms and NCI among HIV+ and HIV-uninfected (HIV-) women and men.

SETTING

Women's Interagency HIV Study and Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.

METHODS

Eight hundred fifty-eight HIV+ (429 women; 429 men) and 562 HIV- (281 women; 281 men) completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (16 cutoff) Scale and measures of psychomotor speed/attention, executive, and motor function over multiple visits (or time points). Women's Interagency HIV Study and Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study participants were matched according to HIV status, age, race/ethnicity, and education. Generalized linear mixed models were used to examine interactions between biological sex, HIV serostatus, and depression on impairment (T-scores <40) after covariate adjustment.

RESULTS

Despite a higher frequency of depression among men, the association between depression and executive function differed by sex and HIV serostatus. HIV+ women with depression had 5 times the odds of impairment on a measure of executive control and inhibition versus HIV- depressed women and 3 times the odds of impairment on that measure versus HIV+ depressed men. Regardless of group status, depression was associated with greater impairment on processing speed, executive (mental flexibility), and motor function (P's < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Depression contributes to NCI across a broad range of cognitive domains in HIV+ and HIV- individuals, but HIV+ depressed women show greater vulnerabilities in executive function. Treating depression may help to improve cognition in patients with HIV infection.

The Effects of Hepatitis C Infection and Treatment on All-cause Mortality Among People Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus

BACKGROUND

Persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; PLwH) are commonly co-infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). Most co-infected individuals can achieve a sustained HCV virologic response after treatment with direct-acting antivirals (DAA). However, the effect of HCV co-infection and DAA treatment on mortality after initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) is unknown for PLwH.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the Women's Interagency HIV Study and the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Participants included those who had prevalent HIV or seroconverted during follow-up; all were antiretroviral-naive and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-free prior to their first visit after 1 October 1994. The follow-up lasted 10 years or until 30 September 2015. We used parametric g-computation to estimate the effects of HCV infection and DAA treatment on mortality had participants initiated ART at study entry.

RESULTS

Of the 3056 eligible participants, 58% were female and 18% had HCV. The estimated 10-year all-cause mortality risk in the scenario in which no PLwH had HCV was 10.4% (95% confidence interval [CI] 6.0-18.0%). The 10-year mortality risk difference for HCV infection was 4.3% (95% CI 0.4-8.9%) and the risk ratio was 1.4 (95% CI 1.0-1.9). The risk difference for DAA treatment was -3.8% (95% CI -9.2-0.9%) and the risk ratio was 0.8 (95% CI 0.6-1.1).

CONCLUSIONS

HCV co-infection remains an important risk factor for mortality among PLwH after initiating ART according to modern guidelines, and DAAs are effective at reducing mortality in this population. HCV prevention and treatment interventions should be prioritized to reduce mortality among PLwH.

Differences in Cognitive Function Between Women and Men With HIV

BACKGROUND

Women may be more vulnerable to HIV-related cognitive dysfunction compared with men because of sociodemographic, lifestyle, mental health, and biological factors. However, studies to date have yielded inconsistent findings on the existence, magnitude, and pattern of sex differences. We examined these issues using longitudinal data from 2 large, prospective, multisite, observational studies of US women and men with and without HIV.

SETTING

The Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) and Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS).

METHODS

HIV-infected (HIV+) and uninfected (HIV-) participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study and Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study completed tests of psychomotor speed, executive function, and fine motor skills. Groups were matched on HIV status, sex, age, education, and black race. Generalized linear mixed models were used to examine group differences on continuous and categorical demographically corrected T-scores. Results were adjusted for other confounding factors.

RESULTS

The sample (n = 1420) included 710 women (429 HIV+) and 710 men (429 HIV+) (67% non-Hispanic black; 53% high school or less). For continuous T-scores, sex by HIV serostatus interactions were observed on the Trail Making Test parts A & B, Grooved Pegboard, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test. For these tests, HIV+ women scored lower than HIV+ men, with no sex differences in HIV- individuals. In analyses of categorical scores, particularly the Trail Making Test part A and Grooved Pegboard nondominant, HIV+ women also had a higher odds of impairment compared with HIV+ men. Sex differences were constant over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Although sex differences are generally understudied, HIV+ women vs men show cognitive disadvantages. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying these differences is critical for tailoring cognitive interventions.

Reproductive Aging and Hepatic Fibrosis Progression in Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Hepatitis C Virus-Coinfected Women

BACKGROUND

Severity of hepatic fibrosis is greater in postmenopausal than in premenopausal women, perhaps owing to protective effects of estrogens. However, prior studies of estrogen and liver fibrosis lack serial fibrosis measures, adjustment for age, or longitudinal observations in coinfected populations.

METHODS

In a longitudinal cohort of women coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), we assessed fibrosis progression across reproductive age, using validated serum fibrosis markers, aminotransferase platelet ratio index (APRI) and fibrosis 4 (FIB-4). Fibrosis rate was evaluated within each woman as she transitioned from pre- to postmenopause, defined by a biomarker of ovarian function.

RESULTS

The median follow-up (n = 405) was 9.1 years (interquartile range, 5.0-15.2 years), with a median menopausal age of 49 years (47-52 years). When fully controlled for chronologic aging, the fibrosis progression rate was accelerated during perimenopause, as shown using FIB-4 (0.12 units per year faster than during premenopause; 95% confidence interval [CI], .02-.21; P = .01) and APRI (0.05 units per year faster; -.002 to .09; P = .06). Accelerated fibrosis was also observed during postmenopause compared with premenopause, for FIB-4 (0.14 units per year faster; 95% CI, -.01 to .29; P = .07) and APRI (0.07 units per year faster; -.003 to .15; P = .06). Accelerated fibrosis in perimenopause persisted after adjustment for Hispanic ethnicity, antiretroviral use, and alcohol (0.10 FIB-4 units per year faster than during premenopause; 95% CI, .008-.20; P = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

In HIV/HCV-coinfected women, hepatic fibrosis accelerates with reproductive aging. Accelerated fibrosis begins in perimenopause, highlighting a previously unrecognized group of women at increased risk for advanced fibrosis and associated complications. Longitudinal analyses of fibrosis rates across reproductive age should be conducted in non-HCV-related liver diseases, given potential implications in a broader spectrum of women.

The Association of Inflammatory Markers With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Differs by Human Immunodeficiency Virus Serostatus

BACKGROUND

We aimed to determine the relationship of circulating adipokines and inflammatory biomarkers with fatty liver among men in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.

METHODS

Noncontrast computed tomography was used to assess fatty liver and measure abdominal visceral adipose tissue (VAT) area in 526 participants without history of cardiovascular disease, heavy alcohol use, or viral hepatitis infection. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess associations of circulating biomarker levels with fatty liver.

RESULTS

Three hundred twenty-nine human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected men had higher levels of several inflammatory biomarkers compared with 197 HIV-uninfected men. Among HIV-uninfected men, increased adiponectin was associated with lower odds of fatty liver (odds ratio [OR] = 0.51 per doubling, P = .02), whereas higher odds of fatty liver was observed with increased levels of the proinflammatory markers intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 (OR = 5.30, P = .004), C-reactive protein (OR = 1.66, P = .002), interleukin (IL)-6 (OR = 1.67, P = .03), and tumor necrosis factor α receptor 2 (OR = 6.55, P = .003). Among HIV-infected men, ICAM-1 was the only proinflammatory marker associated with greater odds of fatty liver (OR = 2.67, P = .02), whereas higher adiponectin (OR = 0.57, P = .003), and osteoprotegerin levels (OR = 0.48, P = .03) were associated with lower odds. These associations were all independent of VAT.

CONCLUSIONS

Fatty liver is associated with a heightened inflammatory state independent of visceral adiposity in HIV-uninfected men but not in HIV-infected men. However, a heightened anti-inflammatory state may protect against fatty liver regardless of HIV serostatus.

Cervical cancer incidence after up to 20 years of observation among women with HIV

To estimate the incidence of invasive cervical cancer (ICC) across up to 21 years of follow-up among women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and to compare it to that among HIV-uninfected women, we reviewed ICC diagnoses from a 20-year multi-site U.S. cohort study of HIV infected and uninfected women who had Pap testing every 6 months. Incidence rates were calculated and compared to those in HIV-negative women. Incidence ratios standardized to age-, sex-, race-, and calendar-year specific population rates were calculated. After a median follow-up of 12.3 years, four ICCs were confirmed in HIV seropositive women, only one in the last 10 years of observation, and none in seronegative women. The ICC incidence rate did not differ significantly by HIV status (HIV seronegative: 0/100,000 person-years vs. HIV seropositive: 19.5/100,000 person-years; p = 0.53). The standardized incidence ratio for the HIV-infected WIHS participants was 3.31 (95% CI: 0.90, 8.47; p = 0.07). Although marginally more common in women without HIV, for those with HIV in a prevention program, ICC does not emerge as a major threat as women age.

Excess Mortality, Hospital Stay, and Cost Due to Candidemia: A Case-Control Study Using Data From Population-Based Candidemia Surveillance

Objective:

To determine the mortality, hospital stay, and total hospital charges and cost of hospitalization attributable to candidemia by comparing patients with candidemia with control-patients who have otherwise similar illnesses. Prior studies lack broad patient and hospital representation or cost-related information that accurately reflects current medical practices.

Design:

Our case-control study included case-patients with candidemia and their cost-related data, ascertained from laboratory-based candidemia surveillance conducted among all residents of Connecticut and Baltimore and Baltimore County, Maryland, during 1998 to 2000. Control-patients were matched on age, hospital type, admission year, discharge diagnoses, and duration of hospitalization prior to candidemia onset.

Results:

We identified 214 and 529 sets of matched case-patients and control-patients from the two locations, respectively. Mortality attributable to candidemia ranged between 19% and 24%. On multivariable analysis, candidemia was associated with mortality (OR, 5.3 for Connecticut and 8.5 for Baltimore and Baltimore County;P< .05), whereas receiving adequate treatment was protective (OR, 0.5 and 0.4 for the two locations, respectively;P< .05). Candidemia itself did not increase the total hospital charges and cost of hospitalization; when treatment status was accounted for, having received adequate treatment for candidemia significantly increased the total hospital charges and cost of hospitalization ($6,000 to $29,000 and $3,000 to $22,000, respectively) and the length of stay (3 to 13 days).

Conclusion:

Our findings underscore the burden of candidemia, particularly regarding the risk of death, length of hospitalization, and cost associated with treatment (Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol2005;26:540-547).

Acute and Chronic Hepatitis E Virus Infection in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected U.S. Women

Exposure to hepatitis E virus (HEV) is common in the United States, but there are few data on prevalence of HEV/human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection in U.S.

POPULATIONS

We tested 2,919 plasma samples collected from HIV-infected (HIV(+)) women and men enrolled in U.S. cohort studies for HEV viremia using a high-throughput nucleic acid testing (NAT) platform. NAT(+) samples were confirmed by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Samples were selected for testing primarily on the basis of biomarkers of liver disease and immune suppression. Prevalence of HEV viremia was 3 of 2,606 and 0 of 313 in tested plasma samples collected from HIV(+) women and men, respectively. All HEV isolates were genotype 3a. Based on follow-up testing of stored samples, 1 woman had chronic HEV infection for >4 years whereas 2 women had acute HEV detectable at only a single study visit.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of chronic HEV infection in an HIV(+) U.S. individual. We also confirm that chronic HEV infection can persist despite a CD4(+) count >200 cells/mm(3). Overall, though, these data suggest that HEV infection is rare in the HIV(+) U.S. population.

Incident Hepatitis B Virus Infection in HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Men Who Have Sex With Men From Pre-HAART to HAART Periods: A Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Men who have sex with men (MSM) are at high risk for hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. Data on the effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on incident HBV infection in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected MSM are limited.

OBJECTIVE

To determine predictors of incident HBV infection in MSM during pre-HAART and HAART periods.

DESIGN

Observational cohort study.

SETTING

Cohort of MSM who have, or are at risk for, HIV infection.

PATIENTS

2375 HBV-uninfected MSM in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.

MEASUREMENTS

Poisson regression was used to compare incidence rates of HBV infection in the pre-HAART and HAART eras and to identify factors associated with incidence of HBV infection.

RESULTS

In 25,322 person-years of follow-up, 244 incident HBV infections occurred. The unadjusted incidence rate was higher in HIV-infected MSM than in HIV-uninfected MSM (incidence rate ratio [IRR], 1.9 [95% CI, 1.5 to 2.4]) and was significantly lower in the HAART era than in the pre-HAART era among HIV-infected (IRR, 0.2 [CI, 0.1 to 0.4]) and HIV-uninfected (IRR, 0.3 [CI, 0.2 to 0.4]) MSM. Age younger than 40 years (IRR, 2.3 [CI, 1.7 to 3.0]), more than 1 recent sexual partner (IRR, 3.1 [CI, 2.3 to 4.2]), and HIV infection (IRR, 2.4 [CI, 1.8 to 3.1]) were independently associated with higher incidence of HBV infection, whereas HBV vaccination was protective (IRR, 0.3 [CI, 0.2 to 0.4]). Highly active antiretroviral therapy with HIV RNA levels less than 400 copies/mL was associated with protection (IRR, 0.2 [CI, 0.1 to 0.5]), but HAART in those with HIV RNA levels of 400 copies/mL or greater was not.

LIMITATION

The observational nature limits inferences about causality.

CONCLUSION

Effective HAART is associated with lower incidence of HBV infection; however, even in the HAART era, incidence of HBV infection remains high among MSM.

PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

A Cross-sectional Study of the Association Between Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection and Subclinical Coronary Atherosclerosis Among Participants in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). We evaluated the association of chronic HCV infection and coronary atherosclerosis among participants in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.

METHODS

We assessed 994 men with or without human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (87 of whom had chronic HCV infection) for coronary plaque, using noncontrast coronary computed tomography (CT); 755 also underwent CT angiography. We then evaluated the associations of chronic HCV infection and HIV infection with measures of plaque prevalence, extent, and stenosis.

RESULTS

After adjustment for demographic characteristics, HIV serostatus, behaviors, and CVD risk factors, chronic HCV infection was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of coronary artery calcium (prevalence ratio, 1.29; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02-1.63), any plaque (prevalence ratio, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.09-1.45), and noncalcified plaque (prevalence ratio, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.16-1.75). Chronic HCV infection and HIV infection were independently associated with the prevalence of any plaque and of noncalcified plaque, but there was no evidence of a synergistic effect due to HIV/HCV coinfection. The prevalences of coronary artery calcium, any plaque, noncalcified plaque, a mixture of noncalcified and calcified plaque, and calcified plaque were significantly higher among men with an HCV RNA load of ≥2 × 10(6) IU/mL, compared with findings among men without chronic HCV infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic HCV infection is associated with subclinical CVD, suggesting that vigilant assessments of cardiovascular risk are warranted for HCV-infected individuals. Future research should determine whether HCV infection duration or HCV treatment influence coronary plaque development.

Spontaneous Clearance of the Hepatitis C Virus Among Men Who Have Sex With Men

BACKGROUND

The probability of spontaneous hepatitis C virus (HCV) clearance ranges from 11% to 49%. Our previous cross-sectional study suggests that mode of acquisition explains some of this heterogeneity. We performed this prospective study to determine factors associated with spontaneous HCV clearance among men who have sex with men (MSM).

METHODS

A mixture-cure model was used to evaluate the probability of spontaneous HCV clearance among 101 MSM in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study with acute HCV infection between 1984 and 2012.

RESULTS

Spontaneous HCV clearance occurred in 46% of MSM (49% in non-injection drug users [IDUs] and 23% in IDUs). In the multivariable analysis, age <30 years (clearance ratio [CR] = 2.43; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.53-3.87) and being human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) uninfected (CR = 2.97; 95% CI, 1.98-4.46) were independently associated with spontaneous clearance. Among men aged ≥30 years, being HIV uninfected, not having unprotected anal intercourse, older age, and being on highly active antiretroviral therapy were independently associated with higher clearance. The interferon lambda rs12979860 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was not associated with spontaneous clearance among the 88 MSM who were not active IDUs (CR = 0.74; 95% CI, .46-1.21 for CC vs CT/TT genotype).

CONCLUSIONS

The high probability of spontaneous HCV clearance together with the lack of an association between the rs12979860 SNP and spontaneous clearance among MSM who do not use injection drugs suggests that the immune mechanisms involved with a successful response to acute HCV differ by mode of virus acquisition. Understanding potential mechanistic differences could be important for HCV vaccine development.

Association between free testosterone levels and anal human papillomavirus types 16/18 infections in a cohort of men who have sex with men

BACKGROUND

Human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16 and 18 cause invasive cervical cancer and most invasive anal cancers (IACs). Overall, IAC rates are highest among men who have sex with men (MSM), especially MSM with HIV infection. Testosterone is prescribed for men showing hypogonadism and HIV-related wasting. While there are direct and indirect physiological effects of testosterone in males, its role in anal HPV16/18 infections in men is unknown.

METHODS

Free testosterone (FT) was measured in serum from 340 Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) participants who were tested for anal HPV16/18-DNA approximately 36 months later. The effect of log10-transformed current FT level on anal HPV16/18 prevalence was modeled using Poisson regression with robust error variance. Multivariate models controlled for other HPV types, cumulative years of exogenous testosterone use, race, age, lifetime number of receptive anal intercourse partnerships, body mass index, tobacco smoking, HIV-infection and CD4+ T-cell counts among HIV-infected, and blood draw timing.

RESULTS

Participants were, on average, 60 (+5.4) years of age, White (86%), and HIV-uninfected (56%); Twenty-four percent tested positive for anal HPV16 and/or 18-DNA (HPV16 prevalence=17.1%, HPV18=9.1%). In adjusted analysis, each half-log10 increase of FT was associated with a 1.9-fold (95% Confidence Interval: 1.11, 3.24) higher HPV16/18 prevalence. Additionally, other Group 1 high-risk HPVs were associated with a 1.56-fold (1.03, 2.37) higher HPV16/18 prevalence. Traditional risk factors for HPV16/18 infection (age, tobacco smoking; lifetime number of sexual partners, including the number of receptive anal intercourse partnerships within 24 months preceding HPV testing) were poorly correlated with one another and not statistically significantly associated with higher prevalence of HPV16/18 infection in unadjusted and adjusted analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher free testosterone was associated with increased HPV16/18 prevalence measured approximately three years later, independent of sexual behavior and other potential confounders. The mechanisms underlying this association remain unclear and warrant further study.

Differences in hepatitis C virus prevalence and clearance by mode of acquisition among men who have sex with men

We examined the characteristics associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibody (anti-HCV) prevalence and HCV clearance between injection drug using (IDU) and non-IDU men who have sex with men (MSM). Stored serum and plasma samples were tested for anti-HCV and HCV RNA to determine the HCV status of 6925 MSM at enrolment into the Multicentre AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Prevalence and clearance ratios were calculated to determine the characteristics associated with HCV prevalence and clearance. Multivariable analyses were performed using Poisson regression methods with robust variance estimation. Anti-HCV prevalence was significantly higher among IDU than among non-IDU MSM (42.9% vs 4.0%), while clearance was significantly lower among IDU MSM (11.5% vs 34.5% among non-IDU MSM). HIV infection, Black race, and older age were independently associated with higher prevalence in both groups, while smoking, transfusion history, and syphilis were significantly associated with prevalence only among non-IDU MSM. The rs12979860-C/C genotype was the only characteristic independently associated with HCV clearance in both groups, but the effects of both rs12979860-C/C genotype [clearance ratio (CR) = 4.16 IDUs vs 1.71 non-IDUs; P = 0.03] and HBsAg positivity (CR = 5.06 IDUs vs 1.62 non-IDUs; P = 0.03) were significantly larger among IDU MSM. HIV infection was independently associated with lower HCV clearance only among non-IDU MSM (CR = 0.59, 95% CI = 0.40-0.87). IDU MSM have higher anti-HCV prevalence and lower HCV clearance than non-IDU MSM. Differences in the factors associated with HCV clearance suggest that the mechanisms driving the response to HCV may differ according to the mode of acquisition.

Serum adipokine and inflammatory markers before and after liver transplantation in recipients with major cardiovascular events

In the nontransplant setting, aberrant serum adipokine levels are associated with cardiovascular (CV) disease. The effects of liver transplantation (LT) on serum adipokine levels and their association with post-LT CV disease have not been studied. A nested case-control study of 77 patients with major CV events more than 4 months after LT analyzed serum adiponectin, resistin, leptin, C-reactive protein, and apolipoprotein levels measured before transplantation and 4, 12, and 24 months after LT. Adiponectin and resistin levels decreased dramatically after LT in all patients. Recipients with CV disease had lower levels of adiponectin and higher levels of resistin, leptin, C-reactive protein, and apolipoprotein B100 than controls. The pre-LT adiponectin level was associated with a 16% increased risk for CV events for every 1 μg/mL decrease in adiponectin [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.84, P = 0.046]. Pre-LT C-reactive protein levels (HR = 1.03, P = 0.047) and 12-month C-reactive protein levels (HR = 1.03, P = 0.03) were associated with CV events after LT. Pre-LT Diabetes (HR = 2.14, P = 0.09), and post-LT resistin (HR = 1.07, P = 0.07), and apolipoprotein B (HR = 1.08, P = 0.08) were associated with a nonsignificantly increased risk of CV events in this small sample size. In conclusion, pre- and post-LT changes in serum adipokine and inflammatory markers may be signals of an increased risk of CV events after LT, but further study is needed.

Pulmonary symptoms and diagnoses are associated with HIV in the MACS and WIHS cohorts

Background

Several lung diseases are increasingly recognized as comorbidities with HIV; however, few data exist related to the spectrum of respiratory symptoms, diagnostic testing, and diagnoses in the current HIV era. The objective of the study is to determine the impact of HIV on prevalence and incidence of respiratory disease in the current era of effective antiretroviral treatment.

Methods

A pulmonary-specific questionnaire was administered yearly for three years to participants in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) and Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS). Adjusted prevalence ratios for respiratory symptoms, testing, or diagnoses and adjusted incidence rate ratios for diagnoses in HIV-infected compared to HIV-uninfected participants were determined. Risk factors for outcomes in HIV-infected individuals were modeled.

Results

Baseline pulmonary questionnaires were completed by 907 HIV-infected and 989 HIV-uninfected participants in the MACS cohort and by 1405 HIV-infected and 571 HIV-uninfected participants in the WIHS cohort. In MACS, dyspnea, cough, wheezing, sleep apnea, and incident chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were more common in HIV-infected participants. In WIHS, wheezing and sleep apnea were more common in HIV-infected participants. Smoking (MACS and WIHS) and greater body mass index (WIHS) were associated with more respiratory symptoms and diagnoses. While sputum studies, bronchoscopies, and chest computed tomography scans were more likely to be performed in HIV-infected participants, pulmonary function tests were no more common in HIV-infected individuals. Respiratory symptoms in HIV-infected individuals were associated with history of pneumonia, cardiovascular disease, or use of HAART. A diagnosis of asthma or COPD was associated with previous pneumonia.

Conclusions

In these two cohorts, HIV is an independent risk factor for several respiratory symptoms and pulmonary diseases including COPD and sleep apnea. Despite a higher prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms, testing for non-infectious respiratory diseases may be underutilized in the HIV-infected population.

Factors affecting the prevalence of strongly and weakly carcinogenic and lower-risk human papillomaviruses in anal specimens in a cohort of men who have sex with men (MSM)

Background

MSM are at higher risk for invasive anal cancer. Twelve human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause cervical cancer in women (Group 1 high-risk HPVs (hrHPVs)) and 13 HPVs are probable/possible causes (Group 2 hrHPVs) of cervical malignancy. HPVs rarely associated with malignancy are classified as lower-risk HPVs (lrHPVs).

Materials and Methods

Dacron-swab anal-cytology specimens were collected from and data complete for 97% (1262/1296) of Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) men tested for HPVs using the Linear Array assay. Multivariate Poisson regression analyses estimated adjusted prevalence ratios for Group 1/2 hrHPVs and lrHPVs, controlling for the effects of age, race, ethnicity, sexual partnerships, smoking; HIV-infection characteristics, treatment, and immune status among HIV-infected men.

Results

HIV-infected men showed 35–90% higher prevalence of Group 1/2 hrHPVs and lrHPVs than HIV-uninfected men, and higher prevalence of multi-Type, and multiple risk-group infections. CD4+ T-cell count was inversely associated with HPV Group 2 prevalence (p<0.0001). The number of receptive anal intercourse (RAI) partners reported in the 24 months preceding HPV testing predicted higher prevalence of Group 1/2 hrHPVs. Men reporting ≥30 lifetime male sex partners before their first MACS visit and men reporting ≥1 RAI partners during the 24 months before HPV testing showed 17–24% and 13–17% higher prevalence of lrHPVs (p-values ≤0.05). Men reporting smoking between MACS visit 1 and 24 months before HPV testing showed 1.2-fold higher prevalence of Group 2 hrHPVs (p = 0.03). Both complete adherence to CART (p = 0.02) and HIV load <50 copies/mL (p = 0.04) were protective for Group 1 hrHPVs among HIV-infected men.

Conclusions

HIV-infected men more often show multi-type and multi-group HPV infections HIV-uninfected men. Long-term mutual monogamy and smoking cessation, generally, and CART-adherence that promotes (HIV) viremia control and prevents immunosuppression, specifically among HIV-infected MSM, are important prevention strategies for HPV infections that are relevant to anal cancer.

Variants in HAVCR1 gene region contribute to hepatitis C persistence in African Americans

To confirm previously identified polymorphisms in HAVCR1 that were associated with persistent hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in individuals of African and of European descent, we studied 165 subjects of African descent and 635 subjects of European descent. Because the association was only confirmed in subjects of African descent (rs6880859; odds ratio, 2.42; P = .01), we then used 379 subjects of African descent (142 with spontaneous HCV clearance) to fine-map HAVCR1. rs111511318 was strongly associated with HCV persistence after adjusting for IL28B and HLA (adjusted P = 8.8 × 10(-4)), as was one 81-kb haplotype (adjusted P = .0006). The HAVCR1 genomic region is an independent genetic determinant of HCV persistence in individuals of African descent.

Association of the IFNL4-ΔG Allele With Impaired Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus

Interferon lambda 4 protein can be generated in IFNL4-ΔG carriers but not IFNL4-TT homozygotes. We studied 890 anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Among blacks (n = 555), HCV was more often cleared for those with genotype IFNL4-TT/TT (32.6%; odds ratio [OR], 3.59; P = 3.3 × 10(-5)) than IFNL4-TT/ΔG (11.3%; OR, 0.95; P = .86) or IFNL4-ΔG/ΔG (11.9%; referent). Pooling these data with published results in blacks (n = 1678), ORs were 3.84 (P = 8.6 × 10(-14)) for IFNL4-TT/TT and 1.44 (P = .03) IFNL4-TT/ΔG, and the area under the curve was 0.64 for IFNL4-ΔG genotype and 0.61 for rs12979860 (IL28B). IFNL4-ΔG is strongly associated with impaired spontaneous HCV clearance.

Incident hepatitis C virus infection in men who have sex with men: a prospective cohort analysis, 1984-2011

BACKGROUND

Prospective characterization of hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission in both human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and -uninfected men who have sex with men (MSM) over the entire HIV epidemic has not been comprehensively conducted.

METHODS

To determine the trends in and risk factors associated with incident HCV in MSM since 1984, 5310 HCV antibody (anti-HCV)-negative MSM in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study were prospectively followed during 1984-2011 for anti-HCV seroconversion.

RESULTS

During 55 343 person-years (PYs) of follow-up, there were 115 incident HCV infections (incidence rate, 2.08/1000 PYs) scattered throughout the study period. In a multivariable analysis with time-varying covariates, older age (incidence rate ratio [IRR], 1.40/10 years, P < .001), enrollment in the later (2001-2003) recruitment period (IRR, 3.80, P = .001), HIV infection (IRR, 5.98, P < .001), drinking >13 alcoholic drinks per week (IRR, 1.68, P < .001), hepatitis B surface antigen positivity (IRR, 1.68, P < .001), syphilis (IRR, 2.95, P < .001), and unprotected receptive anal intercourse with >1 male partner (IRR, 3.37, P < .001) were independently associated with incident HCV. Among HIV-infected subjects, every 100 cell/mm(3) increase in CD4 count was associated with a 7% (P = .002) decrease in the HCV incidence rate up to a CD4 count of 500 cells/mm(3), whereas there was no association with highly active antiretroviral therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The spread of HCV among both HIV-infected and -uninfected MSM in the United States has been ongoing since the beginning of the HIV epidemic. In HIV-infected men with <500 CD4(+) T cells, the HCV incidence rate was inversely proportional to CD4 T-cell count.

The impact of HAART on the respiratory complications of HIV infection: longitudinal trends in the MACS and WIHS cohorts

OBJECTIVE

To review the incidence of respiratory conditions and their effect on mortality in HIV-infected and uninfected individuals prior to and during the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

DESIGN

Two large observational cohorts of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected men (Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study [MACS]) and women (Women's Interagency HIV Study [WIHS]), followed since 1984 and 1994, respectively.

METHODS

Adjusted odds or hazards ratios for incident respiratory infections or non-infectious respiratory diagnoses, respectively, in HIV-infected compared to HIV-uninfected individuals in both the pre-HAART (MACS only) and HAART eras; and adjusted Cox proportional hazard ratios for mortality in HIV-infected persons with lung disease during the HAART era.

RESULTS

Compared to HIV-uninfected participants, HIV-infected individuals had more incident respiratory infections both pre-HAART (MACS, odds ratio [adjusted-OR], 2.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.2-2.7; p<0.001) and after HAART availability (MACS, adjusted-OR, 1.5; 95%CI 1.3-1.7; p<0.001; WIHS adjusted-OR, 2.2; 95%CI 1.8-2.7; p<0.001). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was more common in MACS HIV-infected vs. HIV-uninfected participants pre-HAART (hazard ratio [adjusted-HR] 2.9; 95%CI, 1.02-8.4; p = 0.046). After HAART availability, non-infectious lung diseases were not significantly more common in HIV-infected participants in either MACS or WIHS participants. HIV-infected participants in the HAART era with respiratory infections had an increased risk of death compared to those without infections (MACS adjusted-HR, 1.5; 95%CI, 1.3-1.7; p<0.001; WIHS adjusted-HR, 1.9; 95%CI, 1.5-2.4; p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

HIV infection remained a significant risk for infectious respiratory diseases after the introduction of HAART, and infectious respiratory diseases were associated with an increased risk of mortality.

Patterns and causes of suboptimal response to tenofovir-based therapy in individuals coinfected with HIV and hepatitis B virus

BACKGROUND

Tenofovir (TDF) is effective for treatment of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; however, some individuals have ongoing HBV viremia, the reasons for which are unclear. We determined the patterns and factors associated with detectable HBV DNA in HIV-HBV-coinfected subjects on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

METHODS

One hundred sixty-five HIV-HBV-coinfected individuals from the United States, Australia, and Thailand, the majority of whom were on HAART at study entry, were prospectively followed semiannually for a median of 2.8 years. Logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with detectable HBV DNA.

RESULTS

Anti-HBV regimens were TDF/emtricitabine (57%), lamivudine or emtricitabine (19%), or TDF monotherapy (13%). During follow-up, HBV DNA was detected at 21% of study visits and was independently associated with hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg), HAART <2 years, CD4 <200 cells/mm(3), detectable HIV RNA, reporting <95% adherence, and anti-HBV regimen. TDF/emtricitabine was less likely to be associated with detectable HBV than other regimens, including TDF monotherapy (odds ratio, 2.79; P = .02). In subjects on optimal anti-HBV therapy (TDF/emtricitabine) and with undetectable HIV RNA, HBeAg, CD4 <200 mm(3), and reporting <95% adherence remained associated with detectable HBV DNA. Three main patterns of HBV viremia were observed: persistent HBV viremia, viral rebound (>1 log from nadir), and viral blips. No TDF resistance was identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Tenofovir/emtricitabine was superior to other anti-HBV regimens in long-term HBV suppression. HBV viremia on therapy was identified in 1 of 3 main patterns. Suboptimal adherence was associated with detectable HBV DNA during therapy, even when HIV was undetectable.

17. Serum free testosterone levels associated with anal human papillomavirus types 16/18 in a cohort of men who have sex with men

Background Human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16/18 are significant causes of female cervical cancers and likely cause most anal cancers. Oestrogen influences HPV-related cervical malignancies; however, the role of testosterone in anal HPV16/18 infections is unknown. Methods: 340 men who have sex with men (MSM) enrolled in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study were tested for serum free testosterone (SFT) and, ~24 months later, anal HPV16/18-DNA. Poisson regression with robust error variance analyses estimated prevalence ratios for HPV16/18 infections with the following exposures: log10-transformed SFT, exogenous and supraphysiological testosterone measures, race, age, self-reported number of anal receptive intercourse partnerships ≤24 months before testing, enrolment period, body mass index, hepatitis C infection, tobacco and alcohol, HIV infection, and CD4+ T-cell counts among the HIV-infected. Stratified-tabular analyses also evaluated blood draw timing (AM/PM), study site, and time on study. Results: 89% (304/340) of men provided complete data for all covariates. On average, men were White (263/304), 60 years old (s.d. 5.3; median 60.1 years) with 76.2 ng dL–1 (s.d. 57.1; median 69.0 ng dL–1) SFT, and 43% (132/304) were HIV infected; 25% (75/304) tested HPV16/18-DNA positive. The fully adjusted model suggests each half-log10 increase of SFT is associated with a 1.69-fold (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.08, 2.64) higher HPV16/18 prevalence. Compared with HIV-uninfected men, HPV16/18 prevalence was 1.81-fold higher (95% CI: 1.08, 3.03) for HIV-infected men with ≤500 CD4+ T-cells mm–3. No other covariates were significantly associated with HPV16/18 prevalence. Conclusions: Higher free testosterone is associated with increased HPV16/18 prevalence in MSM, independent of sexual behaviour and other potential confounders. The mechanisms underlying this association remain unclear and warrant further study.

Childhood IQ, hearing loss, and maternal thyroid autoimmunity in the Baltimore Collaborative Perinatal Project

BACKGROUND

Maternal thyroid autoantibodies during pregnancy have been implicated in neurodevelopmental delays, including early childhood cognitive deficits. We evaluated whether maternal autoantibodies to thyroid peroxidase (TPOaAbs) during late pregnancy were associated with childhood intelligence quotient (IQ) scores in their offspring and how the children's TPOaAb-associated sensorineural hearing loss (HL) might affect the result.

METHODS

We evaluated banked third-trimester sera corresponding to 1,733 children for whom childhood cognitive test scores and audiology data were available. The mothers and their children participated in the National Institutes of Health (NIH)-sponsored Collaborative Perinatal Project (CPP) that ran from 1959 to 1974.

RESULTS

A modest, statistically significant, effect of TPOaAbs on cognitive performance observed at 4 y of age lessened in both magnitude and P value by the age of 7 y. Children with sensorineural HL (SNHL) had lower IQ scores at both ages.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that the reported effect of maternal TPOaAbs on IQ may involve early developmental delays or transient effects rather than permanent deficits. Reports associating TPOaAbs directly with IQ may reflect a portion with unexamined TPOaAb-associated SNHL. Whether the TPOaAb-associated SNHL is in the neurodevelopmental pathway of later cognitive delays or is independently associated with IQ requires investigation in other studies.

Predictors of the isolated hepatitis B core antibody pattern in HIV-infected and -uninfected men in the multicenter AIDS cohort study

BACKGROUND

The significance of hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBc) without hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) is unclear.

METHODS

This cohort study included men enrolled in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort to determine clinical and laboratory predictors of isolated anti-HBc.

RESULTS

A total of 2286 subjects (51% human immunodeficiency virus [HIV]-infected) were followed over 3.9 years. Overall, 16.9% (387) had at least 1 visit with isolated anti-HBc. The isolated anti-HBc pattern was stable 84% of the time, and transitioned to or from a pattern of past infection (anti-HBc and anti-HBs). Isolated anti-HBc was associated with HIV infection (odds ratio [OR], 2.19; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.73-2.79) and hepatitis C virus (HCV; OR, 4.21; 95% CI; 2.99-5.91). The HCV association was stronger for chronic HCV infection (OR, 6.76; 95% CI, 5.08-8.99) than for cleared HCV (OR, 3.03; 95% CI, 1.83-5.03). HIV infection, chronic HCV, and cleared HCV infection all remained associated with isolated anti-HBc in multivariable models (OR, 1.74; 95% CI, 1.33-2.29; OR, 6.24; 95% CI, 4.62-8.42; and OR, 2.77; 95% CI, 1.65-4.66, respectively). Among HIV-infected subjects, highly active antiretroviral therapy was negatively associated (OR, 0.79; 95% CI, .66-.95) with isolated anti-HBc.

CONCLUSIONS

Isolated anti-HBc is associated with HIV and HCV coinfection, especially active HCV replication, and most commonly occurs as a transition to or from the pattern of natural immunity (anti-HBc and anti-HBs). The isolated anti-HBc pattern likely represents resolved HBV infection with low or undetected anti-HBs.